Methods available to assess animal welfare at farm level are based on a range of welfare paramete... more Methods available to assess animal welfare at farm level are based on a range of welfare parameters, which can be divided into two categories, environment-based and animal-based parameters. The first category describes features of the environment and management, which can be considered prerequisites for welfare. The second category records animals’ responses to that particular environment and management more directly. Objective of this study was to validate a mainly environment-based method, the animal needs index (ANI), with animal-based methods: behavioural observations and feather condition scores (FCS). The study was conducted on 20 commercial laying hen farms, 10 farms with battery cages and 10 farms with deep litter systems. During a 1-day visit on each farm, ANI was assessed, FCS was scored, and behavioural observations were performed. Instantaneous scan sampling and continuous focal sampling were used to assess the time spent on different behaviours and the occurrence of event behaviours. Data from behavioural observations and FCS were reduced with principal factor analysis. This resulted in two factors for each method. Significant positive correlations were found between ANI, on the one hand, and ‘movement’ and ‘comfort’, two factors from behavioural observations, on the other hand. A significant negative correlation was found between ANI and ‘wing damage’ (from FCS). The results of this study show that ANI is valid and sensitive enough to show differences in animal welfare between housing systems, whereas differences in welfare within housing systems cannot be shown. In conclusion, ANI is an appropriate method for assessment of laying hen welfare on a large number of farms with different housing systems.
1. It has been suggested that broiler chickens have a disturbed satiety and hunger mechanism. The... more 1. It has been suggested that broiler chickens have a disturbed satiety and hunger mechanism. The satiety mechanism for eating can be expressed as the positive correlation between meal length and the length of the preceding (preprandial) interval; the hunger mechanism for eating as the positive correlation between meal length and the length of the succeeding (postprandial) interval. An experiment was conducted to investigate eating behaviour of male broiler and layer chickens by measuring meal and interval lengths. 2. Eight male broilers and 8 male layer chickens were housed individually and visually isolated in floor pens (1 m2/pen) on wood shavings. From 4 to 7 weeks of age, eating behaviour of each bird was recorded for 3 h in two conditions each week. In the first condition, the birds were not deprived from feed. In the second condition, they were 24-h food deprived and feed was provided just before the observation started. Preprandial and postprandial correlations were calculated based on data of the non-deprived condition. Before and after each observation bird and feeder were weighed to measure weight gain and feed consumption during observation. 3. Under the non-deprived condition, the broilers spent initially more, but at a later age less time on eating. The broilers had fewer meals per hour, consumed more feed per hour, and had longer meal and interval lengths than the layer chickens. After 24-h feed deprivation, the broilers had a longer first meal, consumed more feed per hour and spent more time on eating than the layer chickens. Significant preprandial correlations but no postprandial correlations were found in the broilers. In the layer chickens, both significant preprandial and postprandial correlations were found. This indicates that for regulating eating behaviour, the satiety mechanism dominates the hunger mechanism in broilers, and satiety and hunger mechanisms are equally involved in layer chickens. 4. The typical eating behaviour of broilers and the calculated preprandial and postprandial correlations have given new indications that hunger and satiety mechanisms in broilers have changed compared with layer chickens. In broilers, there is no lower set point, but only an upper set point for controlling eating behaviour, which suggests that broilers eat to their maximal physical capacity.
Poor physical abilities of broilers may prevent them from performing behaviours for which they ar... more Poor physical abilities of broilers may prevent them from performing behaviours for which they are motivated. The aim of this study was to measure the influence of physical ability and motivation on the performance of broilers in short physical tasks. We tested birds from a fast- and a slow-growing broiler strain in a runway to 12 weeks of age. To manipulate motivation, half of the birds of each strain was feed deprived for 3h and the other half for 24h before testing. Each bird was tested in a control and a slalom runway test once a week. With a similar motivation, slow growers had a shorter latency to start walking and walked faster through the runway than fast growers in both tests. In fast growers walking speed decreased faster with age than in slow growers. Slow growers vocalised more in both tests. In the slalom test, 24h deprived birds vocalised more than 3h deprived birds. Although the fast and slow growers have a different genetic background, the results indicated that motivation is the dominant determinative factor for walking in birds with a low body weight, while physical ability is the dominant determinative factor for walking in birds with a high body weight.
ABSTRACT The aim of this experiment was to select a suitable test to measure feather pecking in l... more ABSTRACT The aim of this experiment was to select a suitable test to measure feather pecking in laying hens. Pecking behaviour in individual and social feather pecking tests was compared with pecking behaviour in the homepen. Two lines of laying hens were used that differ in their propensity to display feather pecking: the high feather pecking (HFP) and low feather pecking (LFP) lines. Six groups of five birds per line were housed on wood shavings with ad libitum food and water. From 7 to 34 weeks of age, every 3 weeks pecking behaviour in the homepen was observed and three feather pecking tests were conducted as well: one individual test with a bunch of feathers (10 min) and two social tests (in random order), one with and one without a bunch of feathers (30 min with whole group). Observations focused on gentle and severe feather pecking, bunch pecking, ground pecking and preening. In the individual test, general activity and vocalisations were recorded as well, to measure the response to isolation. In general, HFP birds showed more gentle and severe feather pecking than LFP birds, whereas LFP birds showed more ground pecking and, unexpectedly, more bunch pecking. Birds that showed gentle feather pecking in the homepen also showed gentle feather pecking and bunch pecking in the social tests over all ages. Severe feather pecking in the social test with a bunch of feathers corresponded with severe feather pecking in the homepen. Bunch pecking in the individual test was not a reliable measure for feather pecking in this experiment. An increasing number of vocalisations in the HFP line and a decreasing number in the LFP line indicated a difference in reaction to the individual test. In conclusion, gentle and severe feather pecking and bunch pecking in the social test corresponded best with homepen behaviour, whereas bunch pecking in the individual test did not.
ABSTRACT A study was conducted to compare activity, oral behaviour and slaughter data of veal cal... more ABSTRACT A study was conducted to compare activity, oral behaviour and slaughter data of veal calves kept in three different housing systems: (1) individual housing (IH) where calves are kept in individual crates; (2) group housing (GH) where calves are kept in individual crates during the first 8 weeks and thereafter in groups of five to seven individuals, and (3) Peter’s Farm® (PF) a housing system where calves are kept in large groups fed via an automatic feeding station. Six commercial farms with Holstein–Friesian bull calves for each housing system were selected (n=18). Behavioural observations were done at weeks 2, 3, 6, 12 and 24 after arrival of the calves at the farm to measure time budget in the morning and 30min after feeding, and 24h activity. All farms were assessed by the animal needs index (ANI) at week 12.The 24h activity pattern of calves in IH and in GH showed peaks around feeding time. The activity of calves in PF was distributed equally over the day. Calves in PF were standing less and lying more (P
The object of this research was to study the relationship between feather pecking and open-field ... more The object of this research was to study the relationship between feather pecking and open-field activity in laying hens at two different ages. A population of 550 birds of a laying hen cross was subjected to an open-field test at 5 and 29 weeks of age and to a social feather pecking test at 6 and 30 weeks of age. Factor analysis was used to identify underlying factors for each test: pecking behavior (social test) and open-field activity (open-field test). In young birds, a positive phenotypic correlation of 0.24 was found between high open-field activity and high levels of pecking behavior (ground pecking, preening, gentle feather pecking, and wall pecking). In adults, a similar genetic correlation of 0.62 was found. At adult age, the factor pecking behavior consisted mainly of gentle and severe feather pecking. Between ages, a strong, negative genetic correlation of −0.65 was found between open-field activity at young age and pecking behavior at adult age, indicating that open-field activity levels in young birds may predict pecking behavior in adult hens.
Behaviour of broilers up to 6 weeks of age has been studied extensively, but little is known what... more Behaviour of broilers up to 6 weeks of age has been studied extensively, but little is known what happens after 6 weeks. Insight in the behavioural abilities after 6 weeks may also yield insight in the period before 6 weeks as the disbalance between motivation and physical abilities is more clearly elucidated with increasing weight. The purpose of this experiment
Page 1. THE EFFECT OF LOSS OF PREDICTABILITY AND CONTROLLABILITY OF REWARD DURING FRUSTRATION ON ... more Page 1. THE EFFECT OF LOSS OF PREDICTABILITY AND CONTROLLABILITY OF REWARD DURING FRUSTRATION ON BEHAVIOUR IN TWO STRAINS OF LAYING HENS, GALLUS GALLUS DOMESTICUS by PATRICK H. ZIMMERMAN and PAUL KOENE ...
Line differences for open-field behavior in chickens have been observed, and it has been shown th... more Line differences for open-field behavior in chickens have been observed, and it has been shown that this behavior has a genetic component. The aim of this study was to detect quantitative trait loci (QTL) involved in open-field behavior. For this purpose, open-field behavior was studied at 5 and 29 weeks of age in F2 hens coming from an intercross between two commercial White Leghorn laying lines selected for egg production traits. Latencies, durations, and frequencies of general activity (sitting, standing, walking, and stepping), defecation, and vocalizations were recorded individually for each bird, and a factor score was calculated. All animals (F0, F1, and F2) were screened with 180 microsatellite markers. Regression interval mapping was applied using both a paternal half-sib analysis and a line-cross analysis method. For general activity at 5 weeks of age, a significant QTL was detected on GGA4 and a suggestive QTL on GGA2 under the line-cross model. For general activity at 29 weeks of age, a significant QTL was detected on GGA4 and two suggestive QTLs were detected on GGA1 and on GGA10, respectively, also using the line-cross analysis. The QTL on GGA4 at 5 weeks of age did not overlap with the QTL on GGA4 at 29 weeks of age. The current study indicated that open-field behavior in young chickens was regulated by QTL that differ from the QTL for open-field behavior in adult chickens.
Methods available to assess animal welfare at farm level are based on a range of welfare paramete... more Methods available to assess animal welfare at farm level are based on a range of welfare parameters, which can be divided into two categories, environment-based and animal-based parameters. The first category describes features of the environment and management, which can be considered prerequisites for welfare. The second category records animals’ responses to that particular environment and management more directly. Objective of this study was to validate a mainly environment-based method, the animal needs index (ANI), with animal-based methods: behavioural observations and feather condition scores (FCS). The study was conducted on 20 commercial laying hen farms, 10 farms with battery cages and 10 farms with deep litter systems. During a 1-day visit on each farm, ANI was assessed, FCS was scored, and behavioural observations were performed. Instantaneous scan sampling and continuous focal sampling were used to assess the time spent on different behaviours and the occurrence of event behaviours. Data from behavioural observations and FCS were reduced with principal factor analysis. This resulted in two factors for each method. Significant positive correlations were found between ANI, on the one hand, and ‘movement’ and ‘comfort’, two factors from behavioural observations, on the other hand. A significant negative correlation was found between ANI and ‘wing damage’ (from FCS). The results of this study show that ANI is valid and sensitive enough to show differences in animal welfare between housing systems, whereas differences in welfare within housing systems cannot be shown. In conclusion, ANI is an appropriate method for assessment of laying hen welfare on a large number of farms with different housing systems.
1. It has been suggested that broiler chickens have a disturbed satiety and hunger mechanism. The... more 1. It has been suggested that broiler chickens have a disturbed satiety and hunger mechanism. The satiety mechanism for eating can be expressed as the positive correlation between meal length and the length of the preceding (preprandial) interval; the hunger mechanism for eating as the positive correlation between meal length and the length of the succeeding (postprandial) interval. An experiment was conducted to investigate eating behaviour of male broiler and layer chickens by measuring meal and interval lengths. 2. Eight male broilers and 8 male layer chickens were housed individually and visually isolated in floor pens (1 m2/pen) on wood shavings. From 4 to 7 weeks of age, eating behaviour of each bird was recorded for 3 h in two conditions each week. In the first condition, the birds were not deprived from feed. In the second condition, they were 24-h food deprived and feed was provided just before the observation started. Preprandial and postprandial correlations were calculated based on data of the non-deprived condition. Before and after each observation bird and feeder were weighed to measure weight gain and feed consumption during observation. 3. Under the non-deprived condition, the broilers spent initially more, but at a later age less time on eating. The broilers had fewer meals per hour, consumed more feed per hour, and had longer meal and interval lengths than the layer chickens. After 24-h feed deprivation, the broilers had a longer first meal, consumed more feed per hour and spent more time on eating than the layer chickens. Significant preprandial correlations but no postprandial correlations were found in the broilers. In the layer chickens, both significant preprandial and postprandial correlations were found. This indicates that for regulating eating behaviour, the satiety mechanism dominates the hunger mechanism in broilers, and satiety and hunger mechanisms are equally involved in layer chickens. 4. The typical eating behaviour of broilers and the calculated preprandial and postprandial correlations have given new indications that hunger and satiety mechanisms in broilers have changed compared with layer chickens. In broilers, there is no lower set point, but only an upper set point for controlling eating behaviour, which suggests that broilers eat to their maximal physical capacity.
Poor physical abilities of broilers may prevent them from performing behaviours for which they ar... more Poor physical abilities of broilers may prevent them from performing behaviours for which they are motivated. The aim of this study was to measure the influence of physical ability and motivation on the performance of broilers in short physical tasks. We tested birds from a fast- and a slow-growing broiler strain in a runway to 12 weeks of age. To manipulate motivation, half of the birds of each strain was feed deprived for 3h and the other half for 24h before testing. Each bird was tested in a control and a slalom runway test once a week. With a similar motivation, slow growers had a shorter latency to start walking and walked faster through the runway than fast growers in both tests. In fast growers walking speed decreased faster with age than in slow growers. Slow growers vocalised more in both tests. In the slalom test, 24h deprived birds vocalised more than 3h deprived birds. Although the fast and slow growers have a different genetic background, the results indicated that motivation is the dominant determinative factor for walking in birds with a low body weight, while physical ability is the dominant determinative factor for walking in birds with a high body weight.
ABSTRACT The aim of this experiment was to select a suitable test to measure feather pecking in l... more ABSTRACT The aim of this experiment was to select a suitable test to measure feather pecking in laying hens. Pecking behaviour in individual and social feather pecking tests was compared with pecking behaviour in the homepen. Two lines of laying hens were used that differ in their propensity to display feather pecking: the high feather pecking (HFP) and low feather pecking (LFP) lines. Six groups of five birds per line were housed on wood shavings with ad libitum food and water. From 7 to 34 weeks of age, every 3 weeks pecking behaviour in the homepen was observed and three feather pecking tests were conducted as well: one individual test with a bunch of feathers (10 min) and two social tests (in random order), one with and one without a bunch of feathers (30 min with whole group). Observations focused on gentle and severe feather pecking, bunch pecking, ground pecking and preening. In the individual test, general activity and vocalisations were recorded as well, to measure the response to isolation. In general, HFP birds showed more gentle and severe feather pecking than LFP birds, whereas LFP birds showed more ground pecking and, unexpectedly, more bunch pecking. Birds that showed gentle feather pecking in the homepen also showed gentle feather pecking and bunch pecking in the social tests over all ages. Severe feather pecking in the social test with a bunch of feathers corresponded with severe feather pecking in the homepen. Bunch pecking in the individual test was not a reliable measure for feather pecking in this experiment. An increasing number of vocalisations in the HFP line and a decreasing number in the LFP line indicated a difference in reaction to the individual test. In conclusion, gentle and severe feather pecking and bunch pecking in the social test corresponded best with homepen behaviour, whereas bunch pecking in the individual test did not.
ABSTRACT A study was conducted to compare activity, oral behaviour and slaughter data of veal cal... more ABSTRACT A study was conducted to compare activity, oral behaviour and slaughter data of veal calves kept in three different housing systems: (1) individual housing (IH) where calves are kept in individual crates; (2) group housing (GH) where calves are kept in individual crates during the first 8 weeks and thereafter in groups of five to seven individuals, and (3) Peter’s Farm® (PF) a housing system where calves are kept in large groups fed via an automatic feeding station. Six commercial farms with Holstein–Friesian bull calves for each housing system were selected (n=18). Behavioural observations were done at weeks 2, 3, 6, 12 and 24 after arrival of the calves at the farm to measure time budget in the morning and 30min after feeding, and 24h activity. All farms were assessed by the animal needs index (ANI) at week 12.The 24h activity pattern of calves in IH and in GH showed peaks around feeding time. The activity of calves in PF was distributed equally over the day. Calves in PF were standing less and lying more (P
The object of this research was to study the relationship between feather pecking and open-field ... more The object of this research was to study the relationship between feather pecking and open-field activity in laying hens at two different ages. A population of 550 birds of a laying hen cross was subjected to an open-field test at 5 and 29 weeks of age and to a social feather pecking test at 6 and 30 weeks of age. Factor analysis was used to identify underlying factors for each test: pecking behavior (social test) and open-field activity (open-field test). In young birds, a positive phenotypic correlation of 0.24 was found between high open-field activity and high levels of pecking behavior (ground pecking, preening, gentle feather pecking, and wall pecking). In adults, a similar genetic correlation of 0.62 was found. At adult age, the factor pecking behavior consisted mainly of gentle and severe feather pecking. Between ages, a strong, negative genetic correlation of −0.65 was found between open-field activity at young age and pecking behavior at adult age, indicating that open-field activity levels in young birds may predict pecking behavior in adult hens.
Behaviour of broilers up to 6 weeks of age has been studied extensively, but little is known what... more Behaviour of broilers up to 6 weeks of age has been studied extensively, but little is known what happens after 6 weeks. Insight in the behavioural abilities after 6 weeks may also yield insight in the period before 6 weeks as the disbalance between motivation and physical abilities is more clearly elucidated with increasing weight. The purpose of this experiment
Page 1. THE EFFECT OF LOSS OF PREDICTABILITY AND CONTROLLABILITY OF REWARD DURING FRUSTRATION ON ... more Page 1. THE EFFECT OF LOSS OF PREDICTABILITY AND CONTROLLABILITY OF REWARD DURING FRUSTRATION ON BEHAVIOUR IN TWO STRAINS OF LAYING HENS, GALLUS GALLUS DOMESTICUS by PATRICK H. ZIMMERMAN and PAUL KOENE ...
Line differences for open-field behavior in chickens have been observed, and it has been shown th... more Line differences for open-field behavior in chickens have been observed, and it has been shown that this behavior has a genetic component. The aim of this study was to detect quantitative trait loci (QTL) involved in open-field behavior. For this purpose, open-field behavior was studied at 5 and 29 weeks of age in F2 hens coming from an intercross between two commercial White Leghorn laying lines selected for egg production traits. Latencies, durations, and frequencies of general activity (sitting, standing, walking, and stepping), defecation, and vocalizations were recorded individually for each bird, and a factor score was calculated. All animals (F0, F1, and F2) were screened with 180 microsatellite markers. Regression interval mapping was applied using both a paternal half-sib analysis and a line-cross analysis method. For general activity at 5 weeks of age, a significant QTL was detected on GGA4 and a suggestive QTL on GGA2 under the line-cross model. For general activity at 29 weeks of age, a significant QTL was detected on GGA4 and two suggestive QTLs were detected on GGA1 and on GGA10, respectively, also using the line-cross analysis. The QTL on GGA4 at 5 weeks of age did not overlap with the QTL on GGA4 at 29 weeks of age. The current study indicated that open-field behavior in young chickens was regulated by QTL that differ from the QTL for open-field behavior in adult chickens.
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