The Battle of the Somme

At 0730 on the morning of the 1st July 1916, the Battle of the Somme began with the British Army suffering horrendous casualties. By the end of the first day the British Fourth Army had taken 57,470 casualties, of which 19,240 men were killed - the worst day in the history of the British Army. The French Sixth Army suffered 1,590 casualties and the defending German 2nd Army had lost 10,000–12,000 men. The scope and scale of the battle is difficult to comprehend with 55,000 British and Imperial troops attacking along a 16-mile long frontline to a strict timetable. Over 1,000 allied guns had bombarded the German lines for 7 days. The Germans, however, had in many sectors weathered the heavy bombardment in deep dugouts. In many places when the shelling lifted they clambered from their dugouts and set up their defences and awaited the attack.

The attack at the Somme had been in planning for months and the British had invested heavily in undermining the German lines to destroy strong points. The most spectacular event of the first day was the detonation of 19 mines of various sizes beneath German positions. The mines ranged from 200 lbs to 60,000 lbs of explosive, the explosion of the mines remains one of the largest non-nuclear explosions. Cecil Lewis of the Royal Flying Corps was flying a sortie when the mines were detonated, he recalled: 

Some men were killed before they even left their trenches, others were killed negotiating their own wire, many more were killed or wounded as they crossed the open ground of No Man’s Land. The British had been ordered to walk, not run, across No Man’s Land in open order to maintain cohesion between the advancing waves. Men had been issued with 250 rounds of ammunition, 2 Mills bombs, rations, an empty sandbag and entrenching tools in the expectation that once they reached and occupied their objectives they would need to dig in and defend their gains. This added weight was a death sentence for many as the German machine guns opened fire. When Maurice Symes of the Somerset Light Infantry came under fire and was wounded he jettisoned much of his kit dumping “everything except my water bottle and crawled into a shell hole and stayed there for a bit.”

All along the line experiences differed and Private Fred Ball of the Liverpool ‘Pals’ battalion described the first enemy trench they reached: 

Elsewhere those that reached the German line found that their defences had not been destroyed as promised. In some areas the allied artillery bombardment had simply coiled the German wire into a huge impenetrable mass. Lewis gunner Ernest Bryan recalled that “the majority of their wire wasn’t cut at all, not by our artillery at all, not even by our trench mortars.” Entire companies were decimated, some battalions lost over ¾ of their strength. Cyril Jose of the 2nd Battalion, the Devonshire Regiment noted in his diary that “out of our battalion twenty-seven answered roll call after the battle.” Thousands of men died from their wounds in No Man’s Land, not only were the stretcher bearers unable to reach wounded men because of enemy fire but there were not enough of them to cope with the huge numbers of casualties. Days later the first wounded started to filter through the dressing stations and field hospitals back to the general hospitals. On the 4th July, British wounded began arriving at British nurse Edith Appleton’s hospital. Serving at General Hospital No.1 she recorded in her diary the insurmountable task medical staff faced:

While there were some successes during the first day with the French Sixth Army making large gains and taking many prisoners on the right flank, the 17th battalion the Manchester Regiment broke through near Bernafay Wood and the 7th Division captured Mametz but despite these successes poor communications meant that these opportunities were not followed up and the chances of a general breakthrough were lost.

The Battle of the Somme continued for another four months until it finally ground to a halt on the 18th November 1916. Within the battle a dozen smaller, localised battles were fought at Bazentin Ridge, Delville Wood, Pozieres Ridge, Morval, Thiepval Ridge and Ancre. These continued efforts to break through would see further use of gas, mines and tanks. The battle became attritional and the British faced a steep learning curve. By the end of the battle just six miles of ground had been gained and over 1.2 million men on all sides had been killed or wounded.

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End of the Line: Where The Western Front Met the Mountains & the Sea

The trenches of the Western Front stretched over 400 miles from Belgian coast to the Swiss border. While the front was continuous from the sea to Switzerland it could not be walked from one end to the other through trenches as it was broken up by natural features including rivers, marshes and lakes. 

In the east Nieuport remained one of the few towns still in Belgian hands after the German invasion. The lines ran down to the water’s edge with the town surrounded by flooded marshes, canals and sand dunes (see images #1 & #4).

In the west the line extended to the border of neutral Switzerland however, the line from Mulhouse down to the Swiss border was quiet. Despite being neutral the Swiss built a series of outposts and border stations (see image #2 & #3) to ensure that neither side took advantage of their extreme flank. 

The majority of the fighting on the Western front took place in the Northeast with only the early French offensive at Mulhouse and Plan XVII into Luxembourg and Alsace taking place in August 1914. 

Fighting at Nieuport continued throughout the war while fighting in Alsace to the north of Switzerland continued sporadically. 

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Trench Firing Training

These lantern slides were used by the British Army in their infantry training, they would be projected in a lecture hall to demonstrate the positions a soldier would take in certain situations others include how to use the cover of trees and walls.

This series shows a section of sergeants and men demonstrating how to fire from a simple straight trench. Each slide shows a position for using cover, loading, firing and reloading. These guidelines were laid out in the British Army’s Musketry Regulations of 1909, which were later reprinted with minor changes and additions in 1914.  It is likely that the photographs for the slides were taken in the months before or just after the war began in 1914.

In the first image we can see how the simple trench is straight with a firing step for the men to place their foot on.  Here they can be seen resting the butt of the rifle on the step while loading a 5-round charger.  Note how they are below the lip of the trench and protected from any incoming fire.  Slide four shows just how small a profile the men offered while firing. 

While trench warfare rapidly evolved once it had begun in late 1914 these trench firing positions remained relevant and were taught throughout the war. More on British rifle and infantry training here

Cooke’s Repeating Firearms For Trench Warfare

The patent drawing above depicts an invention by Charles John Cooke, a British subject residing in Hong Kong.  Cooke’s patent was filed in March 1916 and was granted in May.  The design is primarily a mounting system for a periscoped semi-automatic pistol with an elongated magazine for use in defending a trench from close range attack.  The pistol was mounted to a spiked metal rod which could be placed into the floor of the trench and extra support was provided by a crosspiece which had a shoulder stock and a spike for fixing to the trench’s wall.

The pistol Cooke chose for his patent drawing resembles an FN 1903 with an added a pulley system to pull the trigger and fire the weapon - with the soldier depicted operating the weapon with his thumb.  Cooke no doubt intended to offer his design to the British Army, but with the relatively short range of a pistol calibre weapon and the already common use of trench periscopes with standard rifles (see image #2) there is no evidence the design was considered or tested.  

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Image One Source

Image Two Source

Pritchard-Greener Revolver Bayonet

Trench raiding was a tactic developed by the British, although the French and Germans quickly caught on.  The weapons used during trench raids were famously gruesome with some men using maces, clubs and knives.  However, the most popular weapon was the pistol, closely followed by bombs or grenades.  

In late 1916 Captain Arthur Pritchard, who had been serving with the Royal Berkshire Regiment in Flanders since 1915, developed the Pritchard Revolver Bayonet for the British Army's standard issue pistol the Webley Mk VI.  The idea behind the weapon was that in the close-quarter hand to hand fighting frequently experienced during a trench raid a man equipped with a Webley might not have time to reload. Although the Webley was remarkably quick to reload - especially with speed loaders (pouch next to the officer's holster image #2), it was thought that in a tight situation a short stabbing blade could be extremely useful.  

The Pritchard bayonet was a shortened French Gras rifle bayonet adapted to attach to the pistol's barrel with the the cross guard behind the foresight with the base sitting against the frame, around the revolver's cylinder cam, cam lever and joint/hinge pin screw.  The Gras blade was shortened to roughly 8 inches making the weapon's overall length about 17 inches.   

Pritchard initially brought his design before the famous sword and blade makers Wilkinson's Sword Company however after making a prototype they passed on the idea.  It was the Birmingham gunmakers W.W. Greener which took on Captain Pritchard's design believing their may be a real market for the weapon both privately and possibly as a wider army contract.

Greener produced two variants of the bayonet, one with a steel hilt and another more commonly seen variant with a brass grip (see above). The bayonet was undoubtedly a fearsome looking weapon which would have certainly had a psychological and possibly practical impact on any German soldier unlucky enough to come face to face with one (see the artist's impression above, image #2). The Pritchard-Greener Revolver Bayonet was never widely manufactured and was not a commercial success.  Exactly why is unclear although practically speaking the blade would have made the revolver muzzle heavy.  It is estimated that as few as 200 were actually produced. There is no direct evidence to suggest any ever reached the Western Front or were used.  

The demand created by arms and militaria collectors over the last 30 years means that thousands of copies and replica Pritchard Bayonets have been manufactured. 

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Recent Recap

This month has seen posts ranging from the very beginnings of firearms in Europe right up to the ballistic effects of the 5.56x45mm rifle round.  This month has also seen the anniversaries of two major naval battles; Navarino and Trafalgar.  There have also been posts looking at fighting in medieval armour, the cost of building a Sherman tank and numerous posts looking at the First World War as part of the ongoing #WWI100 project.

Historical Firearms also now has a Twitter page where content gets posted so if you’re not a regular tumblr user or you prefer Twitter you can take a look at the Twitter page here.

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Historical Firearms Book Club

This month the HF Book Club returns with its second edition.  With reviews of Dr Stephen Bull's examination of trench warfare during the First World War, John Walter's authoritative look at handgun development and Norman Ferguson's collection of World War One trivia.

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Stephen Bull is a historian and archaeologist specialising in military history, his book Trench has recently been republished as an ebook (on which this review is based).  Trench makes a chronological and thematic overview of life in the trenches examining everything from small arms to gas masks, from trench raiding to trench construction, how trench warfare began and the continuing attempts by both sides to break out of it.  

Covering almost every conceivable aspect of trench warfare on the Western Front.  While Bull’s main focus is on the British Army’s experiences he also provides valuable insight and context on the other major combatants often comparing British & Commonwealth tactics, equipment and strategy with that of their French and American allies and also with their German enemies.  

Bull’s writing style is accessible with each chapter of the book broken up with primary source accounts from both sides of the conflict, contemporary trench maps, aerial photographs and case studies of individual actions, weapons and equipment.  Bull also includes conclusions drawn from recent archaeological investigations made in France which provide an interesting insight into the current work being done.  

In terms of primary and secondary source material suitable for academic use the book is excellent with a comprehensive bibliography and a wide use of contemporary accounts, reports and other source material as well as drawing on a wide range of academic secondary sources.  

Bull’s overview of trench warfare’s evolution shows how the eventual break from trench warfare was not the result of any one new tactic or invention but rather the culmination of four years experience with the use of various weapons and tactics breaking the deadlock.

In all Trench offers an excellent thematic overview of the British Army’s experience on the Western Front which is informative and well worth reading if you are interested in the evolution and eventual resolution of trench warfare.

Available in the US here

Available in the UK here

Norman Ferguson's First World War: A Miscellany is an ideal coffee table book. A book you can pick up and put down at will, browse at random, pull off the shelf and speed through.

The book takes a broadly chronological approach with facts, trivia and anecdotes grouped by year. Everything from trench slang to number of Zeppelins downed during the war, from the number of men killed in various major battles to the names of the last men to be killed during the war.

Ferguson's Miscellany brings together some well known facts and combines it with some lesser know trivia to create a book which can hold the attention of anyone from the novice to the academic.  The bitesize nature of the Miscellany means it's easily accessible and while it doesn't always offer all the context you might like it often sparks interest and leads to further research on aspects of the Great War you'd never previously considered.

Available in the US here

Available in the UK here

The Handgun Story is a valiant attempt at giving a concise history of the handgun. John Walter has written numerous books on firearms and wider military history, including the companion Rifle Story.

A true history of the handgun would be numerous volumes in size and Walter is mindful of this as he begins his work telling the reader "I have, I admit, dealt too concisely with pre-cartridge handguns" indeed he briefly summarises the development of the pistol from its advent to the invention of the percussion cap in a brief prologue. He instead focuses his attention on first the development of the revolver in both civilian and military use and then the history of the semi-automatic pistol. In this section of the book Walter examines the various claims of the earliest pistols which purport to be the first semi-automatic design. He then looks at the various strands of development as the pistols from various countries became serious options for the replacement of the military revolver at the turn of the century. With fascinating sections on the various trials held by both the US Army and it's European counterparts to select suitable automatic pistols.

He then charts the use of both pistols and revolvers during the two world wars and the inter-war period between. Much as with the early history of the handgun Walter skims over the general history of the handgun since 1950 with brief mentions of the Glock and various other designs. There is also a substantial, somewhat disproportionate, section of the final chapter dedicated to target pistols. Taken as a whole the book fails to adequately chart the 'story' of the handgun however, taken for its excellent focus on the development of the revolver and semi-automatic pistol during the 19th century Walter's clear passion and breadth of knowledge in this area is impressive.

Walter's style is fluid and engaging, his use of source material and anecdotal footnotes are excellent. The use of patent drawings and photographs of various handguns discussed illustrate the complex actions of the pistol's Walter describes. The Handgun Story is certainly worth reading if you have an interest in the design and development of revolvers and pistols and it has been a useful reference book when I've been writing.

Available in the US here

Available in the UK here

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To see more books on my recommended reading list check out this page.   If you’d like to submit a review of a book you’ve read, are reading or have just finished then feel free to submit (all opinions on books welcome).  You can send it in a message here or email it to historicalfirearms@gmail.com, be sure to include your username.

Field Marshal Sir John French in a private letter to the Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught himself a veteran soldier early September 1914

Field Marshal Sir John French in a letter to King George V in September 1914, following the experiences of the Battles of The Marne and Aisne

Historical Trivia: Trench Raiding Rifle-Torch

By early 1915, the Western Front had settled into stalemate and in order to gain intelligence and boost morale small scale trench raids began along the line.  The aim of these reconnaissance parties was to gain information on what units they were facing and how extensive their defences were. The raiding parties were often small, usually around a dozen men armed with knives, bayonets, clubs, grenades, revolvers and rifles.  They left their kit behind and wore just their uniforms, caps or balaclavas with their units identifying patches and badges removed. They often blackened their faces and would slip across No Man's Land undetected before attacking with grenades and rushing the enemy's trenches. Once the mission was complete they would quickly retreat under covering fire.  

One of the interesting innovations these raiding parties used was the attaching of a battery torch/flashlight to the muzzle of their rifles by taping it on with black electrical tape (see image #1).  Once they reached the enemy trench and began their attack they could turn on their torches and search the enemy trenches and dugouts for prisoners or useful documents.  The technology of small portable battery torches was relatively new with dry cell batteries only being invented in 1896 and the first small torches appearing at the turn of the century.  This was one of the first times torches were used in this manner in war, they are the fore-bearers of the modern tactical lights used in urban warfare today.

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A Walk Through WWI Practice Trenches

The video above takes us on a short tour through some training trenches dating from c.1916 found in Gosport, Hampshire.  They're one of several practice trench systems that have recently been rediscovered with several found by local council archeological teams in Hertfordshire, Staffordshire, Buckinghamshire and Lancashire in the run-up to the Centenary.   During the war thousands of troops trained in mock trench systems that recreated British and German trenches in detail to give troops an idea of what to expect.

In an effort to make the training trenches as accurate as possible the trench systems covered an area estimated at roughly almost 1,000sq metres with front line trenches 200 metres in length with support and communication trenches stretching back several hundred metres.  It was essential for the soldiers to have the opportunity to practice trench tactics before deploying to France but it was also vital to have somewhere where new tactics to overcome trench warfare could be devised and tested.