Hurricane Audrey

Texas

The fishing vessel Keturah sank after colliding with an oil rig 11 mi (18 km) off of Galveston, Texas, leading to the loss of nine crewmen.^[16] In the hours before the collision, the Keturah had been disabled and taken in tow by the USCGC Cahoone (WSC-131), but the tow line broke.^[30] In Corpus Christi, where tides were 3–4 ft (90–120 cm) above normal, a 400 ft (120 m) tanker, a tug, and a few barges washed aground. The surf also washed out a portion of Mustang Island Park Road between Corpus Christi Pass and Packery Channel.^[31] Another person drowned in the rough surf off the Texas coast.^[16] At Port Isabel, tides swelled 2.5 ft (about 75 cm) above normal as Audrey passed to the east, though coastal flooding remained minimal. Periodic squalls impacted the Brownsville, Texas, area without much consequence,^[10] though the wave action on nearby Padre Island pushed marine debris beyond the seawall;^[32] tides on Padre Island were the highest in five years.^[33] The oil barge Pemrod broke from its mooring, leaving it adrift in Sabine Lake.^[34]

In Galveston, the storm surge swelled to a height of 6.2 ft (1.9 m) above mean sea level; the total expanse of coast that saw tides higher than 6 ft (1.8 m) spanned 330 mi (530 km).^[3] The surge topped the Galveston Seawall, flooding the downtown streets and inundating businesses.^[19][35] Several boats in Galveston Harbor were sunk.^[35] A 0.75 mi (1.21 km) segment of Texas State Highway 87 between Sabine Pass and High Island was submerged.^[36] Despite the seawater inundation in some areas of Galveston Island, an extension of the Galveston Seawall completed in 1953 was assessed to have mitigated about $100,000 in damage from Audrey.^[37] A fish market, crab depot, and a smaller shack were destroyed in Texas City, and the city's fishing pier sustained $5,000 in damage after being struck by a loose barge.^[38] Two oil barges spanning 105 ft (32 m) were moved 2.5 mi (4.0 km) inland north of Gilchrist, Texas.^[39]

Portions of eastern Texas were analyzed to have experienced high-end Category 2 conditions as Audrey made landfall just east of the state.^[4] Winds reached 72 mph (116 km/h) in Port Arthur and 78 mph (126 km/h) in Galveston.^[40] Plate glass windows in downtown Galveston were broken by flying debris, as were high-rise windows in Port Arthur.^[19][41] At least 50 homes on the Bolivar Peninsula were flattened.^[42] Most roofs on the peninsula sustained substantial damage.^[43] The most severe damage on the peninsula occurred in and around Gilchrist, where the majority of destroyed homes were located.^[44] On the southern end of the Bolivar Peninsula, the effects of Audrey in Port Bolivar were limited to lost shingles.^[44] Galveston Island fared comparatively better than the Bolivar Peninsula but nonetheless sustained some impacts.^[43] Some beachfront establishments in Galveston were demolished by the strong winds and storm surge. The rough surf also washed out some segments of Galveston beaches, exacerbated by a local practice of digging holes to sell soil from private beachfront property.^[44] Minor power outages knocked out service to some 1,700 telephones, but power was quickly restored.^[45] Damage in Galveston County was estimated at $200,000–$300,000.^[42] In nearby Orange, homes were damaged by falling trees felled by strong winds. Power and other utility lines were also downed, leaving only connectivity for emergency telephones and cutting most power to the city.^[19][35] Fifteen people were injured while one was killed in Orange.^[42] At Jefferson County Airport, 7.35 in (187 mm) of rain fell on June 27, setting a daily rainfall record. The monetary cost of Audrey's damage in Texas totaled $8 million,^[31] with a conservative estimate of $1.5 million for Orange County alone.^[46] A total of nine fatalities occurred in the state,^[31] in addition to 450 injuries.^[47]

Louisiana

Hurricane Audrey's strong winds generated rough seas offshore Louisiana, with wave heights of 40–50 ft (12–15 m) occurring in the Gulf of Mexico.^[12] At the coast, tides ran 5–9 ft (1.5–2.7 m) above normal, inundating low-lying areas and penetrating as far as 20 mi (32 km) inland,^[3][11] resulting in over 1.6 million acres (6,500 km²) of land flooded by either storm surge or river flooding.^[12] In Cameron, tides peaked at 10.6 ft (3.2 m) above mean sea level, with some waves reaching as high as 10 ft (3.0 m) atop the high water.^[3] Tides exceeded 12 ft (3.7 m) for a 24 mi (39 km) stretch of the Louisiana coastline,^[8] peaking at 12.4 ft (3.8 m) just west of Cameron.^[12] Four Continental Oil sea tenders lost their anchors and went adrift in the rough seas.^[8] Some drifting oil tenders also reported gusts reaching 150 mph (240 km/h).^[13] A $2 million oil rig 15 mi (24 km) east of Sabine Pass capsized, though all crew survived.^[42] Damage to offshore oil facilities caused by Audrey reached $16 million, though one offshore trade journal remarked that "the [oil] industry has scored an overwhelming though costly victory" due to the lack of industry-related fatalities and small extent of damage compared to coastal communities.^[48] Beach erosion caused by rough surf stripped away as much as 90 m (300 ft) of beach. Wildlife along the coast was impacted heavily, with marshes stripped entirely of vegetation. Clumps of salt hay (Spartina patens) were brought as far as 8 km (5.0 mi) inland.^[49]

Scattered damage occurred in Alexandria, with strong winds knocking out telecommunications and downing tree limbs. Winds were measured at 88 mph (142 km/h) in Lake Charles, Louisiana roughly 35 mi (56 km) northeast of Audrey's eye as it made landfall.^[16] A gust was clocked at 105 mph (169 km/h) in Sulphur before the anemometer blew away,^[8] though the highest sustained wind at an official observation site was 96 mph (154 km/h) at Lake Charles Air Force Base.^[12] Communities along coastal Louisiana near the point of landfall were completely destroyed,^[3] with 4,500 homes considered destroyed or irreparably damaged and another 100,000 sustaining varying degrees of lesser damage. In some towns west of the Atchafalaya River, 90% of homes lost their roofs.^[50] In Cameron and Grand Chenier, Audrey destroyed or displaced 60–80% of homes,^[3] while between 90 and 95% of all buildings overall in Cameron and nearby Vermilion Parish were irreparably damaged.^[12] Nearly every home in Lake Charles sustained some degree of damage.^[42] The city of Cameron sustained the most damage, and 371 people in and around the city perished.^[8] The city courthouse, where Cameron residents sought refuge,^[12] remained the only building left standing in Cameron.^[51] Wood-frame houses were swept by Audrey's storm surge and carried inland several miles from their original locations, with most found on the Intracoastal Waterway. Dead cattle, alligators, snakes, nutria, and muskrats were also deposited in the waterway, blocking segments of the canal;^[12] an estimated 40,000–50,000 head of cattle perished, primarily by drowning.^[50] Several ships were carried well inland, causing damage; two 50 ft (15 m) long fishing boats were deposited on Cameron's Main Street (Louisiana Highway 82) while an offshore oil rig destroyed four fuel storage tanks as it was moved onshore.^[12] Strong winds initially prevented the United States Coast Guard from rescuing stranded residents in the city and nearby areas after dispatching a helicopter and some lifeboats.^[21][52] Further east, Pecan Island was submerged under a foot (0.3 m) of seawater. Strong winds in Baton Rouge blew out windows in the Louisiana State Capitol.^[12] One person was killed while clinging to debris after being bitten by a venomous water snake.^[53]

Saltwater inundation was particularly damaging to rice, while strong winds blew down corn and heavy rains flooded cotton fields; these were the main crop losses attributed to Audrey. In Louisiana, preliminary estimates of crop damage reached $5 million.^[54] Forests were also heavily impacted, with an estimated 50,000,000 ft (1,400,000 m³) of timber lost primarily in the parishes of Jeff Davis, Allen, Evangeline, and LaSalle.^[50] Poisoning efforts that had begun prior to Audrey's arrival to mitigate a boll weevil infestation were disrupted, leading to a resurgence in boll weevils following the hurricane.^[50] The highest rainfall associated with Audrey fell in Louisiana, where 10.63 in (270 mm) were recorded just west of Basille; most of the heaviest rainfall occurred east of Audrey's center of circulation.^[55] Daily rainfall records were set in Jennings and Lafayette, recording 10.40 in (264 mm) and 3.69 in (94 mm) on June 27, respectively.^[56] Audrey also spawned two tornadoes in Louisiana: the first was an F0 tornado east of Seabrook (New Orleans East) while the other one was an F1 tornado that damaged several homes near Arnaudville.^[12][57][58] In total, damage from Hurricane Audrey in Louisiana amounted to $120 million.^[12] An estimated 400 people lost their lives in the state, accounting for most of the deaths attributed to Audrey, while another 1,000 were injured.^[31][50]

Elsewhere in the United States

Audrey produced severe weather, including 19 tornadoes, in its rainbands as it moved inland.^[59][3][60] 14 of the 19 tornadoes touched down in Alabama;^[58] a conducive environment over the southern half of the state took shape as Audrey passed to the northwest, resulting in a localized tornado outbreak causing $600,000 in damage and injuring 14 people.^[3][54] An F2 tornado struck Southern Greenville, damaging or destroying 60 buildings including some of the facilities at Lomax-Hannon Junior College; damage from that tornado alone was estimated to be as high as $300,000.^[61][59] Three tornadoes struck in the vicinity of Evergreen, Alabama, damaging several homes;^[59][57] one of the tornadoes was an F2 tornado that tracked 23.2 mi (37.3 km) and was 440 yd (400 m) wide, making it both the longest-tracked and widest tornado caused by Hurricane Audrey.^[58] Another F2 tornado near Evergreen also swept up fish and crayfish, causing them to fall from the sky.^[57] Strong winds in Montgomery, Alabama, uprooted trees, while 20 mi (32 km) south in Davenport, Alabama, winds damaged a number of homes and injured several people.^[62] Gusts in the state peaked at 71 mph (114 km/h) in Birmingham, Alabama, and wind damage alone caused $200,000 in damage in the state.^[54]

On the Mississippi Gulf Coast, winds and tidal action caused some damage. However, the most severe damage in Mississippi occurred in a band stretching from the southwestern to northeastern corner of the state.^[63] Four tornadoes touched down in Mississippi resulting in slightly over $500,000 in damage.^[63] An F2 tornado in Philadelphia destroyed seven homes and caused nine injuries,^[57][64][65] while an F3 tornado—the strongest caused by Audrey—killed one and injured 10 in Brooksville.^[54][58] The Brooksville tornado also destroyed a Kraft Singles plant in the western side of the city and hospitalized six people, with another four suffering minor injuries; damage from that tornado was estimated between $100,000–$300,000.^[66] Another F2 tornado destroyed a grocery store and several large buildings in Clara.^[67][59] The strongest winds in Mississippi were measured in Jackson and Greenwood, clocking at 52 mph (84 km/h). Mississippi's southwestern regions saw the heaviest rainfall in the state from Audrey, with rainfall totals ranging from 4–6 in (100–150 mm). Heavy rains caused minor flooding along the banks of the Pearl River and Big Black River, affecting some farm lands.^[63] One person was electrocuted in Kosciusko after attempting to upright a utility pole, bringing the number of fatalities in the state to two.^[63] The total cost of damage in the state was $9 million, and 50,000 homes sustained some form of damage.^[13] Loss of crops in Mississippi totaled $2 million with corn, cotton, hay, and unharvested oats heavily damaged.^[54][63] As was the case in Louisiana, boll weevil poisoning efforts were thwarted in Mississippi.^[63]

Damage from Audrey in Arkansas was limited to minor roof damage caused by strong winds in El Dorado.^[68] The fringe effects of Audrey's remnant wind field and rainfall also extended to Georgia, where wind damage was light but widespread. Peaches were blown down from trees and corn was blown over. Falling trees and branches damaged homes and disrupted electric and telecommunication services.^[69] Tracking farther inland, the weakening storm brought gusts of up to 50 mph (80 km/h) to Tennessee, Kentucky, and Ohio, resulting in minor wind damage. Rainfall in these states produced minor flooding along streams and low-lying farmland, exacerbated by antecedent rainfall that had saturated the soil.^[54] Across Tennessee, property or crop damage associated with strong winds was reported in eleven counties, with property damage mostly being inflicted on roofs, trees, power lines, TV antennas, and other minor structures; one death and three injuries were linked to these winds.^[70] An F1 tornado destroyed a saw mill, a barn, and several other buildings near Dyersburg, Tennessee, the most northerly tornado associated with Audrey.^[58][57][71]

The interaction of Audrey and a second frontal system tracking across the Midwestern United States drew excess moisture across the region, leading to heavy rainfall across Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana. Rainfall in those states peaked at 10.20 in (259 mm) in Paris, Illinois, with a similar maximum of 10.16 in (258 mm) in Hermann, Missouri.^[55] The rains in Paris, Illinois, contributed to the rainiest June in the city's history and a yearly record rainfall total.^[72] Highways in Illinois were submerged for as long as three days.^[54] Flash flooding in central Indiana led to the closure of 17 highways. Two women drowned after a bus was swept off one highway near Indianapolis, Indiana, where over 3 in (76 mm) of rain quickly fell.^[73] Another three drowned in Indiana, in addition to the inundation of over 1,000 homes and 125 businesses. Flooding washed away roughly 500,000 acres (200,000 hectares) of crops and destroyed highway and railroad bridges. An 18-car work train fell into a creek near Reelsville, Indiana, after the bridge it was crossing succumbed to floodwaters. Railroad losses alone accounted for $1.2 million of the $2.45 million in damage wrought by Audrey in Indiana.^[54]

A total of ten lives were lost in Illinois, Indiana, and New York due to heavy rains and strong winds brought by squalls in Audrey's extratropical remnants.^[3][8] Winds peaked at 65 mph (105 km/h) in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and 100 mph (160 km/h) in Jamestown, New York.^[8] Damage in Pennsylvania was limited to the state's western regions and confined primarily to the downing of trees, powerlines, and the loss of some roofs. One person was killed by lightning while another was injured by a falling tree. Areas of New York near Lake Ontario experienced intense wind gusts that caused widespread power outages. The winds raised the water level in the lake 3 ft (90 cm) above normal, damaging small boats. The rise in Lake Ontario also damaged sightseeing facilities and river docks downstream of the Niagara Falls; total damage in New York was estimated at between $250,000–$400,000 and four deaths were reported in the state.^[54] Hurricane-force winds extended as far east as St. Albans, Vermont, where winds were measured at 80 mph (130 km/h). Across New England, power lines were downed while yachts were driven aground on the coast of Maine.^[74]

Canada

The remnants of Audrey entered Ontario with tropical storm force winds after crossing Lake Ontario, while gusts reached 80 mph (130 km/h).^[3] Heavy rainfall in the province washed out roads and rail lines. Six people were trapped in Algonquin Provincial Park for four days due to dangerous river currents and downed trees blocking roads. One boy drowned and a firefighter died due to the storm, while three other people died in Ontario due to traffic accidents. In neighboring Quebec, the remnants of Audrey were considered the worst storm in about 20 years, and over 100 houses were damaged by floods. The Montreal district of Saraguay lost power for several days. Throughout Montreal, there were 10 deaths, nine of which due to traffic accidents.^[28] This made Audrey the deadliest tropical cyclone in Quebec on record.^[29]

Bartie v. United States (1963)

In 1962, Whitney Bartie, along with hundreds of others, sued the United States federal government, asserting that the United States Weather Bureau had failed to give proper and accurate warning on Audrey and its effects. Bartie and his family had concluded that there was no need to evacuate following a 10:00 p.m. CST news broadcast on June 26—the night before Audrey made landfall. The family was awoken the following morning by water flooding their house, forcing them to climb onto their roof; the winds and rising water killed all in Bartie's family except Whitney.^[82] Whitney's claim was two-pronged, with the first point alleging that the Weather Bureau was negligent in their warnings, and the second alleging that despite experiencing the full brunt of the storm, Weather Bureau advisories advising the evacuation of those at lower elevations did not implicate him; Whitney sought $360,000 in damages from the federal government.^[83] A hurricane expert testifying for the Weather Bureau suggested that Audrey's deviation from the forecast path were as accurate as could be expected; at the time, the track error on a 24-hour hurricane forecast averaged 100–125 mi (161–201 km).^[82]

The case was argued in the United States District Court for the Western District of Louisiana and presided by Edwin F. Hunter.^[84] The court ruled that the Weather Bureau failed to convey the urgency of the situation to those on the coast in their warnings, but asserted that evacuation orders were not within the duties of the Weather Bureau. The case was dismissed on the grounds that the claim was barred by the discretionary function and misrepresentation exception in the Federal Tort Claims Act as the Weather Bureau's warnings were based on subjective judgements and errors were unintentional;^[82] thus, Hunter ruled that Whitney had failed to establish negligence on the part of the Weather Bureau.^[83] Following the dismissal, Whitney appealed the case to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, which ruled per curiam in favor of the United States in Bartie v. United States 326 F.2d 754 (1964).^[85] Another 109 suits similar to Bartie seeking total damages of $9,755,000 were filed in federal court but did not come to trial.^[86]