Geometric art

Funerals

Large funerary vases (often Dipylon kraters for men, and belly-handled amphorae for women)^[5] not only depicted funerary scenes, but they also had practical purposes, either holding the ashes or being used as grave markers.^[6] These vases often carried funerary imagery to commemorate the dead; the deceased person was depicted robed lying in state (prothesis), often surrounded by mourning family members, or lying in a bed and carried to the grave with an honorary chariot procession (ekphora). The depiction was accompanied by various heroic scenes and warfare imagery which are thought to be related to similar descriptions of the Homeric epics and were used to enhance the heroic ambience.^[5] To the Greeks, an omission of a proper burial was an insult to proper dignity.^[6] The mythological context of a proper burial relates to the Greeks' belief in a continued existence in the underworld that will disallow the dead to maintain peace in the absence of a proper burial ritual.

Symposia

Aside from its funerary use, the Greeks also utilized various vessels during symposia. The Greek symposium was a social gathering that only aristocratic males were allowed to attend.^[7] Vessels, such as wine coolers, jugs, various drinking cups, and mixing vessels, were decorated with Greek, geometric scenes. Some of the scenes depicted drinking parties or Dionysus and his followers.^[7] The symposia were held in the andron, which was a men's-only room.^[8] The only women allowed into this room were called "hetaera", or female sex-workers, who required payment from their regular, male companions.^[8]

Protogeometric period

The Protogeometric style (1025–900 BC)^[9][10][4] inherits its decorative forms and motifs from Mycenaean tradition and is mostly visible in ceramic production. Technological developments of the era created a new relationship between ornament and structure, causing differing stylistic choices from its Mycenaean influences.^[11] The shapes of the vessels have eliminated the fluid nature of the Mycenaean creating a more strict and simple design. There are horizontal, decorative bands that feature geometric shapes, including concentric circles or semicircles.^[12] Other characteristics of the early Protogeometric style included monochrome pottery and wavy lines on the shoulders.^[13] Common vase shapes of the period include amphorai with the handles on both the belly and the neck, hydriai (water jars), oinochoai (wine jugs), lekythoi, and skyphoi (stemless cups).^[12] Protegeometric pottery style is thought to have been led by Athens, while other regions also had their own local variations, most notably Thessaly, Euboea, Crete etc.^[11] The Protogeometric period did not yet feature human figures within its art, but horses were pictured during this time period.^[14] The village of Lefkandi in Euboea is considered one of the most representative sites of the Early Protogeometric style. New shapes, like the kalathos and pyxis, are thought to have been introduced during the Late Protogeometric period.^[13]

Early Geometric period

Circular shrine containing the figure of a goddess with upraised arms. Two prone figures, perhaps worshipers, observe the goddess through the opening in the roof, while an animal lies beside them. c. 850-800 BC, Archaeological Museum of Heraklion

In the early Geometric period (900–850 BC), the height of the vessels had been increased, while the decoration was limited around the neck down to the middle of the body of the vessel. The remaining surface is covered by a thin layer of clay, which during the firing takes a dark, shiny, metallic color.^[15] This was the period when the decorative theme of the meander was added to the pottery design, the most characteristic element of Geometric art.

During this period, a broader repertoire of vessel shapes was initiated. Specifically, amphorae were used to hold cremation ashes. The amphorae featured handles on the neck or shoulder for males, while featuring handles on the "belly" of the vase for women.^[14]

Middle Geometric period

By the middle Geometric period (850–760 BC), the decorative zones appear multiplied due to the creation of a laced mesh, while the meander dominates and is placed in the most important area, in the metope, which is arranged between the handles.

Based on excavations at Sindos, mentioned by Gimatzidis and Weninger (2020), Alagich et al. (2024) consider the possibility that Middle Geometric period began 140 years earlier, lasting (c. 990-870 BC).^[16]

Late Geometric period

Detail from the Hirschfeld Krater (c. 750-730 BC); prothesis scene (above), ekphora scene (below)

Late Geometric period lasted from 750 to 700/650 BC.^[4] Some potters enriched again the decorative organization of the vases, stabilized the forms of the animals in the areas of the neck and the base of the vase, and introduced the human form between the handles. The late Geometric period was marked by a 1.62 metres (5 ft 4 in) amphora that was made by the Dipylon painter in around 760–750 BC.^[17] The vase was a grave marker to an aristocratic woman in the Dipylon cemetery.^[17] This was the first phase of the late Geometric period (760–700 BC), in which the great vessels of Dipylon ware placed on the graves as funeral monuments^[18] and represented their height (often at a height of 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in)). The funerary imagery on the vases included the deceased person lying in state (prothesis) surrounded by mourning figures, or lying in a bed and carried to the grave with an honorary chariot procession (ekphora). It was accompanied by heroic scenes and warfare imagery, thought to be related to similar descriptions of the Homeric epics.^[5]

People and animals are depicted geometrically in a dark glossy color, while the remaining vessel is covered by strict zones of meanders, crooked lines, circles, swastikas, in the same graphical concept. Later, the main tragic theme of the wail declined, the compositions eased, the geometric shapes became more free, and areas with animals, birds, scenes of shipwrecks, hunting scenes, themes from mythology or the Homeric epics led Geometric pottery into more naturalistic expressions.^[19]

One of the characteristic examples of the late Geometric style is the oldest surviving signed work of a Greek potter, Aristonothos (or Aristonophos) (7th century BC). The vase was found at Cerveteri in Italy and illustrates the blinding of Polyphemus by Odysseus and his companions.^[20] From the mid-8th century BC, the closer contact between Greece and the East enriched the ceramic art with new subjects – such as lions, panthers, imaginary beings, rosettes, palmettes, lotus flowers etc. – that led to the Orientalizing period style, in which the pottery style of Corinth distinguished.

Based on excavations, and radiocarbon dating, at the site Zagora on the island of Andros, and previous datings at Sindos, Alagich et al. (2024) suggest Late Geometric I Period began around 120 years earlier than the traditional chronology, and lasted (c. 870-730 BC).^[16]

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  Boetian oinochoe, c. 750 BC, National Archaeological Museum, Athens
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  Kalathos from child burial, c. 750-700 BC, Kerameikos Museum, Athens
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  Horse figure carrying four amphoras from a child burial, c. 750-700 BC, Kerameikos Museum, Athens
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  Bird figures from child burial, c. 750-700 BC, Kerameikos Museum, Athens
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  Attic pyxis with four hourse figurines on top, c. 735 BC, Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford