Baltic Finnic paganism

Major deities

Several key deities were venerated by all the Baltic Finnic peoples and some other Finnic peoples, these pan-Finnic deities controlled many aspects of nature.^[2]

• The chief deity was Ukko (also [thought to be] known as Perkele), who was the ruler over the sky and thunder. A corresponding figure is known in countless other cultures of the world.
• Another deity that appeared very significant to the Baltic Finnic pagans, but about whom modern scholars know very little, was Jumi, whose name is related to "Jumala", the modern Finnish language word for a monotheist God.
• There were many other important deities who ruled over a specific aspect of the natural world. Such as the deity of water was often called Ahti, and the deity of the forest was Tapio.
• Other major deities included Äkräs, the god of fertility; Mielikki, the goddess of the forests and the hunt; Kuu, the goddess of the moon; and Lempo, the god of wilderness and archery.
• Deities, who turned into Great heroes, who had, in mythology, once been human, such as Väinämöinen and Ilmarinen, were also objects of worship, in a way similar to the Greek pagans' worship of mythical human heroes like Herakles. Ilmarinen was previously a sky god, being replaced by Ukko.^[2]

Ukko

Main article: Ukko

Ukko is the chief deity in Baltic Finnic paganism, he is the god of the sky, weather (mostly thunder, rain and clouds), a god of harvest and fertility.^[10][11] He is also given the epithet Ylijumala ('Supreme God' or 'Highest God'^{[note 2][12]}) in at least the Finnish, Karelian and Ingrian regional variants of the pagan faith.^[13] He was associated with the sowing season during springtime according to Mikael Agricola.^[14] Ukko also had characteristics of a war god, and would be prayed to help in battle.^[15]

Ukko was sometimes given the epithet Isäinen ylinen Luoja ('Fatherly Supreme Creator'), and Salo notes that this could also be related to the sky-god *Dyēus of Proto-Indo-European religion.^[16]

Ukko is perhaps to a significant extent derived from the various Baltic peoples. The Latvian (Pērkons) and Lithuanian (Perkūnas), which are the same thunder deity, are known to be the origins for the Finnish word Perkele (which is also [thought to be] another cognomen for Ukko).^[15] Ukko is thought to have entered Baltic Finnic paganism in the first millennium BC, replacing other chief deities who were more unique per region, such as Taara in Estonia.^[17] Before the influences of the Balts, the various Finnic people [most likely] had an earlier, original sky-god. Ilmarinen, who is known as the blacksmith in the Kalevala, is the earliest known to be sky-god of the various Uralic peoples.^[2] The Udmurt sky god Inmar [fi] corresponds to the Finnish Ilmarinen. Memories of Ilmarinen's status as the sky deity have been preserved in Kalevala myths, such as the belief that he forged the firmament and the Sampo.

Ilmarinen

Ilmarinen is a major deity^[2] and former chief deity, in the form of a sky deity in Baltic Finnic paganism,^[21] alongside the Proto-Uralic religion until his replacement as the chief deity. Ilmarinen may have [possibly] also been a thunder deity under the name Ilmaričče.^[22] Other names for Ilmarinen are Ilmorinen and Ilmollini, as found from runes.^[23] Ilmarinen is also described in the pagan faith as the forger of the firmament, aurora borealis and the colors of the morning and evening. Ilmarinen was said to have the achievements of inventing iron and "striking the first fire [fi]" according to folklore.^[2][24]

He is also described as a blacksmith and is thought to have gained his smith status through Proto-Finnic contact with iron-working cultures such as the Balts or Germanic people.^[25][21]

Haltija

Local animistic deities, known as haltijas or haltias, were also worshipped. Haltijas would act as spirits, gnome, or elf-like creatures in that guard, help, own, or protects somethin or somebody.^[26]

These haltijas could be male or female, and could take a human or another animal's form. Haltijas could be found everywhere in nature, both in the biotic and abiotic parts. Every human has a haltija, usually called haltijasielu (haltija soul) or luontohaltija (nature haltija), which is one of the three parts of a person's soul. The tradition blends with the Swedish tomte: the Finnish tonttu was a being analogous to haltija, but which lives in a building, like a home (kotitonttu) or a sauna (saunatonttu).^{[citation needed]}

Birth of the Universe

In Finnic mythology, there are two different theories on the creation of the universe and the earth. This includes the Sukeltajamyytti [fi], in which the god sent a Black-throated loon into the Alkumeri (Finnish: Primeval sea) to collect mud and sand to build the earth. This myth is common in various Siberian (Chukchi, Yugaghir and Ainu), Tatar and North American native folklore.

Another creation theory is that the world was born from the egg of a waterfowl. This myth was originally said to be from India, however it had made its way to the Uralic peoples, however this myth was only well known among the Sámi, Finns, Komi and Mordvins.^[4][27]

End of the World

There is said to be no eschatology (the end of the world) in Finnic mythology. However based on similarities in other Uralic beliefs, it can be assumed that Finnic paganism included the idea that the world is in cyclicity and that it will be recurring at regular intervals.

Soul

The Finnic pagan belief about the soul dictated that the human soul is composed of three different parts: henki, luonto and itse. Each of the three were autonomous beings on their own. Similar beliefs about multiple autonomous souls are found amongst other peoples speaking Uralic languages, such as the Khanty and Mansi, who believe in two souls: the shadow and the lili (löyly).^[28]

Henki (translated as "life", "breath" or "spirit", sometimes also referred to as löyly) was a person's life force, which presented itself as breathing, the beating of one's heart and the warmth of their body. Henki was received prior to birth and it left at the moment of death. The word hengetön (lit. "one without henki") can be used as a synonym for dead in the Finnish language even now.

Luonto (translated as "nature") was a guardian spirit or protector. Luonto has also been referred to as the haltija of a person. A strong willed, artistic or otherwise talented person was believed to have a strong haltija who granted them good luck and skills to complete their tasks well. A weak luonto could be strengthened by various spells and rituals. Luonto could leave a person's body without the person dying, but its lengthened absence would cause problems, such as alcoholism and other addictions. Unlike henki, luonto was not received prior to birth but instead either at the time of getting the first teeth or being given a name. A newborn child was thus considered to be particularly vulnerable. These concepts share similar basics with the idea of hamr (life force) and Hamingja (luck) in Norse belief.

Itse was a spirit received at the time of birth or a few days after. It was believed to define one's personality and receiving itse made one a person. In modern-day Finnish the word itse means "self", but in old days itse was different from one's self, minuus. Like luonto, itse could leave one's body without the person dying but long absence would cause illnesses and misery. Depressions, for instance, was seen as a result of having lost one's itse. If a person was diagnosed to be itsetön or luonnoton (without one's itse or without one's luonto), a shaman or a sage could try locating the missing part of the soul and bring it back. Although itse and luonto were usually lost after a traumatising event, it was possible to purposefully separate one's itse from their body. This was required if a missing part of the soul needed to be found. Itse could also leave the body to appear as an etiäinen (a sort of false arrival apparition). At the time of a person's death their itse joined the other deceased of the family or, in some cases, stayed among the living as a ghost; much like the Norse concept of Fylgja (follower).

Burial

In some traditions, it was a habit to pause at a half-way point while transporting the dead body, from the dwelling to the graveyard. Here, a karsikko-marking was made on a big pine tree. The marking was for people to remember the person; and in the event that the spirit were to awaken and try to make its way back home from the graveyard, it would see its own karsikko-marking, then realize that it is dead and instead try to find the path to the spirit realm. A forest with karsikko-marked trees was a kind of supernatural barrier between dwellings of the living and the burial grounds.

After a person died there was a transitional period of thirty to forty days while their soul searched Tuonela, the land of dead, and tried to find their place there. During this period, the soul could visit its living relatives either as a ghost or in the form of an animal.

The soul visited relatives especially if it was unhappy. To please an unhappy soul, one would show respect by not speaking ill of the deceased or by having a sacrifice in the spirit's name.

After this transitional period, the soul moved permanently into Tuonela. However, the soul could still come back if it were unhappy, or if it were asked to return by its relatives who needed help.

Some souls were not able to settle down or were not welcomed in Tuonela, and they continued haunting, i.e. bastard children who were killed and buried outside a cemetery usually ended up as permanent haunters of some place, typically screaming in terror, until someone digs up their bodies, blesses them, and buries them in a graveyard.

Ancestor veneration

People were afraid of ghosts, but spirits of ancestors could also help their living relatives, and they were asked to help. A shaman could be sent to Tuonela to ask for knowledge of spirits or even to take a spirit to the world of living as luonto. A Spirit of the dead had to be honoured by giving him/her sacrifices. Places where sacrifices were given to ancestors were called Hiisi ( = sacred forest, also a kind of open air temple, often included the Offering-stone, uhrikivi, collective monument for the dead of the family). Christianity held hiisi to be evil creatures and places. The old sacred places were often desecrated by being used as the building sites for the churches of the new religion, and the old sacred trees were hacked down.

Afterlife

The Finns believed in a place of afterlife called Tuonela, or sometimes also called Manala. In most traditions, it was situated underground or at the bottom of a lake, though sometimes it was said to exist on the other side of a dark river. Tuonela was ruled over by the god Tuoni, and his wife, the goddess Tuonetar.^[29]

Tuonela was a dark and lifeless place, where the dead were in a state of eternal sleep.^[29] Shamans were sometimes able to reach the spirits of their dead ancestors by traveling to Tuonela in a state of trance created by rituals. He had to make his way over the Tuonela river by tricking the ferryman. While in Tuonela, the shaman had to be careful not to get caught: the living were not welcome there.^[29] Shamans who were caught could end up decaying in the stomach of a giant pike fish with no hope of returning to normal life. If the shaman died during the trance ritual, it was believed that he had been caught by the guards at Tuonela.

Rock paintings

Rock paintings were common in Baltic Finnic paganism, and were often done with red clay during the Stone Age.^[24] These paintings would often symbolize common animals such as deer and fish, along with humans and palm prints.^[30] Folk poetry may have also been preserved on these rocks, however they have not survived on these rock paintings, and instead have been carried through generations via oral tradition.^[4] It is believed that most of these rock paintings were done by the Comb Ceramic culture.

Hiisi

Hiisi or sacred woods were places where people often went to during pilgrimages or served as a burial site to take sacrifices. Within these sacred woods, there would often be a special enclosed area for sacrifices, in which it was forbidden to enter, except for those who were doing the sacrificing to the deities.^[31] In Baltic Finnic folklore, hiisi sites were also likened to be the creation of the Hiidet (giants), and through oral tradition, jotuni or giants were said to dwell in hiisi sites.^[32]

Wetlands

Wetlands, such as bogs, swamps, springs and streams were holy places, especially for the use of sacrificing. The archeological findings of flint and tinderbox has shown that they have been used for the execution and disposal of those unwanted people in the tribe. Children who were born out of wedlock or those who had disabilities would also be killed in the wetlands.^[4] The word "Suomi" (Finnish: Finland) is also thought to come from the word "Suo" (Finnish: Swamp/bog).^[33]

Bears

Finns heavily relied on hunting for survival before and during the Middle Ages. As such the animals that they hunted became vital to their survival, and they were treated with respect.

The bear was considered sacred and was venerated in the pagan beliefs of the Finns.^[34] Peijaiset, which was a memorial feast held to honour a slain animal, the most common animal to hold peijaiset to was the bear,^[35] and during the peijaiset, the bear was eaten and the bones were buried, and the skull placed on a venerated pine tree known as kallohonka [fi], kallohonkas were sacred places and it may have been a metaphor for the world tree.^[36] Peijaiset are also an important part of other Finno-Ugrics (Khanty and Mansi) and Siberians (Yugurs).^[37][36]

According to a pagan folk belief, the first bear came to people's dwellings to do evil, however a Giant slapped the bear on the ear, and the bear had to beg for mercy. A deal was made: the bear promised to stay in the forest from then on, eat berries, and dig up common ants; the bear also promised to sleep all winter soundly in his nest. However, if it came back, people would then shoot and spear it. It kept its promise otherwise, which now sometimes ate cattle from the forest, from its own area. The story also follows a belief about why domestic animals came to the attention of people: to escape from the bear.^[38]

Other animals

In Karelia and Eastern Finland, before going hunting, hunters would pray to the emuu, the ancestral mother of the animal species being hunted, for help.^{[citation needed]} The word emuu is Karelian and is related to the word emo "animal mother". Each species had its own emuu.

From ancient drawings, petroglyphs, it is clear that the elk^{[note 1]} was a very important animal. Elk is also very important to other peoples of the region, such as the Komis, who depict their sky god Jenmar as half-human and half-elk. It appears much more than bears do, and it is theorised that the bear was such a holy animal that it was forbidden to depict it. Also, the bear's name was almost forbidden to say, so many euphemisms were developed. The most usual Baltic Finnic word for bear in modern language, karhu, is just one of the many euphemisms, and it means "rough fur." Among the many names of bear otso is probably the original "real" name, as suggested by the wide spread of the word otso and related words among many of the Uralic languages. Many euphemisms for bear are local.

Many water birds were holy for Finns and other Baltic Finns. They were often depicted on petroglyphs. It was believed that if you killed a water bird, you would die soon after. The holiest water bird was the swan. With its long neck, it could look to all the levels of the world, including Tuonela, the land of the dead. Birds are found often in Uralic mythology. For example, there are many stories about a bird creating the world. A very common Uralic myth is where a hunter (Finnish: Lemminkäinen, Mari Salij) travels to the underworld to marry a woman and comes across the primordial waterbird on the river of the underworld, the hunter shoots the waterbird with his bow, but the waterbird escapes and terrible things happen to the hunter. In many traditions it was believed that the world was created by the egg of a bird. In other traditions it was believed that the world was created on mud that bird took in its beak while diving.

In Karelia it was believed that a bird brings the soul to a newborn baby, and that the same bird takes the soul with it when that person dies. This soul-carrying bird was called sielulintu [fi], "soul-bird". In some traditions people carried artifacts depicting their sielulintu. Sielulintu was believed to guard their souls while they slept. After the person died, the artifact-bird was inserted to sit on the cross at the person's grave. Such crosses with soul birds still exist in graveyards in Karelia. This is one example how Christian and Pagan beliefs still existed side by side hundreds of years after the Christianisation of the Finnish and Karelian people.

In Finland

Swedish Crusaders entered Finland in c. 1157 and with the conquests by Sweden of Finland, Christianity began to have influence across Finland, however the native pagan religion persisted. Christianity began to gain more influence and power to convert with the establishment of the Bishopric of Turku in 1276,^[41] and with the Protestant Reformation, when Mikael Agricola translated the New Testament ("Se Wsi Testamenti") into the Finnish language.

In Karelia

With the conquests of East-Karelia by the Novgorod Republic and various Finnish-Novgorodian wars, Eastern Orthodoxy began to have influence over much of Karelia.

Written information about Baltic Finnic paganism began to be collected in the 1800s, especially in Karelia, when Christianity was already the main religion across much of the Finno-Ugric community. Despite this, especially in Orthodox Karelia, many old beliefs and myths survived. The stories about Jesus and Väinämöinen, as well as the stories about Ukko and the God of Christianity, lived side by side and sometimes even got mixed up. Much information about the pagan faith has been preserved as part of folk tales, which, especially in Karelia.^[4]