Conestoga wagon

Wagon body

The Conestoga wagon model is a uniquely American design with no close European equivalent, being well-suited for transversal through American roads that were not yet macadam, or built from hard stone. It is boat-shaped in terms of both crosswise (horizontal) and lengthwise (vertical) dimensions, thus ensuring the ability for sagging, or curving downwards in the middle, during movements through hills and valleys so that the loads remained centered.^[14] However, the curvatures of the boxes could have also been for stylistic purposes, as consumers may have preferred their designs over those of straight-sided wagons.^[15]

The wagon body of a Conestoga wagon, known also as a "box" or "bed," has a complex design compared to typically simple rectangular wagon boxes. The designs of the Conestoga wagon's body were intended to make the wagon last a long time and be flexible for traveling through roads that are normally rough for heavy-loaded vehicles. As a result, the Conestoga wagon is more representative in technological niches as a large-sized basket on a set of wheels than a box. Its designs were meant to replicate large-sized watercrafts that serve the dual purposes of carrying heavy quantities of goods and withstanding hostile environmental conditions such as currents. Historians George Shumway and Howard C. Frey considered nonsensical the suggestions in early United States history books that the Conestoga wagon boxes allowed for traveling passengers and goods across rivers—the boxes were not water-tight and would have leaked if placed in water bodies.^[15][16]

The wagon bed is typically created from the hardy woods of white oaks (Quercus alba). It measures 16 ft (4.9 m) in length from its front to rear ends and never more than 4 ft (1.2 m) in width. Six to twelve sloping hooplike hickory bows or "tilts",^[16] reaching individual grounded heights of 12 ft (3.7 m), are arched over the wagon's bed to hold the white canvas sheet that covers them. The canvas, a cloth made from hemp fiber, was tied down to both sides of the wagon body but were left overhanging at both its front and rear ends. The white sheet measures approximately 24 ft (7.3 m) long. The positioning of the canvas serves to shield the wagon's contents from rainfall while allowing for air circulation for cargo and passengers. The Conestoga wagon was extensively painted given the prominence of flair in Pennsylvania Dutch culture. The wagon box has light blue color tones whereas the ironworks were black and the wheels, other running gear (the components allowing a vehicle to move and stop), and sideboards were vermilion in color.^[14] The prominence of color in Conestoga wagons make it partially differ from other covered wagons, many of which had no painted colors due to concerns that draft animals were frightened by bright colors.^[17]

On the left side of the Conestoga wagon is a short but strong white oak board known as the "lazy board." It is able to bear the weight of the wagon driver, or his helper if he hired one, who managed his draft animals plus team and operated the brake there. This meant that the driver had a habit of operating Conestoga wagons on the left side, starkly contrasting with modern operations of automobiles on the right. The heavy and sturdy brakes served to slow down the wagon's wheels when the driver held the iron handle (or "lock patent") down, and the handles were also used to lock the brakes. The brakes were vital for managing the wagon through unsmooth roads. The tongue, or a long board in the wagon's front area, may be plated in iron then painted.^[18]

There are several other covered wagon variants, known from complete wagon evidence, that closely resemble the Conestoga wagon. The Weber wagon, utilized in the early 19th century, differs from typical Conestoga wagons in the presence of a front end panel and an almost vertical tail gate. Whether it and the similar Sternberg wagon and Shantz wagon can be considered Conestoga wagons is a matter of subjectivity according to Shumway and Frey.^[19] On the other hand, the Groff wagon of the later 19th century, known by a single specimen, is clearly distinct from Conestoga wagons despite similar appearances in different constructions of the front end panel and lower sides. The "Sheibley wagon" has similar shapes to the Groff wagon but is classified as a Conestoga wagon because of the formatting of the wagon bed and bows.^[20] The Nissen wagon is a distinct covered wagon variant originating from North Carolina that derived in design from the Conestoga wagon.^[21] Therefore, Nissen wagons can superficially resemble Conestoga wagons, but the former differs from the latter in usage as lightweight carriage of people and items instead of as heavyweight carriage of goods and the presence of a box in the front area where a driver and a passenger could sit.^[22] The Nissen wagon uses just two draft horses given its lightweight nature and is synonymous with the alternate term "Salem wagon."^[23]

Running gear

The running gear of the four-wheeled Conestoga wagon is assembled into two parts. The first is the front portion, which contain the front wheels connected by the front axletree, front wagon hounds (parts binding the axles to the wagon), front wagon bolster (a wood beam connecting an axletree to the wagon body), and the tongue. The rear portion is made up of similar components, but instead of a tongue, it has a coupling pole (a beam connecting the front and back wagon axles). The front and rear portions are very similar in appearances, the differences being very specific.^[24]

The axletrees are wooden and encased with iron coverings. The wagon's wheels are kept in place by iron linchpins to keep them in position. The rear brake mechanism can be handy for the covered wagons but are not required, hence the lack of them in some Conestoga wagons. The front hounds are made from oak wood and are the connecting piece between the wagon tongue and the front axletree. They are bound by a transverse oak and iron brace piece that can keep the wagon tongue up. The front hounds can also support the curved iron pieces that minimize sideways swaying and preventing toppling for the front wagon portion. The left front hound may also hold an iron sheath for an axe that wagoners can use to cut through wood obstacles or make new tongues and axletrees.^[24]

The Conestoga wagon wheels were high so that the axles (or wheel centers) could clear through or move over low obstacles such as tree stumps and mud.^[25] The wheels, equipped with iron tires, ranged in size in accordance to the wagon's size, the largest having been used for the Pitt wagon variants of the early 19th century for mountain-freighting. The rear wheels of large wagons on average have diameters between 60 in (1,500 mm) and 70 in (1,800 mm) while the front wheels were smaller and generally measured approximately 50 in (1,300 mm) in diameter. Medium-sized Conestoga wagon rear wheels meanwhile generally measure between 54 in (1,400 mm) and 60 in (1,500 mm) in diameter. The tires of large Conestoga wagon rear wheels usually measure 3.75 in (95 mm) to 4 in (100 mm) in width while those of medium Conestoga wagon rear wheels measured about 3 in (76 mm) in width. Conestoga wagons used for hauling and farming may have been complimented with different wheel size sets for performing different transversal duties, from small wheels for farms to large ones for road travel. Medium-sized wheels normally contain 14 spokes (or rods connecting to the wheel's center) while large wheels usually have 16 of them.^[26]

Other accessories

Additional accessories may be paired with the Conestoga wagon for utilitarian purposes. On the rear end of the wagon is a wooden trough known as the "feed trough" or "feed box" that wagon operators were able to remove, fill with grain, and place on the tongue to feed the draft animals.^[25] Also present was a water bucket that was usually hung on the rear axletree, or an underside bar connecting two wheels, of the wagon.^[27] Conestoga wagons may also be equipped with water barrels on the side, toolboxes for wagon-fixing, and a pot of tar for keeping the wheels moving.^[28][29]

The feed box measures 5 ft (1.5 m) to 6 ft (1.8 m) long, approximately 12 in (300 mm) wide, and 10 in (250 mm) deep in dimensions. The top edges of the trough are embedded with light iron straps to prevent damage of it by the horses' teeth. The iron lug and pin of the feed box, positioned at the opposite ends of the trough from each other, are intended to fix the box's position at the tongue while the horses feed. The water bucket fills a similar purpose for consumption of water from nearby water sources by horses. The tar pot was wooden and had a lid with a central hole and a paddle for applying the lubricant of pine tar and lard to the axles.^[29]

In addition to the axe and toolbox which Conestoga wagons were equipped with, the wagon jack, used for raising wagons up, was another tool that was equipped on them, specifically probably in its rear end. They were highly durable and tended to have outlasted the wagons themselves, making them valuable for antique collectors. Trends around the size increase of wagon jacks is correlated directly with the increased size of the covered wagons.^[29]

Pennsylvanian origins

The region now known as Lancaster County was first permanently settled by European colonists by 1719. German immigrants arrived to Lancaster County within the 18th century because of the rich-quality land. The Pennsylvanian town of Lancaster was founded by John Wright in 1730 and grew to become one of the largest towns in the American colonies by the American Revolution. The German immigrants of the county referred to themselves as "Pennsylfawisch Deitsch," leading to the confusion by English speakers who established the term "Pennsylvanian Dutch" despite them not actually being Dutch.^[32]

By 1720, farm wagons were already put into usage within the British colony of Pennsylvania as they carried merchandise from Philadelphia to Lancaster county in exchange for furs.^[4] In the mid-18th century, the German immigrants of Lancaster County produced their own Conestoga wagons for hauling crops elsewhere and for traveling on dirt roads. The covered wagons often carried flour and iron ores from Lancaster to Philadelphia in exchange for tools, clothing, and furniture.^[32] They were also hauled from Conestoga, Pennsylvania, to Philadelphia, where they returned to the former area with basic goods such as lead, gunpowder, rum, and salt.^[33] Conestoga wagon usage was broadened to American settlers for pioneering west as time passed.^[32]

Braddock Expedition

The Conestoga wagons were notably the major transport vehicles used during the Braddock Campaign of the French and Indian War. They were first referenced in relation to the war campaign by the Pennsylvania governor Robert Hunter Morris when he advised the Pennsylvania General Assembly that they cover the expenses of the wagons and horses to be employed for British-American military service to capture the French Fort Duquesne. Neither the Pennsylvania assembly nor those of Maryland and Virginia passed any law to cover military transport.^[34]

The Major-General Edward Braddock arrived to North America in February 1755 to carry out his role as commander-in-chief of the British forces during the French and Indian War.^[35] Colonel Sir John St. Clair informed Braddock about settlers at the Blue Ridge Mountains who were running provisions and stores, expressing confidence that by early May 1755, they would have 200 wagons and 1,500 pack horses ready for deployment into Fort Cumberland. Unfortunately for Braddock, only 25 wagons were deployed for the British frontier port by April, several of which were actually unusable. The major-general was aggravated in reaction to the underwhelming resources and wanted to shut down the expedition, but he later commissioned Benjamin Franklin to gather some 150 wagons and 1,500 pack horses from the locals. Franklin eventually succeeded in Braddock's demands but with great difficulty due to farmers being unable to afford giving up their resources and the Pennsylvania assembly having little interest in the war due to Quaker affinities. Another challenge was of building roads, as several road builders under Colonel James Burd were being killed by Native Americans, leading to many others threatening to quit their work unless they were given protection.^[34]

Letters and newspaper accounts of the 1750s confirm the usage of farm wagons during the Braddock Expedition that were referred to as "Conestoga wagons." No wagon of the war campaign survives today, but archeological evidence of wagon fragments provide limited evidence of the wagon designs. The wheel diameters are typical of farm wagons rather than military vehicles, and the presence of strakes for wagon wheels indicate the lack of brakes in early farm wagons that later Conestoga wagons had. The wagons used by Braddock's men also carried smaller loads compared to later Conestoga wagons due to their smaller sizes.^[36]

According to the British Army officer Robert Orme, the wagons, artillery, and carrying horses were placed into three different divisions that were each overseen by an appointed superior. The wagon masters of each division were expected to keep their teams stable and replenish horses when needed. During the expedition, many wagons sustained critical damage and were replaced by wagons from other camps. Management of horses also proved problematic as they were often lost or brought home by their owners, and those that remained grew weaker over time. Some wagons had to be sent back due to being too heavy, and the others had loads removed in order to reduce their weights.^[35]

The Braddock Expedition ended with the Battle of the Monongahela, which ultimately proved to be disastrous for the British Army. Many of Braddock's soldiers were killed or wounded by the opposing French and their allied Native American forces, and Braddock himself was mortally wounded. Most of the British artillery, wagons, and supplies were abandoned by the British army as they quickly retreated, meaning that a majority of the remaining wagons were lost. Most of the wagons at Dunbar's Camp were burned by the British to prevent the French and Native Americans from seizing their materials as they anticipated pursuit by the enemy forces. Only a few wagons of the Braddock Expedition ultimately remained, and they were returned to their original owners when the vehicles arrived at Wills Creek in Pennsylvania. Both the owners who their wagons and/or horses returned to and those who did not due to their being lost were compensated for accordingly.^[35] In total, 156 wagons are thought to have been employed for the disastrous Braddock Expedition, the only wagon to survive intact being that of William Douglas.^[37]

Late 18th–19th centuries

Conestoga wagons, strictly speaking, are generally thought to have had widespread usage within North America lasting from 1750 to 1850, although the year range is by no means strict. Several authors argued that the "golden age" of Conestoga wagons (or time of peak usage) lasted from 1820 to 1840.^[17][7] As the main terrestrial vehicles of transport in North America, they frequently hauled farm goods from rural areas into towns and cities in exchange for other manufactured commodities.^[38] In the 18th century of the United States, the Conestoga wagon was the most popular transport vehicle of the American frontier, and as many as one hundred of them traveled in individual groups, extending in geographical range from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to Augusta, Georgia. However, Conestoga wagon travel was still costly, so merchants often preferred transport of goods by sea.^[9] The increase in usage of Conestoga wagons within Pennsylvania in the later 18th century was correlated with the growth population in the western region and the rising economic development of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. From 1750 up to 1775, more than 10,000 Conestoga wagons traveled within the Pennsylvania region to Philadelphia annually, and 50 to 100 wagons traveled daily. At times, a whole train of 100 wagons traveled at once.^[39] Wagon travel was made possible by the construction of roads across multiple provinces to make travel easier and forts within the Pennsylvania mountain front to protect settlers from Native American raids, as diplomatic relations had been damaged due to the French and Indian War.^[40] Some of the most significant roads included the Conestoga Road and the Great Wagon Road.^[41][42]

Beginning in the early 19th century, wagons became larger as evident by the size increase of the wagon jacks over time. They were also hauled across rivers such as the Susquehanna River via ferry boats, and heavy wagon traffic for ferrying had resulted in wagons waiting in line for up to three days.^[43] It was used to some extent for travel to the western frontier, but it was generally too heavy, required too many draft animals for hauling, and was an expensive vehicle to build or purchase. Standard "prairie schooners" were much more often used since they were lighter, had sturdier wheels, and were cheaper.^[39] The perception of Conestoga wagons being the preferred vehicle of choice for traveling westward in North America is seemingly the result of them being better-represented in literature and media compared to the smaller prairie schooners.^[44] Still, by the 1840s, the Conestoga wagon saw usage in the Santa Fe Trail, being distinguished in purpose from the medium and light covered wagons used by settlers migrating to California or Oregon.^[45] Conestoga wagons saw also some usage by German immigrants of the British provinces of what is now Canada as well, typically carrying 8 short tons (7.3 t) of goods, and roads were built to accommodate wagon travel.^[46]

Wagoners, especially in Pennsylvania, often stopped by at taverns, also at the time called "stations." From Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, to Pittsburgh, there were about 150 taverns, or roughly 1 tavern for each mile.^[47] The inns of the 19th century often contained large signs containing painted figures and words that were mounted on posts at the highway to catch the attention of wagoners, including those who were illiterate. The taverns were numerous, but not all of them welcomed wagoners in for service.^[48] In the winter, the wagons were parked on planks so that the wheels would not freeze while the wagoners stayed in overnight.^[49] The taverns were normally crowded on busy days, and wagoners may have expected greetings from other tavern guests, ranging from fellow wagoners to community members meeting up there. Tavern keepers, generally influential men of their communities, made profits from selling liquor and meals to them, but their revenue mainly came from overnight stays, which would have costed less than $1.75. The next morning, wagoners followed typical schedules of eating breakfast then tending to their horses (i.e. feeding and watering them) before departing.^[50]

Decline

The Conestoga wagon's extended period of use in North America gradually declined in the latter half of the early 19th century as technological change ushered in more practical alternatives. This was especially true in the state where the covered wagons had originated, Pennsylvania, as the introduction and spread of canals provided a cheaper and faster way to transport goods. Another major factor in the decline of Conestoga wagons was the construction of railroads, over whose lines companies like the Reading Company could haul goods such as coal or agricultural produce more efficiently than wagons. As a result, the use of Conestoga wagons later became largely restricted to rural areas.^[51] The displacement of Conestoga wagons by railroads and canals in the United States was a national trend.^[52] Despite the replacement not only of most wagons but also of the short-lived Pony Express mail service by more technologically advanced modes of transport, the US horse population did not experience a corresponding decline in numbers.^[53]

The decline of the Conestoga wagon and most other covered wagons in the later 19th century did not include the decline of all covered wagon variants, however. The Nissen Wagon, originating in North Carolina,^[21] was still a popular transport vehicle throughout the 19th century; contemporaneous production numbers reflect that high demand.^[54] In the early 20th century, the Nissen Wagon Works continued to produce Nissen Wagons in high numbers for southeastern states, but by the 1940s their use had declined.^[22]