Nothing Special   »   [go: up one dir, main page]
Next Article in Journal
Induced Phytomanagement of Multi-Metal Polluted Soil with Conocarpus erectus Supported by Biochar, Lignin, and Citric Acid
Previous Article in Journal
Mineral Liberation and Concentration Characteristics of Apatite Comminuted by High-Pressure GRU
You seem to have javascript disabled. Please note that many of the page functionalities won't work as expected without javascript enabled.
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Minerals
Volume 14
Issue 11
10.3390/min14111150
minerals-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Ecological Health Hazards and Multivariate Assessment of Contamination Sources of Potentially Toxic Elements from Al-Lith Coastal Sediments, Saudi Arabia

by
Talal Alharbi
,
Abdelbaset S. El-Sorogy
*,
Khaled Al-Katany
and
Suhail S. S. Alhejji
Geology and Geophysics Department, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Minerals 2024, 14(11), 1150; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14111150
Submission received: 18 October 2024 / Revised: 9 November 2024 / Accepted: 11 November 2024 / Published: 13 November 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy and Geochemistry of Sediments in Light of Environmental and Climate Changes)
Browse Figures
Figure 1
<p>Sampling sites along Al Lith coastline (Source: Esri, Maxar, Earthstar Geographics).</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Distribution of PTEs in Al Lith coastal sediments.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Spatial distribution of LCR for As, Cr, and Pb per sample location in the study area.</p> ">
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
To assess the contamination levels, sources, and ecological health risks of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in the sediments of Al Lith on the Saudi Red Sea coast, 25 samples were collected and analyzed for Zn, V, Cr, Cu, Ni, As, Pb, and Fe using inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry. The average concentrations of PTEs (μg/g) were obtained in the following order: Fe (14,259) > V (28.30) > Zn (22.74) > Cr (16.81) > Cu (12.41) > Ni (10.63) > As (2.66) > Pb (2.46). The average values of enrichment factor were in the following order: As (1.12) > Zn (0.75) > V (0.70) > Cr (0.69) > Cu (0.69) > Pb (0.67) > Ni (0.46). This indicated that the Al Lith sediments exhibited either no or minimal enrichment of PTEs, with concentrations below the low effect range. This suggests that the primary source of these PTEs is the minerals associated with the basement rocks of the Arabian Shield (sphalerite, vanadiferous magnetite, chromite, pentlandite, arsenopyrite, and galena) and that they are unlikely to pose a substantial risk to benthic communities. The hazard index (HI) values for the PTEs in both adults and children were below 1.0, indicating no significant non-carcinogenic risk. The lifetime cancer risk (LCR) values for Pb, As, and Cr in both adults and children were within acceptable or tolerable levels, posing no significant health threats. However, a few samples showed LCR values exceeding 1 × 10−4, which may indicate potential risks.

1. Introduction

Coastal ecosystems provide ideal settings for a variety of activities, including recreational tourism and numerous economic pursuits. However, these ecosystems are highly fragile and extremely vulnerable to human activities, as well as sea-level rise and climate change [1,2,3]. Rapid economic expansion in coastal areas, including construction operations and industrial development, releases millions of tons of pollutants, including potentially toxic elements (PTEs), which become significant environmental stressors affecting water quality and marine organisms [4,5,6,7]. Potentially toxic elements can enter aquatic environments through the weathering of nearby rocks via flooding and atmospheric deposition; industrial effluents; accidental oil spills; the use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture; and mining operations [8,9].
PTEs can accumulate in marine sediments or be released directly into the water column, where they can be absorbed by marine organisms. This absorption creates a pathway for PTEs to move up the food chain, posing potential threats to marine life and human health [10,11]. PTEs enter the human body by inhalation from air, the ingestion of silt or dust, and dermal contact [12,13]. The excessive intake of heavy metals in the human body can lead to neurological, cardiovascular, and chronic kidney disorders, tumors, and even malignancies [14]. Children exhibit heightened sensitivity to heavy metals due to increased exposure pathways from nursing, placental transfer, hand-to-mouth behaviors during early development, and diminished rates of toxin removal [15].
Potentially toxic elements are known for their persistence in the environment and their strong potential to bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms and human tissues. Consuming contaminated seafood, such as fish, crustaceans, and mollusks, is the main pathway for PTE exposure in human populations. Elements like Pb, As, and Cu can cause various health issues, including mental disorders, effects on blood constituents, brain and nerve disorders, dermal lesions, reproductive and endocrine system defects, and damage to the lungs, liver, kidneys, and other vital organs [11,16,17,18,19]. Several studies have monitored PTEs in sediments along the Red Sea coast (e.g., [20,21]). These studies have identified significant enrichments of As, Cu, Cd, and Cr. However, no previous studies have addressed PTEs in the coastal sediments of Al Lith. Thus, the objectives of this study are to (i) measure the concentrations of Fe, As, Ni, V, Zn, Cr, Pb, and Cu in the sediments of Al Lith on the Red Sea coast, Saudi Arabia; (ii) compare these PTE levels to those in coastal sediments worldwide and across various environmental contexts; and (iii) assess the potential ecological health risks associated with these PTEs in the sampled sediments.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area and PTE Analysis

Al Lith City is located 180–200 km south of Jeddah along the Red Sea coast. Geologically, the eastern part of the Al Lith area is covered by the basement rocks of the Arabian Shield, running parallel to the Red Sea [22,23]. The composition of the basement rocks in this region includes various types of igneous rocks (granites, granodiorites, tonalities, diorites, and gabbros) and metamorphic rocks (schists and amphibolites). The geochemistry of the basement rocks in the Al Lith area typically reflects a subduction-related magmatic arc environment. The granitoids are largely calc-alkaline in nature, indicating their formation in an arc setting [24,25]. The western part consists of a coastal plain covered by Quaternary sand, gravel, and silt deposits. The beach sediments comprise fine to very coarse sands mixed with shallow marine biogenic materials, such as corals, mollusks, echinoids, and seagrass, transported by waves and currents [26,27]. The grain size analysis of the studied coastline sediments showed a dominance of fine to very coarse sands (87.92%), along with mud (9.05%) and gravels (3.03%).
Twenty-five sediment samples were collected in February 2024 from the top 10 cm of the intertidal zone along the Al Lith shoreline using a stainless steel grab sampler to avoid contamination (Figure 1). Sample coordinates were recorded using a GPS device and stored in plastic bags at 4 °C to prevent degradation until analysis. All samples were dried at 100 °C. Dried samples were homogenized by grinding using a non-metallic mortar and pestle to ensure uniform particle size, often sieved to 63 µm to eliminate larger debris and obtain fine-grained sediments. Fe, As, Ni, V, Zn, Cr, Pb, and Cu were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES), using the Thermo Fisher iCAP 6500 and the PerkinElmer Optima series at the ALS Geochemistry Lab in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. These PTEs were chosen due to their ecological relevance, toxicity, sources, behavior in sediments, and ease of analysis. A 0.50 g portion of the 63 µm fraction was digested with aqua regia (a mixture of one part nitric acid and three parts hydrochloric acid) for 45 min on a hot plate with sand, at temperatures ranging from 60 to 120 °C until the complete breakdown of mineral matrices and the release of metals [5]. The digested sample is then filtered, diluted with deionized water to 50 mL, and prepared for ICP-AES analysis.
ICP-AES was used for multi-element analysis. The sample solution is aspirated into an argon plasma torch that is maintained at temperatures above 6000 °C. Elements are atomized and ionized, and they emit light at characteristic wavelengths. The intensity of emitted light is proportional to the concentration of the element in the sample. The ICP-AES is calibrated using certified multi-element standards of known concentrations prepared in a similar acid matrix as the sediment samples. The concentration range of standards is chosen to bracket the expected concentrations in the samples. Certified Reference Materials (CRMs) of known composition, matrix-matched to sediments, are run along with samples to validate the accuracy of the method. Key suppliers for ALS-certified laboratories worldwide include reputable CRM producers such as National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and Sigma-Aldrich. Duplicate samples or sample splits are analyzed to ensure precision and reproducibility. Validation parameters help ensure the reliability and accuracy of the ICP-AES analysis [28,29]. Table S1 presents these assessed parameters.

2.2. Assessment of the PTEs

Various single and integrated contamination indices were employed in this study to evaluate the contamination levels and ecological risks of PTEs. These indices include the enrichment factor (EF), geoaccumulation index (Igeo), contamination factor (CF), potential ecological risk index (RI), and pollution load index (PLI). Equations (1)–(6) and Table S2 describe the calculation procedures and classification of these contamination indices, respectively [30,31,32,33].
EF = (C/X)sample/(C/X)background
Igeo = Log2(C/(1.5 × Bn))
CF = C/X
PLI = (CF1 × CF2 × CF3 × CF4 … × CFn)1/n
Eri = Tri × CFi
RI = Ʃ (Tri × CFi)
where C is the concentration of the analyzed PTEs. X is the concentration of a normalizer element (Fe). Bn is the geochemical background concentration of the PTEs (n) in shale. The shale refers to a standard reference material commonly used in environmental geochemistry. Specifically, it is a sedimentary rock known for its relatively stable and well-documented geochemical properties, making it a good baseline for comparison [33]. The value 1.5 is introduced to minimize the effects of possible variations in the background values. Eri is the potential ecological risk factor of an individual PTE. Tri is the biological toxic response factor of an individual PTE (Zn = 1, Cr = 2, Ni = 6, Cu = Pb = Ni = 5, As = 10) [30,32]. Cfi is the contamination factor for each single element.
To evaluate health risks for both adults and children through ingestion and dermal contact, various indices were utilized. These indices include chronic daily intake (CDI), hazard quotients (HQs), hazard index (HI), cancer risk (CR), and total lifetime cancer risk (LCR). Formulas (7)–(12) and Table S2 describe the calculation methods for these indices. Table 1 presents the exposure factors used to estimate CDI for non-carcinogenic risk [34,35,36,37,38].
CDIing = (Csediment × IngR × EFh × ED)/(BW × AT) × CFh
CDIderm = (Csediment × SA × AFsediment × ABS × EFh × ED)/(BW × AT) × CFh
HQ = CDI/RfD
HI = ΣHQ = HQing + HQderm
CR = CDI × CSF
LCR = ΣCR = CRing + CRderm
CDIing and CDIderm are the chronic daily intake through ingestion and dermal contacts, respectively. The reference dose (RfD) represents an estimate of the daily exposure of HMs that does not have a harmful effect on human health during a lifetime [37]. The absence of an RfDderm value for Fe in Table S3 may be due to inconsistencies among published data or a lack of reliable traceability to the original study for the reference value. Additionally, the impact of Pb on humans through dermal contact remains uncertain; therefore, values of the cancer slope factor (CSF) for dermal contact with Pb are rarely referenced [37].

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Concentration and Ecological Assessment of PTEs

The average concentrations of the investigated PTEs in the 25 surface sediment samples (dry weight) were as follows: Fe (14,259 μg/g), V (28.30 μg/g), Zn (22.74 μg/g), Cr (16.81 μg/g), Cu (12.41 μg/g), Ni (10.63 μg/g), As (2.66 μg/g), and Pb (2.46 μg/g). Table S4 presents the PTE concentrations across the study area, indicating that the highest levels were found in sample S21 (for Fe, As, Ni, V, Zn, Cr, Pb, and Cu), while the lowest levels were in sample S8 (for the same elements). Overall, the PTE concentrations varied throughout the study area without a clear pattern. However, Figure 2 shows a significant increase in the PTE levels in samples 16–21, collected at the mouth of Wadi Al-Lith. This suggests that the coastal sediments and associated PTEs might have originated from the igneous and metamorphic rocks of the Arabian Shield.
The average Fe content was higher than those listed in Table 2, except for the background references and that from SW Peloponnese, Greece [33,39,40]. The average value of the Cr concentration exceeded those reported for the Ras Abu Ali, Aqeer, and Al-Jubail-Al-Khafji coastlines along the Arabian Gulf [5,41,42]. Furthermore, the average value of As was greater than those from Al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia [43], and the continental crust [39]. On the other hand, the average values of the Zn and Cu content were generally lower than the reported values found in the background references and along the coastal sediments of the Arabia Gulf, Red Sea, Gulf of Aqaba, and South Yellow Sea [20,33,39,43,44,45,46]. The average concentration of Pb and Cr showed decreased values than those reported from the Mediterranean Shoreline from Baltim to El-Burullus (Egypt), the Coastal Zone of Yantai, China, Dingzi Bay, South Yellow Sea, and the Gialova Lagoon, SW Peloponnese, Greece [40,46,47,48]. Additionally, the average values of V and Ni in the study area were lower than those from the background references [33,39], Al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia [43], Baltim to El-Burullus, Egypt [47], and SW Peloponnese, Greece [40]. All the average levels were below the effect range—low (ERL), indicating that the Al-Lith coastal sediments do not pose a risk to benthic communities due to these PTEs [49].
The enrichment factor (EF) is a valuable tool for determining the origin of heavy metals [39]. The average EF values for the PTEs in descending order are As (1.12) > Zn (0.75) > V (0.70) > Cr (0.69) > Cu (0.69) > Pb (0.67) > Ni (0.46). This suggests that the Al-Lith coastal sediments exhibit a deficiency of to minimal enrichment with PTEs (Table 3). However, the moderate enrichment of As was observed in samples S1 and S9 (8% of the studied samples) [50]. The contamination factor (CF) results indicated low contamination for all PTEs, with average CF values less than 1. The pollution load index (PLI), used to assess contamination at specific sediment sites [51], ranged from 0.06 to 0.68, with an average of 0.21, indicating unpolluted sediment [5]. The average Igeo for the investigated PTEs suggested that the Al Lith coastal sediments were uncontaminated with these PTEs. However, some individual samples were unpolluted to moderately contaminated with Zn, Cu, and Ni (0 < Igeo < 1). The risk index (RI), which helps researchers understand and control heavy metal pollution at a site [40], ranged from 1.61 to 25.80, with an average of 6.84, suggesting a low risk from heavy metals in these sediments (Table S3).
A significant positive correlation was found between Zn and As, Zn and Cr, Zn and Cu, Zn and Fe, Zn and Ni, Zn and Pb, and Zn and V (Table 4), indicating a common source for these elements [9]. Iron also showed strong positive correlations with other elements, suggesting natural sources, primarily from the chemical weathering of the basement rocks in the nearby Arabian Shield mountains located to the east of the study area [5,52]. In contrast, there was a weak correlation between As and Pb, indicating a different source of Pb in the investigated sediments. A principal component analysis (PCA) identified two principal components (PCs) that largely supported the correlation matrix (Table 5). PC1 had high loadings for As, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb, V, and Zn, while PC2 had high loadings for Pb. Samples S16 to S21, located at the mouth of Wadi Al-Lith, showed high concentrations of Cr, Ni, As, V, Cu, Pb, Zn, and Fe. This suggests that the coastal sediments and associated PTEs originated from the igneous and metamorphic rocks of the Arabian Shield, which were weathered by rainwater and subsequently eroded and transported through Wadi Al-Lith. The lower EF values for these PTEs confirm their geogenic origin [53].
The mineral composition of sands in Al Lith’s coastal sediments is shaped by a combination of terrigenous and biogenic inputs, with substantial contributions from the surrounding Arabian Shield geology and marine life in the Red Sea. Studies have identified that the Al Lith’s coastal sands are composed of quartz, carbonates (calcite and aragonite), feldspar, evaporites (gypsum and lalite), muscovite, and biotite [54,55]. However, the basement rocks of the Arabian Shield in Saudi Arabia are rich in various metallic minerals, including PTEs. These include sphalerite (ZnS) found in hydrothermal vein systems, vanadiferous magnetite (Fe,V)3O4 associated with mafic to ultramafic rocks, chromite (FeCr2O4) within peridotite units, and chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) linked to volcanic rocks and intrusive bodies. Additionally, pentlandite ((Fe,Ni)9S8) occurs in mafic–ultramafic complexes, arsenopyrite (FeAsS) is found with sulfide mineralization in hydrothermal systems, galena (PbS) is associated with hydrothermal veins, and both magnetite (Fe3O4) and hematite (Fe2O3) are found in volcanic and sedimentary rocks [24,56].

3.2. Health Risk Assessment

Various essential PTEs, such as Cr, Fe, Zn, and Ni, play crucial roles in nutrition at trace levels. However, excessive exposure to these PTEs can lead to severe health issues in humans [11,41,57]. In the investigated area, the average chronic daily intake (CDI) values (mg/kg/day) for non-carcinogenic risk in adults ranged from 3.37392 × 10−6 (Pb) to 0.01953 (Fe) through ingestion and from 1.34619 × 10−8 (Pb) to 1.54661 × 10−7 (V) through dermal pathways (Table 6). In children, the average CDI values varied from 3.14899 × 10−5 (Pb) to 0.182310164 (Fe) through ingestion and from 6.28224 × 10−8 (Pb) to 3.16474 × 10−7 (Cu) through dermal pathways. These findings indicate that children are at a heightened risk of non-carcinogenic exposure compared to adults.
The average hazard index (HI) values for the PTEs in both adults and children, in descending order, were Fe, As, Cr, V, Pb, Cu, Ni, and Zn (Table 6). The distribution of the HI values across the sample locations revealed that the highest HI values for Cr, Pb, V, Cu, Zn, As, and Fe were found in sample S21, while the highest value of Ni was reported in S24 (Table S5). However, the same higher values of As were obtained in S1, S10, and S16. This trend is likely due to elevated levels of PTEs in these specific samples. In adults, the HI values ranged from 0.00010 (Zn) to 0.0279 (Fe), while in children, they ranged from 0.00097 (Zn) to 0.260 (Fe), indicating that children have a higher hazard index compared to adults for non-carcinogenic risk. Despite this, all the HI values for the PTEs were below 1.0, suggesting no significant non-carcinogenic risk for residents along the Al-Lith coastline [58,59]. However, it is important to note that the HI value for iron exceeded 0.2 in children, highlighting the need to protect their health.
The accumulation of PTEs such as As, Cr, and Pb in the human body can result in serious health complications, including an increased risk of lung, stomach, and skin cancers, as well as potential effects on the nervous system [15,59]. Carcinogenic risks (CRs) associated with Cr, Pb, and As were evaluated in the examined samples (Table 7, Table S6). In adults, the average CR values ranged from 2.87 × 10−8 (Pb) to 1.15 × 10−5 (Cr) through ingestion and from 2.18 × 10−8 (As) to 4.60 × 10−8 (Cr) through dermal exposure. In children, the average CR values ranged from 2.68 × 10−7 (Pb) to 0.000107 (Cr) through ingestion and from 5.11 × 10−5 (As) to 2.14 × 10−7 (Cr) through dermal exposure. The lifetime cancer risk (LCR) values for adults varied from 2.87 × 10−8 (Pb) to 1.16 × 10−5 (Cr), while for children, they ranged from 2.68 × 10−7 (Pb) to 1.08 × 10−4 (Cr).
The distribution of the lifetime cancer risk (LCR) values across the sample locations revealed hot spots in S1, S10, S16, and S21 for As; S2, S7, and S16-S21 for Cr; and S21 for Pb (Table S6 and Figure 3). All the LCR values for Pb, As, and Cr in both adults and children were within acceptable or tolerable carcinogenic risk levels, posing no significant health threats (ranging from 1 × 10−5 to less than 1 × 10−6). However, six samples (S2 and S16–S21) showed LCR values exceeding 1 × 10−4 for Cr in children, indicating potential carcinogenic risks [15,60]. These elevated values were mainly found in the samples collected at the mouth of Wadi Al-Lith and were associated with higher levels of PTEs, suggesting an origin from the basement rocks of the Arabian Shield.

4. Conclusions

This study examined the presence of PTEs in the surface sediment of the Al Lith region along the Saudi Red Sea coast. The findings indicated that the coastal sediments exhibited low to minimal enrichment of PTEs. However, the samples from the mouth of Wadi Al-Lith showed higher concentrations of several PTEs, suggesting a natural source from the Arabian Shield. All hazard index (HI) values for the PTEs were below 1.0, indicating no significant non-carcinogenic risk. The lifetime cancer risk (LCR) values for Pb, As, and Cr in both adults and children were within acceptable or tolerable levels, posing no significant health threats. Nonetheless, six samples showed LCR values exceeding 1 × 10−4 for Cr in children, indicating potential risks.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/min14111150/s1: Table S1. Parameters utilized in calculation of contamination indices in this work; Table S2. Classification of the contamination indices; Table S3. Exposure factors used in estimation of chronic daily intake (CDI) for non-carcinogenic risk; Table S4. The reference dose (RfD) and the cancer slope factors (CSF) for PTEs; Table S5. Concentration of PTEs (dw, μg/g) and values of the PLI and RI in Al Lith coastal sediment; Table S6. The HI for non-carcinogenic risk of PTEs in adults and children; Table S7. Total lifetime cancer risk (LCR) for As, Cr, and Pb in adults and children.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, T.A. and A.S.E.-S.; methodology, T.A., K.A.-K. and A.S.E.-S.; software, T.A.; writing—original draft preparation, T.A., K.A.-K., S.S.S.A. and A.S.E.-S.; writing—review and editing, T.A., K.A.-K., S.S.S.A. and A.S.E.-S.; supervision, T.A.; project administration, T.A.; funding acquisition, T.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

Researchers Supporting Project number (RSPD2024R791), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Data Availability Statement

The data are contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

The authors extend their appreciation to Researchers Supporting Project number (RSPD2024R791), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Moreover, the authors thank the anonymous reviewers for their valuable suggestions and constructive comments.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Wang, C.; Zou, X.; Feng, Z.; Hao, Z.; Gao, J. Distribution and transport of heavy metals in estuarine–inner shelf regions of the East China Sea. Sci. Total. Environ. 2018, 644, 298–305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Wang, J.; Zheng, Y.; Li, Y.; Wang, Y. Potential risks, source apportionment, and health risk assessment of dissolved heavy metals in Zhoushan fishing ground, China. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2023, 189, 114751. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Er-Ramy, N.; Nachite, D.; Anfuso, G.; Williams, A.T. Coastal Scenic Quality Assessment of Moroccan Mediterranean Beaches: A Tool for Proper Management. Water 2022, 14, 1837. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Chakraborty, P.; Raghunadh, B.P.V.; Acharyya, T.; Bandyopadhyay, D. Stress and toxicity of biologically important transition metals (Co, Ni, Cu and Zn) on phytoplankton in a tropical freshwater system: An investigation with pigment analysis by HPLC. Chemosphere 2010, 80, 548–553. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Alzahrani, H.; El-Sorogy, A.S.; Qaysi, S. Assessment of human health risks of toxic elements in the coastal area between Al-Khafji and Al-Jubail, Saudi Arabia. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2023, 196, 115622. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Pásková, M.; Štekerová, K.; Zanker, M.; Lasisi, T.T.; Zelenka, J. Water pollution generated by tourism: Review of system dynamics models. Heliyon 2024, 10, e23824. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Azdem, D.; Mabrouki, J.; Moufti, A.; El Hajjaji, S.; Fatni, A. Assessment of heavy metal contamination in seawater in Agadir coastline, Morocco. Desalin. Water Treat. 2024, 317, 100129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. El-Sorogy, A.S.; Youssef, M.; Al-Kahtany, K. Integrated assessment of the Tarut Island coast, Arabian Gulf, Saudi Arabia. Environ. Earth Sci. 2016, 75, 1336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Alzahrani, H.; El-Sorogy, A.S.; Qaysi, S.; Alshehri, F. Contamination and risk assessment of potentially toxic elements in coastal sediments of the area between Al-Jubail and Al-Khafji, Arabian Gulf, Saudi Arabia. Water 2023, 15, 573. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Wang, W.X. Interactions of trace metals and different marine food chains. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2002, 243, 295–309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Hader, D.-P.; Helbling, E.W.; Villafañe, V.E. Anthropogenic Pollution of Aquatic Ecosystems; Springer Nature: Cham, Switzerland, 2021; 426p. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Naveedullah Hashmi, M.Z.; Yu, C.; Shen, H.; Duan, D.; Shen, C.; Lou, L.; Chen, Y. Concentrations and Human Health Risk Assessment of Selected Heavy Metals in Surface Water of the Siling Reservoir Watershed in Zhejiang Province. China Pol. J. Environ. Stud. 2014, 23, 801–811. [Google Scholar]
  13. Nazzal, Y.; Orm, N.B.; Barbulescu, A.; Howari, F.; Sharma, M.; Badawi, A.E.; Al-Taani, A.; Iqbal, J.; El Ktaibi, F.; Xavier, C.M.; et al. Study of atmospheric pollution and health risk assessment: A case study for the Sharjah and Ajman Emirates (UAE). Atmosphere 2021, 12, 1442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Pan, L.; Wang, Y.; Ma, J.; Hu, Y.; Su, B.; Fang, G.; Wang, L.; Xiang, B. A review of heavy metal pollution levels and health risk assessment of urban soils in Chinese cities. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2018, 25, 1055–1069. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. Rahman, M.S.; Kumar, P.; Ullah, M.; Jolly, Y.N.; Akhter, S.; Kabir, J.; Begum, B.A.; Salam, A. Elemental analysis in surface soil and dust of roadside academic institutions in Dhaka city, Bangladesh and their impact on human health. Environ. Chem. Ecotoxicol. 2021, 3, 197–208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Shafiq, H.B.; Ajaz, M.; Rasool, S.A. Bacterial and toxic pollutants in lakes of River Indus. Pak. J. Bot. 2011, 43, 1765–1772. [Google Scholar]
  17. Järup, L. Hazards of heavy metal contamination. Br. Med. Bull. 2003, 68, 167–182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  18. Jaishankar, M.; Tseten, T.; Anbalagan, N.; Mathew, B.B.; Beeregowda, K.N. Toxicity, mechanism and health effects of some heavy metals. Interdiscip. Toxicol. 2014, 7, 60–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Mondal, P.; Lofrano, G.; Carotenuto, M.; Guida, M.; Trifuoggi, M.; Libralato, G.; Sarkar, S.K. Health risk and geochemical assessment of trace elements in surface sediment along the Hooghly (Ganges) River estuary (India). Water 2021, 13, 110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. El-Sorogy, A.; Youssef, M.; Al-Kahtany, K. Evaluation of coastal sediments for heavy metal contamination, Yanbu area, Red Sea coast, Saudi Arabia. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2021, 163, 111966. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Kahal, A.; El-Sorogy, A.S.; Alfaifi, H.; Almadani, S.; Ghrefat, H.A. Spatial distribution and ecological risk assessment of the coastal surface sediments from the Red Sea, northwest Saudi Arabia. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2018, 137, 198–208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Shanti, G. Geology of the Arabian Shield; Ministry of Agriculture and Water, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: 1993.
  23. Hussein, M.T.; Lashin, A.; Al Bassam, A.; Al Arifi, N.; Al Zahrani, I. Geothermal power potential at the western coastal part of Saudi Arabia. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2013, 26, 668–684. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Stoeser, D.B.; Camp, V.E. Pan-African microplate accretion of the Arabian Shield. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 1985, 96, 817–826. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Al-Saleh, A.M.; Al-Qahtani, Y. Geological and geochemical evolution of the Neoproterozoic basement rocks along the Red Sea, Saudi Arabia. Precambrian Res. 2014, 255, 191–209. [Google Scholar]
  26. Nabhan, N.; Widinly, N.; Memesh, A.; Khorsheed, M.; El-Sorogy, A.S.; Tawfik, M. Sedimentological and geomorphological characteristics of Jabal Kudumbul Island, Southeast Red Sea, Saudi Arabia. J. Coast. Res. 2023, 39, 1114–1123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. El-Sorogy, A.S. Contributions to the Pleistocene coral reefs of the Red Sea coast, Egypt. Arab. Gulf J. Sci. Res. 2008, 26, 63–85. [Google Scholar]
  28. Thompson, M.; Ellison, S.L.R.; Wood, R. The International Harmonized Protocol for the Proficiency Testing of Analytical Chemistry Laboratories. Pure Appl. Chem. 2011, 78, 145–196. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Gao, X.; Chen, C. Heavy Metal Pollution Status in Surface Sediments of the Coastal Bohai Bay. Water Res. 2012, 46, 1901–1911. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Hakanson, L. An ecological risk index for aquatic pollution control. A sedimentological approach. Water Res. 1980, 14, 975–1001. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Youssef, M.; Al Otaibi, S.; El-Sorogy, A.S. Distribution, Source, and Contamination of Heavy Metals in Coastal Sediments of Jeddah, Red Sea, Saudi Arabia. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2024, 113, 12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Weissmannová, H.D.; Pavlovský, J. Indices of soil contamination by heavy metals—Methodology of calculation for pollution assessment (minireview). Environ. Monit. Assess. 2017, 189, 616. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Turekian, K.; Wedepohl, K. Distribution of the elements in some major units of the Earth’s crust. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 1961, 72, 175–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. USEPA. Supplemental Guidance for Developing Soil Screening Levels for Superfund Sites; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Emergency and Remedial Response: Washington, DC, USA, 2002.
  35. IRIS. Program Database. 2020. Available online: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris/search/index.cfm (accessed on 18 September 2020).
  36. Chen, H.; Wang, L.; Hu, B.; Xu, J.; Liu, X. Potential driving forces and probabilistic health risks of heavy metal accumulation in the soils from an e-waste area, southeast China. Chemosphere 2022, 289, 133182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  37. Miletic, A.; Lucic, M.; Onjia, A. Exposure factors in health risk assessment of heavy metal(loid)s in soil and sediment. Metals 2023, 13, 1266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. USEPA. Regional Screening Levels (RSLs)—User’s Guide. 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/risk/regional-screening-levels-rsls-users-guide (accessed on 12 November 2024).
  39. Taylor, S.R. Abundance of chemical elements in the continental crust: A new table. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1964, 28, 1273–1285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Papakonstantinou, M.; Sergiou, S.; Geraga, M.; Prandekou, A.; Dimas, X.; Fakiris, E.; Christodoulou, D.; Papatheodorou, G. Sedimentological, Geochemical, and Environmental Assessment in an Eastern Mediterranean, Stressed Coastal Setting: The Gialova Lagoon, SW Peloponnese, Greece. Water 2024, 16, 2312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Al-Kahtany, K.; El-Sorogy, A.S. Contamination and health risk assessment of surface sediments along Ras Abu Ali Island, Saudi Arabia. J. King Saud Univ.-Sci. 2023, 35, 102509. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Al-Hashim, M.; El-Sorogy, A.; Al Qaisi, S.; Alharbi, T. Contamination and ecological risk of heavy metals in Al-Uqair coastal sediments, Saudi Arabia. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2021, 171, 112748. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Alharbi, T.; El-Sorogy, A.S. Assessment of metal contamination in coastal sediments of Al-Khobar area, Arabian Gulf, Saudi Arabia. J. Afr. Earth Sci. 2017, 129, 458–468. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. El-Sorogy, A.S.; Youssef, M.; Al-Kahtany, K.; Saleh, M.M. Distribution, source, contamination, and ecological risk status of heavy metals in the Red Sea-Gulf of Aqaba coastal sediments, Saudi Arabia. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2020, 158, 111411. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Kahal, A.; El-Sorogy, A.S.; Qaysi, S.; Almadani, S.; Kassem, O.M.; Al-Dossari, A. Contamination and ecological risk assessment of the Red Sea coastal sediments, southwest Saudi Arabia. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2020, 154, 111125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Gu, X.; Liu, Y.; Yang, S.; Sun, J.; Wang, Q.; Wang, H.; Chen, Y.; Wang, W. Characteristics and Sources of Heavy Metals Pollution in Surface Sediments: An Integrated Land–Sea Comparative Analysis in Dingzi Bay, South Yellow Sea. Water 2024, 16, 1692. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Seif, R.A.; Ene, A.; Zakaly, H.M.H.; Sallam, A.M.; Taalab, S.A.; Fnais, M.S.; Saadawi, D.A.; Amer, S.A.; Awad, H.A. Distribution of Heavy Metals along the Mediterranean Shoreline from Baltim to El-Burullus (Egypt): Consequences for Possible Contamination. Minerals 2024, 14, 931. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Li, M.; Bao, K.; Wang, H.; Dai, Y.; Wu, S.; Yan, K.; Liu, S.; Yuan, Q.; Lu, J. Distribution and Ecological Risk Assessment of Nutrients and Heavy Metals in the Coastal Zone of Yantai, China. Water 2024, 16, 760. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Long, E.; MacDonald, D.; Smith, S.; Calder, F. Incidence of adverse biological effects within ranges of chemical concentrations in marine and estuarine sediments. Environ. Manag. 1995, 19, 81–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Kowalska, J.B.; Mazurek, R.; Gąsiorek, M.; Zaleski, T. Pollution indices as useful tools for the comprehensive evaluation of the degree of soil contamination–A review. Environ. Geochem. Health 2018, 40, 2395–2420. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Liu, W.; Zhao, J.; Ouyang, Z.; Söderlund, L.; Liu, G. Impacts of sewage irrigation on heavy metal distribution and contamination in Beijing, China. Environ. Int. 2005, 31, 805–812. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  52. Ahmad, W.; Zubair, M.; Ahmed, M.; Ahmad, M.; Latif, S.; Hameed, A.; Kanwal, Q.; Iqbal, D.N. Assessment of potentially toxic metal(loid)s contamination in soil near the industrial landfill and impact on human health: An evaluation of risk. Environ. Geochem. Health 2023, 45, 4353–4369. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Khan, I.; Choudhary, B.C.; Izhar, S.; Kumar, D.; Satyanarayanan, M.; Rajput, V.D.; Khan, S. Exploring geochemical distribution of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in wetland and agricultural soils and associated health risks. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2023, 31, 17964–17980. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Al-Ghamdi, A.A.; Bantan, R.A.; Ashkenani, F.R. Sedimentology and mineral composition of coastal sands from the Red Sea, Saudi Arabia. Arab. J. Geosci. 2014, 7, 361–373. [Google Scholar]
  55. Nasir, S.; Al-Kathiri, A.; Al-Hinai, K. Coral reef and carbonate sedimentation dynamics in the Red Sea. J. Coast. Res. 2020, 95, 432–442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Johnson, P.R.; Andresen, A.; Collins, A.S.; Fowler, A.R.; Fritz, H.; Ghebreab, W.; Kusky, T.; Stern, R. Late Cryogenian-Ediacaran history of the Arabian Shield: A review of lithostratigraphy, tectonics, and mineralization. J. Afr. Earth Sci. 2011, 61, 167–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Khaleeq, A.; Ahmed, M.; Huma, R.; Mujtaba, A.; Noor, S.; Rehman, R.; Sheikh, T.A.; Qamar, S.; Iqbal, D.N.; Alharthy, R.D.; et al. Evaluation of trace and heavy metals in different varieties of sauces to characterize their impact on human health. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2022, 114, 104789. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Tian, S.; Wang, S.; Bai, X.; Zhou, D.; Luo, G.; Yang, Y.; Hu, Z.; Li, C.; Deng, Y.; Lu, Q. Ecological security and health risk assessment of soil heavy metals on a village-level scale, based on different land use types. Environ. Geochem. Health 2020, 42, 3393–3413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  59. IARC. Some Industrial Chemical; IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans; International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC): Lyon, France, 1994; Volume 60, pp. 389–433. [Google Scholar]
  60. El-Sorogy, A.S.; Tawfik, M.; Almadani, S.; Zumlot, T. Evaluation of sediment quality for heavy metal(loid)s contamination and health risk assessment in the Gulf of Suez, Egypt. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2024, 203, 116496. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Minerals 14 01150 g001
Figure 1. Sampling sites along Al Lith coastline (Source: Esri, Maxar, Earthstar Geographics).
Figure 1. Sampling sites along Al Lith coastline (Source: Esri, Maxar, Earthstar Geographics).
Minerals 14 01150 g001
Minerals 14 01150 g002
Figure 2. Distribution of PTEs in Al Lith coastal sediments.
Figure 2. Distribution of PTEs in Al Lith coastal sediments.
Minerals 14 01150 g002
Minerals 14 01150 g003
Figure 3. Spatial distribution of LCR for As, Cr, and Pb per sample location in the study area.
Figure 3. Spatial distribution of LCR for As, Cr, and Pb per sample location in the study area.
Minerals 14 01150 g003
Table 1. Exposure factors used in estimation of chronic daily intake (CDI) for non-carcinogenic risk.
Table 1. Exposure factors used in estimation of chronic daily intake (CDI) for non-carcinogenic risk.
ParameterUnitsAdultsChildren
Ingestion rate (IngR)mg/day100200
Exposure frequency (EFh)days/year350350
Exposure duration (ED)year246
Body weight (BW) kg7015
Average time for non-carcinogenic risk (ATnc)days87602190
Average time for carcinogenic risk (ATc)days25,55025,550
Skin surface area (SA)cm257002800
Adherence factor (AF)mg/cm0.070.2
Dermal absorption factor (ABS)-0.0010.001
Conversion factor (CFh) kg/mg10−610−6
Concentration of heavy metal(loid)s (C)mg/kg--
Table 2. Comparison of PTEs (μg/g) in the study area with other coastal sediments, background references, and sediment quality guidelines.
Table 2. Comparison of PTEs (μg/g) in the study area with other coastal sediments, background references, and sediment quality guidelines.
ReferencesVFeAsZnCuPbNiCr
Present study28.3014,2592.6622.7412.412.4610.6316.81
[5]7.2251972.386.182.442.5711.768.68
[20]-58956.8380.435.877.7223.527.11
[33]13047,200139545206890
[39]13556,3001.8705512.575100
[40]6.67480814.996.894.143.5013.007.86
[41]-809214.997.6211.273.880.573.67
[42]26875521.6152.71835.47551.03
[43]-337413324306.601439
[44]-2432-28.531.62.32032.9
[45]98.00--15.6021.2079.2745.13177.33
[46]--4.2421.734.424.46-20.82
[47] 9.0943.9419.8823.2424.4850.54
[48]69.1832,0008.4064.503.2035.46103.20122.50
[49]ERL--8.21503446.720.981
ERM--7041027021851.6370
ERL, effect range—low; ERM, effect range—medium.
Table 3. Minimum, maximum, and average values of EF and CF in Al Lith coastal sediment.
Table 3. Minimum, maximum, and average values of EF and CF in Al Lith coastal sediment.
PTEsIndicesMin.Max.Aver.
PbEF0.0951.9670.671
Igeo−2.708−0.629−1.988
CF0.0500.4000.123
ZnEF0.1701.4910.753
Igeo−2.8800.378−1.658
CF0.0421.0950.239
CrEF0.4481.3110.688
Igeo−2.826−0.152−1.717
CF0.0440.6440.187
NiEF0.2170.8680.458
Igeo−3.2390.057−2.128
CF0.0290.7940.156
CuEF0.1791.5720.685
Igeo−6.0770.113−3.574
CF0.0221.6220.276
FeIgeo−5.468−0.540−2.885
CF0.0341.0320.302
AsEF0.2453.3011.123
Igeo−4.285−1.963−3.052
CF0.0770.3850.205
VEF0.2171.1110.701
Igeo−5.607−1.084−3.461
CF0.0310.7080.218
Table 4. The correlation matrix of the analyzed PTEs.
Table 4. The correlation matrix of the analyzed PTEs.
AsCrCuFeNiPbVZn
As1
Cr0.638 **1
Cu0.563 **0.936 **1
Fe0.625 **0.988 **0.927 **1
Ni0.621 **0.956 **0.993 **0.942 **1
Pb0.3400.627 **0.761 **0.590 **0.760 **1
V0.624 **0.973 **0.860 **0.956 **0.888 **0.545 **1
Zn0.620 **0.955 **0.988 **0.944 **0.992 **0.753 **0.904 **1
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 5. Principal components for the investigated PTEs.
Table 5. Principal components for the investigated PTEs.
PC1PC2
As0.666−0.182
Cr0.981−0.064
Cu0.9750.145
Fe0.974−0.129
Ni0.9880.118
Pb0.7100.597
V0.935−0.151
Zn0.9880.103
% of variance80.599.66
Cumulative %80.5990.25
Table 6. The average CDI, HQ, and HI values for non-carcinogenic risk in adults and children.
Table 6. The average CDI, HQ, and HI values for non-carcinogenic risk in adults and children.
PTEs CDIIng CDIDerm HQIng HQDerm HI
Adults
As3.65 × 10−61.46 × 10−80.01224.85 × 10−50.0122
Cr2.30 × 10−59.19 × 10−80.00773.06 × 10−50.0077
V3.88 × 10−51.55 × 10−70.00431.72 × 10−50.0043
Ni4.008 × 10−61.60 × 10−80.000197.99 × 10−70.00019
Zn3.12 × 10−51.24 × 10−70.000104.14 × 10−70.00010
Pb3.37 × 10−61.35 × 10−80.000963.85 × 10−60.00097
Cu1.70 × 10−56.78 × 10−80.000461.72 × 10−50.00048
Fe0.020-0.0279-0.0279
CDIIngCDIDermHQIngHQDermHI
Children
As3.40 × 10−56.79 × 10−80.1130.000230.114
Cr0.000214.29 × 10−70.0720.000140.072
V0.000367.22 × 10−70.0408.02 × 10−50.040
Ni3.74 × 10−57.46 × 10−80.00193.73 × 10−60.0019
Zn0.000295.80 × 10−70.000971.93 × 10−60.00097
Pb3.15 × 10−56.28 × 10−80.00901.79 × 10−50.0090
Cu0.000163.16 × 10−70.00438.02 × 10−50.0044
Fe0.182-0.260-0.260
Table 7. Average CRs and LCR values for heavy metal(loid)s in the study area.
Table 7. Average CRs and LCR values for heavy metal(loid)s in the study area.
PTEs Adults Children
CRIng CRDerm LCR CRIng CRDerm LCR
As5.47 × 10−62.18 × 10−85.49 × 10−65.11 × 10−51.02 × 10−75.12 × 10−5
Cr1.15 × 10−54.60 × 10−81.16 × 10−51.07 × 10−42.14 × 10−71.08 × 10−4
Pb2.87 × 10−8-2.87 × 10−82.68 × 10−7-2.68 × 10−7
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Alharbi, T.; El-Sorogy, A.S.; Al-Katany, K.; Alhejji, S.S.S. Ecological Health Hazards and Multivariate Assessment of Contamination Sources of Potentially Toxic Elements from Al-Lith Coastal Sediments, Saudi Arabia. Minerals 2024, 14, 1150. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14111150

AMA Style

Alharbi T, El-Sorogy AS, Al-Katany K, Alhejji SSS. Ecological Health Hazards and Multivariate Assessment of Contamination Sources of Potentially Toxic Elements from Al-Lith Coastal Sediments, Saudi Arabia. Minerals. 2024; 14(11):1150. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14111150

Chicago/Turabian Style

Alharbi, Talal, Abdelbaset S. El-Sorogy, Khaled Al-Katany, and Suhail S. S. Alhejji. 2024. "Ecological Health Hazards and Multivariate Assessment of Contamination Sources of Potentially Toxic Elements from Al-Lith Coastal Sediments, Saudi Arabia" Minerals 14, no. 11: 1150. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14111150

APA Style

Alharbi, T., El-Sorogy, A. S., Al-Katany, K., & Alhejji, S. S. S. (2024). Ecological Health Hazards and Multivariate Assessment of Contamination Sources of Potentially Toxic Elements from Al-Lith Coastal Sediments, Saudi Arabia. Minerals, 14(11), 1150. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14111150

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop