Watts in the Desert: Pioneering Solar Farming in Australia's Outback

ibidem Press, Stuttgart

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations

Preface

Chapter 1—Introduction

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Structure

1.3 Summary

Chapter 2—The Problem

2.1 Introduction

2.2 The Triple Bottom Line

2.3 Global Warming and the Carbon Cycle

2.4 Australia’s Renewable Energy Target

2.5 The Impact of the RET on Energy Generators

Australia’s Renewable Energy (Electricity) Act

Australia’s Carbon Tax 2011–2014

2.6 Accounting for the RET

2.7 Summary

Chapter 3—The Solex Project

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Location and Climate

3.3 History of Lot 42 Boor Street Carnarvon

Description of the Land

Acquisition of the Land

Using the Land

3.4 Carnarvon’s Solar Energy Resource

3.5 Solar Farm Construction

Solar Farm Design

Financial Considerations

Stage 1—15.8-kW Solar Array

Stage 2—30.2-kW Solar PV Array Extension, 2007

Stage 3—5,kW Westwind Wind Generator, 2008

Stage 4—The Construction and Integration of an Ice-Works, 2009

Stage 5—Two 5-kW Wind Generators, 2010

Stage 6—The Construction of a Farmhouse, 2013

Stage 7—The Replacement of GE 110-W Solar Panels with Astronergy 270W Panels

Stage 8—The Replacement of the Wind Generators, 2015

Construction

Stage 1—15.8-kW Solar Array

Design Parameters and System Performance Considerations

Stage 2—30.2-kW Solar Array Extension

Design Parameters and System Performance Considerations

Other Design Parameters and Derating Factors

Stage 3—The Interogation of a 5-kW Westwind Wind Generator

Stage 4—The Construction and Integration of an ice-Works, 2009

Stage 5—The Integration of a further two 5-kW Wind Generators, 2010

Stage 6—The Construction of a Farmhouse, 2013

Stage 7—The Replacement of GE 110 W Solar Panels with ASTRONERGY 270W

Stage 8—The Removal of the Wind Generators, 2015

3.6 Summary

Chapter 4—Economic and Environmental outcomes

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Economic Considerations

Stage 1—15.8-kW Solar Array

Stage 2—30.2-kW Solar PV Array Extension, 2007

Stages 3 and 5: 5-kW Westwind Wind Generators, 2008 and 2010

Stage 4—The Construction and Integration of an ice-Works, 2009

Stage 6—The Construction of a Farmhouse, 2013

Stage 7—The Replacement of GE 110W Solar Panels with ASTRONERGY 270W Panels

Stage 8—The Replacement of the Wind Generators, 2015

4.3 Economic Viability

Electricity Generation

Ice Manufacture

4.4 Environmental Considerations

Atmospheric CO2 Reductions

Physical Environmental Impacts

4.5 Summary

Chapter 5—The Social Impact: The Fruitloops

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Political Background

5.3 Partnerships formed and Stakeholders engaged

5.4 Horizon Power

5.5 The Carnarvon Fruitloops

5.6 Recognition and Media Coverage

5.7 Influence Beyond the Fruitloops

5.8 Summary

Chapter 6—Review, Research Contribution, and Suggested Areas for further Research

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Review

6.3 Contribution to Renewable Energy System Development

6.4 research Limitations

6.5 Suggestions for Further Research

Desertification

Electric Vehicles

Electricity Grid Stabilization

Sustainable Architecture

6.6 Conclusion

Appendix A

Overview: Why a Solar Farm?

Corporate Structure

2 The Site

Production

Cost of Construction

Annual Production

Funding

Service of Loans

Cost of Operation

Licensing, Planning and Insurance

Insurance

Sudden and Catastrophic events

Ongoing technical and engineering support

Loss or damage

Metering

Solar Radiation

World Performance Solar Radiation Distribution Distribution chart available at .

Appendix B

Bibliography

Articles/Books/Reports

Case Law

Legislation

Other Sources

Acknowledgements

This book acknowledges the Gnulli people who are the traditional owners of the land known to them as Mungullah. The town of Carnarvon and the Solex project on Grey’s Plane are situated on Mungullah. We thank the Gnulli people for sharing this land with us.

A special thanks to my old friends Ron Crow and Bob Price who inspired the inception of this development.

Of course, to my wife Julie and my family, who made this possible and to my good friend John Craig who has acted as editor of this story—thank you.

To all of the Fruitloops, it is humbling to think that so many would think so much of a person who probably doesn’t really deserve it. In particular I thank the influence of Tony and Oscar Sala. Without all of you this story would never have existed and certainly never prospered.

The Board and staff of Horizon Power, Western Australia’s rural and remote energy utility, who were most supportive of the incorporation of renewable energy. At times conflict has arisen as to the role of the utility as a competitor in energy generation, but all that has resulted in active participation and full discussion of the difficulties faced by the changing face of energy technology. I believe that conflict has resulted in the outcome we have experienced. I thank those parties involved in these processes over the years. In particular Mr Brendon Hammond the Chairman of Horizon Power, and Mr Mike Laughton-Smith PSM for their personal dedication and time contributed to the rise of solar pv generation in rural and remote Western Australia.

To Jim and Wendy Andreoli for their valiant assistance in not only designing and constructing the Solex ice-works by also for their never failing support to keep it running efficiently and effectively.

A special thank you to the Rowe family of Caltex Starmart Carnarvon. Without their belief in the product, Solex solar ice would never have got to market. As with any new product there were teething problems are we refined bagging, sealing, curing and storage problems. Five years on we are masters at ‘the ice game’ but it was not always that way.

Finally acknowledgement is made to Genevieve Simpson who co-authored Chapter Five who incorporated her research into this book to provide social richness to its story.

Abbreviations

The Gascoyne Region Western Australia.

Preface

My story begins on the sailing ship Minden, anchored off the coast of Fremantle Western Australia, on the morning of October 14, 1851. Twelve-year-old John Fitzpatrick peered into the morning sun to see his new home in the burgeoning British Colony of Western Australia.[1] Thus began the story of the British Colonization of the Gascoyne Region of Western Australia and the part my ancestors played in it.

It is rather a long story and bears little relevance to the development of the Solex project, other than to provide context and background as to why I would launch into the hitherto little known world of harvesting solar energy using solar photovoltaic (pv) panels. The story of the Fitzpatricks’ arrival in Western Australia, and how they trekked to the Gascoyne region in 1883, can be found in the book Daurie Creek, which was written by my cousin Merton Fitzpatrick in 2004.

Another cousin Bonnie Milne has written a number of books on the history of the development of the Gascoyne region and the parts played by the Fitzpatrick and Collins families in that history.[2] I am a great-great grandson of that boy who peered over the rail of the barque Minden and went on to establish pastoral stations in the Upper Gascoyne region of Western Australia, over 160 years ago.

For over 100 years, my family have raised sheep in the Gascoyne. Initially, the Gascoyne region was a land of milk and honey for the British Colonists, who brought their flocks of sheep to graze the virgin pastures of land that had served the Aboriginals who had wandered over and lived off the land for thousands of years. The original inhabitants maintained a semi-nomadic lifestyle and worked in symbiosis with the land, on which they depended for survival.

The British, on the other hand, ignorant of the sensitive nature of the natural environment in this near desert, simply saw it as an opportunity to exploit the apparently bountiful herbage to grow their wool. The wool provided by their sheep was sent by ship to feed the woollen mills of Mother England. For nearly 100 years, the Glenburgh[3] wool rolled westward to the sea.[4]

However, by the 1960s, the sensitive desert scrub surrounding the town of Carnarvon had become a wind-blown, barren clay-pan. It was largely abandoned, desolate, and useless to man or beast, except for the horticultural industry that clung to the banks of the Gascoyne River.

The land on which the Solex project was to develop had gone unnoticed, and unwanted, until it came to the attention of a great-great grandson of the boy who had peered over the rail of the barque Minden nearly 130 years earlier. That is the beginning of this story.

I was born in Carnarvon in 1956 and raised there, except for a short period in Broome, in the early 1960s. Mother’s family were old pastoral station folk who loved a wongi,[5] usually over a very long cup of tea or better a beer or whisky (if there was any to hand). It was a very large family with links across the state and years. By the time I arrived on the Earth, most of the family members had moved out of the Bush to the City. However, whether they lived at Glenburgh, Carnarvon, or Mt Hawthorn (a suburb of Perth Western Australia), they were very much Bush people.

They all liked, or had liked, a cool shandy on a hot day.[6] There was a sprinkling of teetotallers,[7] but in fairness, generally, that was more to do with health or economic reasons rather than moral temperance. Long and short though, they loved yarning and poetry about the days of old and the heroes of the Bush. The tales were sometimes a little far-fetched but each of the tellers always swore that the tale that he told was true.[8]

From an early age, Father and I wandered the Bush around Carnarvon fishing and shooting. Our small family was not wealthy by any stretch of the imagination, but Mother and Father were very resilient and able to do quite a lot with very little. Mother was a devout Catholic, as were most of her family, and I was required to attend Mass regularly. Father considered the whole religious thing a confidence trick—he had little faith in the religious. It was under that parental influence that I grew up as an only child in Carnarvon.

As an only child, I was a little socially distant. To compound that isolation, most of the children in our neighborhood attended the State School while I went to St Mary’s Catholic School. My school friends were Catholic and chiefly recent immigrants from southern Europe or New Australians, as was the term in those days. The neighborhood chiefly comprised White Anglo-Saxon Protestants (WASPS). Both terms have fallen into archaic use and reflect a more pre-WWII era social culture that prevailed in Carnarvon in the early 1960s. I developed a very multi-cultural attitude to society and find myself comfortable across a broad range of social environments.

Of particular significance to this story are two brothers who came to Carnarvon in 1963. They lived nearby, had Italian migrant parents, and also attended St Mary’s. They were the sons of one of the scientists at the United States’ National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) space program at the Carnarvon Tracking Station, which was built in the early 1960s. We became lifelong friends and I was drawn into the excitement of the NASA space program.

To add to my unusual upbringing, at the ripe old age of 12, I began spending my school holidays Jackerooing[9] on friends’ sheep stations. On my 15th birthday, I commenced working as a bookmaker’s clerk at the Exmouth racecourse, for an elderly bookmaker whose clerk had failed to turn up. It was decided that, despite my tender years, I had a Diploma in Bookkeeping from Newton’s Business College and was studying bookkeeping at high school; so, for the Bush, in the early 1970s, that was ample enough qualification.

This background may appear a little irrelevant, but three important factors arise from that. I was learning to be resilient from living and working in the Bush, fencing, maintaining wells and windmills, and handling stock; learning the practical application of education; and, by making friends with the sons of rocket scientists, developing a thirst for experimentation. Those experiences were to later serve me well in conceiving and developing the Solex project.

Chapter 1—Introduction

"Two more long days from Rocky Pool, and then Carnarvon Town,

So sixty bales of Glenburgh Wool, from Inland heights go down."

John Alfred Jack Sorenson, Western Australian Poet (1907–1949)

1.1              Introduction

This book looks at the greatest challenge facing humankind. In the modern age, it is the destructive impact that the highest density of humans ever to exist on the planet is having on the Earth’s ecosystem. It is not the planet that is in jeopardy, which is simply a mass of rock swirling in space; it is the carboniferous life forms that cling perilously to its skin that are in peril.

Alexander and Boyle state society’s current use of fossil and nuclear fuels has many adverse consequences. These include air pollution, acid rain, the depletion of natural resources and the dangers of nuclear radiation.[10] This book looks at the development of a renewable energy project, in rural and remote Australia, which addresses two of those problems—air pollution and the reliance on fossil fuel as an energy source.

The purpose of this book is to share the experience of the development of the first privately owned, commercial solar energy farm in Western Australia. Initially, it broadly examines the interaction between the, apparently competing, economic, environmental, and social factors that influence sustainable development. It then looks briefly at how the economic, environmental, and social influencing factors, referred to as the triple bottom line (TBL), have formed the philosophical viewpoints, which underpin Australia’s principle political organizations—the Socialist Left, the Industrialist Right, and the Environmentalist Greens. Broadly, the Left supports renewable energy, the Right opposes it, and the Greens promote it.

However, apart from consideration of Australia’s attempt to reduce carbon dioxide emissions caused through fossil-fueled electricity generation, in-depth discussion of the views of the respective Australian political parties as to climate change generally is beyond the scope of this book. In 2001, Australia introduced legislation to establish a quantifiable target to displace fossil-fueled energy generation with energy sourced from renewable, and nonpolluting, sources such as wind and solar energies. The operation of Australia’s renewable energy target (RET) is examined in this book as the sale of carbon credits created under that legislation forms part of the revenue stream of the Solex project.

The research supporting this book was conducted by way of comparing the identified and forecast economic, environmental, and social factors established at the commencement of the project, in 2005, with the findings of actual data collected during the period under review, and the economic, environmental, and social outcomes of the project in 2015. It also consists of a review of the legislation supporting Australia’s RET. That examination also considers the financial impact on renewable energy and fossil fuelled energy producers.

It is acknowledged that the harvest of renewable energy is not a modern concept to Australia’s Outback community. Outback pastoral properties have been using wind generators since the mid-1930s and the Dunlite wind generator is as iconic as the Yankee windmill used for pumping water. The reader is reminded that, for the first 10 years of British settlement in Australia, colonial settlements used no fossil fuel. Settlement began in 1788, and the first coal mining began in 1798.

The incorporation of solar pv panels into farm and pastoral homestead electricity generation was broadly taken up in the late 1970s and 1980s. However, while solar technology was being used on isolated properties, they were standalone systems exclusively for electricity supplies to the homesteads and surrounding buildings. As fossil fuel prices rose in the early 1970s, solar pv systems became essential to ameliorate the escalating costs of diesel fuel, as well as the costs associated with its transport and storage.

Of significance to the Solex project was the Australian government’s policy of diverting fuel excises imposed on the sale of diesel fuel into a diesel fuel replacement program called the Renewable Remote Power Generation Program (RRPGP). As detailed in Chapter 3, funding from the RRPGP was sourced to finance the initial stages of the Solex project.

However, the subject of this book is not the small, standalone integrated energy systems common on Outback pastoral properties and farms, but solar pv electricity generation systems that began to be integrated into the distribution grids of national utilities in the 2000s. The use of dispersed, embedded solar pv installations configured as uninterrupted power supply systems is also beyond the scope of this book.

This book presents a case study of the solar energy project conducted over a period of 10 years from 2005 to 2015. The purpose of the project was to establish a solar energy installation to investigate the economic, environmental, and social benefits of renewable energy.

The principle objective of the Solex Carnarvon Solar Farm is to ameliorate environmental damage caused by over 100 years of industrial development in the Gascoyne region and to act as a catalyst to promote the benefits of renewable energy by the broader Australian community. It also intended to demonstrate renewable energy sources are not only practically achievable but also economically viable.

Discussed in Chapter 5, the community of Carnarvon were quick to adopt the new technology. On the basis of a self-help type of program where the people helped their neighbors, the solar community embraced the solar energy resource with great enthusiasm. The rate of acceptance of solar pv systems by the broader community in Carnarvon is illustrated in Figure 1.

Once termed Fruitloops by mainstream society, the solar community of Carnarvon realized the benefits harnessing the natural resource of the sun, and solar pv installations became normal household fixtures on roof tops across the town. It was not long before the electrical utility placed restrictions on further installations as it feared disturbances to electricity generation quality might negatively impact on the Carnarvon Town distribution system.

Citing potential stability issues effecting electricity supplies arising from a high capacity of dispersed embedded solar pv installations, the state utility placed a moratorium on the connection of solar pv systems in 2011. It is believed that Carnarvon was the first town in Australia to receive that distinction.

Figure 1:               Small-scale solar pv installation rates by year