Ancient Egypt and Nubia — Fully Explained: A New History of the Nile Valley Civilizations of Kemet and Kush

Ancient Egypt and Nubia — Fully Explained

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Ancient Egypt and Nubia — Fully Explained

A New History of the Nile Valley Civilizations of Kemet and Kush

Adam Muksawa

Copyright ©2023 Adam Muksawa

Muksawa.com

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without prior written permission from the author.

To request permission please email: hello@muksawa.com

To my mother (Azumi), to all scholars of African history (past and present), and to all that care about Africa’s future. I do hope you enjoy this book!

Contents

1. Setting the scene

2. The history of Egyptology

3. Before the emergence of civilization

4. Prehistory of the Nile Valley

5. Inequality and the emergence of elites

6. The first pharaohs

7. Old Kingdom

8. Middle Kingdom

9. New Kingdom

10. Changing demographics — towards the Common Era

11. Libyans and the Theban Priesthood of Amun

12. The Kushite Kings of Nubia and Egypt

13. Late Period Egypt

Conclusion

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About the author

Chronology

Bibliography and further reading

Figures

Figure 1 Nile crop limit.

Figure 2 Book of the Dead Papyrus of Gautsoshen.

Figure 3 Limestone head of a king, thought to be Narmer.

Figure 4 Pyramids at Jebel Barkal.

Figure 5 Reconstructed statue of Senkamanisken.

Figure 6 God Horus as a falcon.

Figure 7 Ceramics related to Ancient Nubia.

Figure 8 Contracted Burial of a woman.

Figure 9 Palette of Narmer.

Figure 10 Nebamun supervising estate activities.

Figure 11 Part of the Step Pyramid Complex of Djoser.

Figure 12 The ship of Khufu.

Figure 13 Faience ankh.

Figure 14 Reconstructed Tomb of Ini.

Figure 15 Sandstone head of Mentuhotep II.

Figure 16 Guardian figure of Amenemhat II.

Figure 17 Diadem or Crown of Princess Sithathoriunet.

Figure 18 Pectoral of Amenemhat III.

Figure 19 Buhen fortress.

Figure 20 Sheep and goat skulls (Pan-Grave cemetery).

Figure 21 Early Kerma tumulus.

Figure 22 A rishi coffin.

Figure 23 Fragment of a painted relief of the goddess Maat.

Figure 24 Deified image of Ahmose-Nefertari.

Figure 25 Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut.

Figure 26 The Lateran Obelisk.

Figure 27 Statue of Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti.

Figure 28 A painted life-size wooden figure of Tutankhamun.

Figure 29 Seti I's Abydos Temple.

Figure 30 Seti II wearing the khepresh (blue crown).

Figure 31 Granite sarcophagus of Ramesses III.

Figure 32 Ramessesnakht, a High Priest of Amun.

Figure 33 A bronze sphinx of Thutmose III.

Figure 34 Aegis of a ram-headed Amun.

Figure 35 Golden funerary mask of Pharaoh Psusennes I.

Figure 36 Golden pendant with the name of King Osorkon II.

Figure 37 Ushabti of King Taharqa.

Figure 38 A statue of Amun in the form of a ram.

Figure 39 Stela of King Nastasen.

Figure 40 Queen Tiye.

Figure 41 Head of Pharaoh Amasis.

Figure 42 A statue of an Apis bull.

Maps

Map 1 Africa and the Sahara.

Map 2 The Nile.

Map 3 Lower Egypt.

Map 4 Upper Egypt.

Map 5 Southern Upper Egypt and Lower Nubia.

Map 6 Upper Nubia.

Map 7 New Kingdom Egypt, Kush and surrounding areas.

Introduction / Preface

What many do not realize is that the actual roots of Egypt and Nubia are the same. Those roots go back thousands of years. Back to when man first came to be. As a result, both the Nubians and the Egyptians can claim to be the first to do a number of things. This Nubian-Egyptian inventiveness or creativity was aided by geography. It has often been said that Egypt i.e. Kemet was the gift of the Nile. But so too was Nubia i.e. Kush. And indeed there were at least two Niles — namely the White Nile and the Blue Nile. It was the combination of such — as the main river — that gifted us the Nile Valley civilizations (of Egypt and Kush).

Anyway, this book aims to primarily go over how the said civilizations emerged, and what they achieved subsequently. In doing so, a whole host of interesting topics are addressed. Hence by the time you finish reading this book, your knowledge and understanding of Africa will (hopefully) have increased.

This is not an academic book. Nevertheless it draws its information from the very latest academic papers. And it then boils down this information in a way that makes it easily accessible to all. Therefore, this book lives up to its promise of being a new history.

This is a history that precisely begins at the end of the last Ice Age — coinciding with the start of the African Humid Period. And it ends with the last native pharaoh, and the coming of the Meroitic Kushite kings. All in all, you have well over 10,000 years of history — going back to well before the pyramids.

That leaves little else to say, except do enjoy the read.

Abbreviations and Dating System

e.g. – for example

fig. – figure

km – kilometer(s)

m – meter(s)

c. – circa (approximately)

Millennium / Millennia – a period of a thousand years

Century – a period of 100 years. For example 13th century means anything from 1201 to 1300

BP – years before present

mya – million years ago

kya – thousand years ago

CE – Common Era

BCE – Before the Common Era

AD – Anno Domini (Latin — year of the lord)

BC – Before Christ

The Common Era begins with year 1 in your standard (Gregorian) calendar. CE is the same as AD. BC is the same as BCE. Unspecified dates are to be taken as the Common Era (CE).             

Map 1 The Sahara, with the Sahel and then tropical grasslands below. Source: Wikimedia Commons/CC BY-SA 3.0 DE (Author: Flockedereisbaer).

Map 2 The Nile. Source: Wikimedia Commons/CC BY-SA 1.0 (Author: Shannon1).

Map 3 Lower Egypt. Source: Wikimedia Commons/CC BY-SA 4.0 (Author: Chart made by Jeff Dahl, rivised by JLG. Arts.).

Map 4 Upper Egypt. Source: Wikimedia Commons/CC BY-SA 4.0 (Author: Chart made by Jeff Dahl, rivised by JLG. Arts.).

Map 5 Southern Upper Egypt and Lower Nubia. Source: Wikimedia Commons/CC BY-SA 4.0 (Author: Chart made by Jeff Dahl, rivised by JLG. Arts.).

Map 6 Upper Nubia. Source: Wikimedia Commons/CC BY-SA 4.0 (Author: Chart made by Jeff Dahl, rivised by JLG. Arts.).

Map 7 New Kingdom Egypt, Kush and surrounding areas. Source: Wikimedia Commons/CC BY-SA 3.0 (Author: Andrei nacu at English Wikipedia).

1. Setting the scene

Geographical terms

Egypt was known as Tawy or the Two Lands, in reference to the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. The state also went by the name Kemet. Kemet literally means black land. Some say that the name derives from the color of the Nile’s fertile (black) soil. Others say that it refers to the people of the land i.e. black people.

The name Egypt itself comes to us from the Greek language. The Greeks referred to Egypt as Aiguptos, possibly after the Egyptian word hikuptah — which loosely meant the home of creator-god Ptah. South of Aiguptos was Aethiopia, which included Nubia and near-tropical areas far from the Sahara Desert i.e. the rest of the continent.

In order to address the term Kush, we first need to address the term Nubia — the area directly south of Ancient Egypt. Nubia actually appears relatively late on in ancient texts, much later than the word Kush. Despite being more recent, the origins of the word are disputed. Some propose that it derives from the Ancient Egyptian term for gold i.e. nebu — seeing as Nubia was a rich source of gold in ancient times. Others propose that the name stems from the Nobades — a group of semi-nomadic people that are said to have moved to Nubia in the early centuries CE.

In any case, the terms Kush and Ta-Sety (land of the bows) are among the oldest on record. Kush started to appear in Egyptian texts by the Middle Kingdom (c. 2000 BCE). Although Kush can be used interchangeably with the term Nubia, it also appears in many other more specific contexts. For example, Kush can also refer to the Kingdom of Kerma (c. 2500 BCE).

Having said that, and for us, Kush more typically relates to the Nubian kingdom that emerged following the fall of the Egyptian Empire. This Kushite kingdom existed up until the 4th century, during which time modern scholars commonly refer to it as the Kingdom of Napata (c. 800–300 BCE) and the Kingdom of Meroe (c. 300 BCE–400 CE).

Moving on, when studying Egypt-Kush you will often see terms like Upper Egypt, Lower Nubia or the Middle Nile Valley. These positions — upper, lower and middle — relate to the geography of the river Nile. Unlike today, the Egyptians orientated themselves to the south. The south is where the Nile rises or flows from, and with the Nile being an integral part of Egypt — the south was seen to be the top, and the north was seen to be the bottom.

Thus you have the southern part of the country being termed Upper Egypt, and the northern part being termed Lower Egypt. This also applies to Nubia — with Lower Nubia bordering Upper Egypt, and Upper Nubia referring to the southern part of the territory. Unsurprisingly, the same concept applies when referring to the Nile Valley as a whole.

Autobiography of Harkhuf

Now that we know some geographical terms, we can quickly discuss the famous autobiography of a traveller known as Harkhuf. Harkhuf was a nobleman from Upper Egypt. What we know of his life, we get from various inscriptions made in his tomb near Aswan. His writings are especially important as they provide some of the earliest records of Egypto-Nubian relations.

Harkhuf made four expeditions to Nubia — with accounts of his first three journeys linking to King Merenre I. Interestingly, his fourth trip, relating to King Pepi II, sees Harkhuf returning with a dwarf. Dwarfs were quite well regarded in Egypt, and could achieve high-ranking positions — closely attached to the kings.

Predictably, the precise term Nubia is not mentioned in any of these accounts — rather we get word of lands like Yam, Wawat, Irtjet and Satju. Yam, the final destination, appears to relate to a polity in Upper Nubia (or perhaps much further south). The remaining three places correspond to polities in Lower Nubia.

The environment

The Nile, vertically cutting through the Sahara, made life possible in an otherwise harsh desert environment. Despite its significance, it is important to note that the Nile was not the only geographic factor that allowed civilization to prosper. It was the main factor, but there were others.

Natural barriers, apart from the deserts, include both seas and cataracts. Starting with the latter, the first cataract at Aswan has traditionally defined the border area between Egypt and Nubia. This cataract is where the water is shallow and fast flowing — rocks also lie on the river bed. Such practically makes it impossible for ships to sail through, hence Aswan being historically seen as a key checkpoint or border post.

As for the seas, you had the Mediterranean Sea to the north, and the Red Sea to the east. These three barriers — deserts, cataracts and seas served to protect the Nile Valley from invaders, and can be seen to be major contributing factors as to why the Nile Valley civilizations endured for so long.

Being at the crossroads of three continents, Africa, Asia and Europe, Egypt enjoyed many cultural and economic advantages. Goods, people and ideas flowed both into and out of Africa — via Egypt — with the Sinai Peninsula being an especially important land bridge.

Similar to how Egypt enjoyed a near monopoly over goods coming into Africa, Kush enjoyed a monopoly over goods being exported out of it. The Middle Nile Valley was the Kushite domain, and it is from here that goods would be gathered, from across inner parts of Africa, to be sent down the Nile. The Egyptians would either consume these goods themselves, or re-export them abroad. It goes without saying that the Egyptians did not get these goods for free, and so foreign merchandise would have flowed in the opposite direction — to Kush. This trading relationship is what made the Nile Valley prosper — making the Kushite and Egyptian elite pretty wealthy.

So far I have used the term Nile Valley to describe the general area that consists of both Egypt and Nubia. This use of the term is not strictly correct however. Technically, the Nile Valley does not refer to the Delta i.e. land north of Cairo.

Anyway, taken together, Egypt-Nubia can be divided into four sections or types of environment — the Delta, the Lower Nile, the Middle Nile and the desert-oases. These areas all have a unique character — a character that has shaped the cultural development of the wider region. Before going into more detail, it is helpful to go over the geography of the Nile — in its entirety.

Mapping the river

The Nile, known to the Egyptians as itrw or the river, begins its long journey to the Mediterranean Sea, thousands of miles away in Burundi/Rwanda. From here it flows northward, passing through Lake Victoria, on its way to the Sudd Swampland of South Sudan. This swampland actually blocks much of the water that arrives. That which does emerge is known as the White Nile.

This White Nile meets the Blue Nile near Khartoum, from where the water flows past six cataracts on its way to the Delta. At the Delta, the Nile splits and drains into the Mediterranean. In ancient times the Delta had several different branches, on which sat several important cities — including Naucratis, Avaris and Sais. Most branches have now been lost to silting, flood control and climate change.

The Atbara River connects to the Nile just north of Khartoum. It flows down from the Ethiopian Highlands, as too does the Blue Nile. These highland tributaries actually contribute to the majority of the Nile’s water flow. This is particularly true in rainy season — when the Nile is flooded, and fertile silt, eroded from the Ethiopian Mountains, makes its way downstream. It is this silt, or soil deposits, which gives the narrow banks of the Nile Valley its dark or black color.

The above would also describe a northward journey along the Nile i.e. downstream. Travelling upstream would be going against the current. Thus movement south required some sort of force — that could propel a boat. And so boats had sails, which could catch the wind (and push forward). As a result, going north sails would be rolled up, while going south they would be let down. This was reflected in Egyptian hieroglyphs — where rolled and un-rolled sails indicated direction.

The exact geography of the Nile has only recently been known. Consequently, the source of the river was still a mystery 200 years ago. An Englishman by the name of John Hanning Speke was the first European to visit Lake Victoria — identifying it as the source of the Nile in the process. Before his discovery, in the 1850s, Lake Victoria and the wider African Great Lakes were only rumored to exist (seeing as European exploits were still limited to the continent’s coasts). Most importantly for us, Speke’s discovery enabled the somewhat accurate mapping of the Nile.

Going back to antiquity prior maps of the Nile, and Africa as a whole, had been pretty inaccurate. Early Greek maps only included areas in and around the Mediterranean. Naturally, these maps were not very detailed either — featuring only crude outlines of known places and their most prominent landmarks.

Speaking of detailed, one of the most accurate maps of Africa (and the world in general) was drawn by one Muhammad al-Idrisi, a geographer that lived almost 1000 years ago. His map, commonly known as the Tabula Rogeriana, was actually upside-down. That is to say, Africa was seen at the top of the map, while Europe featured at the bottom. This relates to the idea discussed earlier of Upper Egypt and Upper Nubia being to the south, in relation to how maps are drawn today.

Muslim geographers like al-Idrisi added a great deal of knowledge to geography at the time. This is simply because they obtained a lot of first-hand information from their various travels between Asia, Africa and Europe — travels that were mainly related to expanding commercial activities. This original information, if you like, was combined with earlier know-how — to produce more detailed maps.

Earlier work by Claudius Ptolemy — a Greek-Egyptian astronomer, mathematician and geographer — was of great importance. Ptolemy lived in and around Alexandria (c. 100 CE), which was then part of Roman Egypt. And it is from here that he would carry out much of his work. In our case, his work of particular interest is entitled Γεωγραφικὴ Ὑφήγησις (Geography). In it Ptolemy refers to the so-called Mountains of the Moon — an ancient term referring to a famous mountain range (in East Africa). This was imagined to be the source of the Nile.

Now, Ptolemy did not actually lay eyes on these mountains. His information was gathered from other sources. One of these sources was Marinus of Tyre, who in turn mentions a merchant called Diogenes. This merchant plied his trade across the Indian Ocean. Once, while travelling, he was blown off course — finding himself on the East African coast. It is here that Diogenes acquired knowledge of the said Mountains of the Moon — positioned further inland.

By this time, there were already flourishing trade routes from interior Africa to the coast — specifically the Swahili Coast. These routes formed part of the extensive Africa-Arabia-India maritime network. Although Diogenes did not travel to the mountains himself — it is thanks to these trade links that he got word of such.

Inevitably, the search for the Mountains of the Moon, centuries later, would play a crucial role in the European search for the source of the Nile, and the exploration of the continent in general.

Today these mountains, closely connected to the Egyptian god of the Nile (Hapi), are typically associated with the snow-capped peaks of the Rwenzori Mountains (in Uganda/DRC). These mountains, of course, are in the vicinity of not just Burundi/Rwanda — but Lake Victoria too — areas from which we now definitely know the Nile begins its long journey to the Mediterranean Sea.

Middle Nile

The Middle Nile region defines Ancient Nubia (and much of modern Sudan by default). It extends from the first cataract to the sixth (near Khartoum). In contrast to the deserts either side of the Lower Nile, the Middle Nile’s semi-deserts did support nomadic populations — who played a defining role in Nubian history.

Unlike the Egyptian half of the river, the Nubian half was not consistently productive. This was due to the said cataracts. These cataracts deformed the banks of the river — making specific areas unsuitable for both agriculture and habitation. Not only did cataracts make agriculture fruitless, they also hindered riverine trade. Even so, the cataracts could always be bypassed — by making use of overland routes (even if travelling on foot was slower).

The Dongola Reach, in the vicinity of Kerma, between the third and fourth cataracts, was the most agriculturally productive area. It is seen as being part of Upper Nubia, and it is exactly Upper Nubia that was the powerbase of the Kushite kingdoms that emerged. Lower Nubia was less productive — with only patches of fertile land. It stretched from the first to the second cataract. And it is Lower Nubia that has now been almost completely submerged under the waters of the Aswan High Dam (Lake Nasser).

Going back to Dongola, its productivity can be linked to its somewhat favorable climate. Dongola marked the point at which there was a shift from a mostly desert climate (to the north) — to a more tropical one (to the south). This desert-grassland transition zone is known as the Sahel, and it stretches across the width of Northern Africa. Even though both Lower Nubia and Upper Egypt experience little to no rainfall — the Sahel actually does.

This idea of rainfall links to the phenomenon of the yearly flooding of the Nile, where heavy rains in Ethiopia swell both the Blue Nile and the Atbara River (Black Nile) — potentially making the main river burst its banks. Although there are now dams in place, to artificially control this phenomenon, this was not the case in ancient times. What is particularly important to note is that the actual volume of water carried by the Nile, in rainy and non-rainy season differed greatly. Thus when there was no (Ethiopian) rain — water needed to be well-managed, to sustain the populace until the rains came again.

Continuing with the theme of rainfall, the extent of it generally correlated with the type of vegetation that could grow. Put simply, more rain equaled more vegetation. Hence deserts had virtually no such greenery, while semi-deserts had scattered grasses and trees. As an example you have the acacia tree, which is one of the few trees that can grow and thrive in hot and hostile conditions. It is said, that its particularly long roots are able to tap into the vast aquifers of underground water, relics of when the Sahara was green and lush. As you move south, away from the desert, towards the savannah, somewhat dense vegetation cover starts to appear. While specifically along the Nile you get date palms, dom palms and tamarisk — all of which require more easily reachable groundwater.

Like will be detailed, the Nubians, and the Egyptians, employed a complex mix of pastoralism and farming. The exact mix depended on the geographic location in question. For instance, farming was mainly confined to the banks of the Nile, while pastoralism was the focus in semi-desert areas.

Lower Nile

The Lower Nile differs from the Middle Nile in many ways. For one, there are no cataracts to be found along its length (from Aswan to the Delta). This makes for a much smoother journey along the river — for both people and goods.

Secondly, as hinted at, the Lower Nile region was pretty much rainless. And so unlike in Nubia, its inhabitants solely depended on the river — for agriculture (and almost everything else). Put another way, the Nile was the lifeblood of Egypt. It was Egypt’s heart, and so it made Egypt beat. Just like the Nile affected daily life, it also affected Egyptian thoughts and ideas — which were as much shaped by the river as shaped by the wider environment.

The Nile determined the value of property, determined how much tax people had to pay and much more. Hence its management i.e. the management of water resources came to be an important part of governance. Not only did its management influence state affairs, but so too were many technologies invented as a result e.g. the Nilometer (used to measure the depths of the river).

The Nile’s predictable flooding even influenced the seasons — Akhet (flooding, July-October), Peret (emergence, November-February) and Shemu (dry period, March-June). And so the land was revitalized in Akhet, crops were planted in Peret and the harvest was collected in Shemu — this was the basic cycle of Egyptian life.

Almost all Egyptians lived on the green banks of the Nile. These strips of land greatly varied in width — depending on the section of the river in question. Sometimes strips were barely a kilometer wide, while other times double figures could be reached — with the Lower Nile’s banks typically being much wider than the Middle Nile’s. Going back to the river’s flooding; it was the actual sediment or nutrients brought down in the process, that actually revitalized the banks. Consequently, we can say that it was this yearly, and guaranteed, revitalization that aided the permanent settlement of the lands — leading to the subsequent concept of Egyptianness.

Figure 1 Nile crop limit in Luxor, Egypt. Source: Wikimedia Commons/CC BY-SA 4.0 (Author: Fanny Schertzer).

Nile Delta

North of Cairo, in the heart of Lower Egypt, the Nile becomes a delta — as the river fans out, towards the Mediterranean Sea. Hence we can generally say that Upper Egypt is the (Nile) Valley, while Lower Egypt is the Delta. The two lands, somewhat different in nature, complemented each other. Neither could flourish without the other. The Delta provided the outlet to Europe and Asia, while the Valley provided the resources that could sustain the pharaohs. But this was not enough. Egypt’s link to Nubia was integral, for much of the resources actually came from the Middle Nile region. So just as Upper and Lower Egypt depended on each other, so too did both depend on Nubia.

Like mentioned already, in ancient times, the Delta fanned into many more branches than we have today (at least seven major ones). Additionally, water levels back then were much higher. And the main Nile was far wider — being much closer to the pyramids than it currently is. Anyway, as the marshes and waterways of the Delta have slowly given way, it has become an increasingly suitable place for both agriculture and habitation.

Today, the two main Delta branches are termed the Damietta and the Rosetta — named after port cities that sit to the east and west respectively. The eastern and the western Delta can be considered as corridors — from where foreigners infiltrated the Nile Valley. In the east you had Asiatic people from the Near East, while in the west you had Libyans. Over time these infiltrations, and in other cases direct invasions, resulted in Egypt falling into foreign hands on several occasions.

East of the Delta is the Suez Canal, an important artery in the global shipping trade. Although the Suez Canal was only built in modern times, the history of canal building goes back much further. And so as well as being a means of movement, canals were built to divert water to areas that needed it i.e. canals helped irrigate the lands.

Memphis, a few kilometers south of Cairo, served as the capital of Old Kingdom Egypt. Taking into account the geography of the area — we can now see why. Memphis would have been an excellent location from which trade could be controlled. In other words, goods being imported (from the Mediterranean) and exported (from Kush/Nubia) would have to pass through the city.

Deserts

Although for most of its course, in Upper Egypt, the Nile remains hedged in by plateau deserts, there is a point at which the river spills or leaks into the Western Desert (as the Bahr Yusuf channel). Consequently, we get the Faiyum Depression or Oasis (positioned south west of Cairo). Faiyum is connected to the Bahr Yusuf, and hosts Ancient Lake Moeris (Birket Qarun) — which the Bahr Yusuf actually drains into. Linking back to the idea of canals, in the 2nd millennium BCE, some were built to divert and control the flow of water in the vicinity — enabling the development of prime agricultural space in the process. Such initiatives were also a feature of later Greco-Roman rule.

The Faiyum is not the only oasis in the Western Desert. There are many more. That said, these oases are much further away from the Nile. And they are not directly linked to the river — via any surface level channel. Instead the Siwa, Bahariya, Farafra, Dakhla, and Kharga oases are the results of natural springs or holes in the ground. Interestingly, such oases were interconnected — as part of caravan trade routes. In other words, they functioned as pit stops or trading posts. Many of the related desert routes would extend way beyond the Nile Valley — connecting to places as far as Chad, Algeria and Mali.

In terms of directly connecting Egypt-Nubia with Chad, we have another tributary of the Nile — the Yellow Nile. Now known as the Wadi Howar, desertification had caused it to mostly vanish by the 1st millennium BCE. This Yellow Nile linked the Kerma region (of Nubia), with Darfur (Western Sudan) and the Ennedi Plateau (Eastern Chad). As will be highlighted, the Ennedi Plateau is an important location in relation to the prehistory of the Sahara as a whole.

The Western Desert was (and still is) generally more arid than the Eastern Desert (which borders the Red Sea). Even so, it goes without saying that neither desert could support much farming. Given the slightly less harsh conditions, the Eastern Desert was more hospitable — to the nomads or pastoralists that would come to roam it.

Not only was the Eastern Desert more hospitable — it was blessed with more natural resources. One of such resources was gold. And so apart from its agricultural wealth, the Nile Valley was known throughout the ancient world for its gold riches. And thus gold was one of the things that specifically bound Egypt and Nubia together. Other resources obtained from this desert and the Sinai Peninsula (another desert bordering the Eastern Delta) included copper and a variety of semi-precious stones.

Continuing, all three deserts — Eastern, Western and Sinai are quite mountainous in parts. For instance, you have the Red Sea Hills reaching upwards of 2000 meters (above sea level). Obviously, such mountainous terrain would have hindered movement somewhat. Luckily, like the Wadi Howar, which went west of the Nile, a series of wadis (desert valleys) went east — towards the Red Sea — making it easier to navigate the hilly terrain.

Moving on, near-desert areas were favored for constructing monuments like pyramids. This was because land close to the Nile was generally low-lying, thanks to the river essentially splitting the desert plateau in half. This was desert that featured both sandstone and limestone cliffs — which provided a solid foundation upon which tombs and temples could be developed (safe from the yearly floods). Of course, limestone and sandstone also proved to be excellent building material.

It should be highlighted that the arid-desert has resulted in both Upper Egypt and most of Nubia being able