The Handy American History Answer Book

About the Author

David L. Hudson Jr., J.D. is the author, co-author, or co-editor of more than 40 books, including several in the Handy series: The Handy Supreme Court Answer Book, The Handy Law Answer Book, The Handy Presidents Answer Book (2nd edition), and The Handy History Answer Book (3rd edition). He serves as the Director of Academic Affairs for the Nashville School of Law. He also teaches classes at the Nashville School of Law, Vanderbilt Law School, and Belmont University Law School. He earned his undergraduate degree from Duke University and his law degree from Vanderbilt. Hudson lives in Nashville with his wife, Carla, who assists him with her excellent research skills.

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Contents

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

INTRODUCTION

TIMELINE

EARLY AMERICANS AND PRE-REVOLUTIONARY HISTORY

Early Americans

The First Europeans to Reach America

Spanish Conquerors and Explorers

Colonial America

The Pilgrims and the Puritans

Dutch and Swedish Colonists

Other English Colonists

Movements and Rebellions

Wars and Conflicts

Famous American Indian Leaders

Early Educational Institutions

THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD

Growing Discontent

Early Sparks of Rebellion

George Washington and the First Years of the Revolutionary War

The War Concludes

CREATING THE CONSTITUTION

The Articles of Confederation

The U.S. Constitution

Ratifying the Constitution

The Bill of Rights

The Early Presidency

Early Unrest in the Country

The Supreme Court

Congress

PRE-CIVIL WAR AMERICA

Presidential Elections and Presidents

War of 1812

The Mexican–American War

Texas

THE U.S. CIVIL WAR ERA

The Slavery Issue

Other Issues Preceding the Civil War

The Civil War Breaks Out

All-Out War

The War Turns Sour for the South

End of the Civil War

Major Figures in the Civil War

Reconstruction

LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND THE PROGRESSIVE ERA

The Grant Administration

Expansion into the West

The Wild West

Trains and Communications

The Progressive Era

Race Relations

Two Presidents Murdered

Teddy Roosevelt

President William Howard Taft

Growing Power of Journalism

Innovations in the Progressive Era

FROM WORLD WAR I TO THE ROARING TWENTIES

World War I

After the Great War

The Prohibition Era

Women’s Suffrage

Roaring Twenties

THE GREAT DEPRESSION, WORLD WAR II, AND ITS AFTERMATH

The Great Depression

World War II

Postwar Period

The Korean War

SOCIAL CONFLICT AND CHANGE: 1950s TO 1970s

The Beat Generation, Hippies, and Flower Power

Other Struggles in Human Rights

The Civil Rights Movement

POLITICAL CONFLICT AND CHANGE: 1950s TO 1970s

The Red Scare

The Space Race

JFK

LBJ

The Vietnam War

Nixon

Presidents Ford and Carter

Technology

TRANSITION TO A NEW CENTURY: 1980s TO THE PRESENT

The Reagan Era

The First Persian Gulf War

President Clinton: A Brief Return to Prosperity

Controversies, Disaster, and Terror

President George W. Bush and the Beginning of the War on Terror

Barack Obama and His Presidency

Technology and the Rise of Social Media

SPORTS HISTORY

Auto Racing

Baseball

Basketball

Professional Basketball

Football

Boxing

Mixed Martial Arts

Golf

Hockey

Olympics

Horse Racing

Swimming

Tennis

Track and Field

Soccer

MUSIC AND ENTERTAINMENT

Music

Movies

Radio and Television

Literature

BIBLIOGRAPHY

THE AMERICAN STATES

PRESIDENTS

U.S. CONSTITUTION

INDEX

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank Roger Jänecke of Visible Ink Press for his vision in creating the Handy series and allowing me to participate as an author; Kevin Hile of Visible Ink Press for his expert editing; and my wife, Carla Harris Hudson, for her superb research skills. I also wish to thank all of my students through the years at Southeastern Paralegal Institute, Middle Tennessee State University, the Nashville School of Law, and Vanderbilt Law School for supporting me as an educator.

Photo Credits

David Bjorgen: p. 66.

Dr. Dennis Bogdan: p. 203.

Ron Cogswell: p. 111.

HJPD: p. 2.

Leena Krohn: p. 237.

Library of Congress: p. 123, 160, 162, 211, 214, 215, 217, 285, 338.

Stuart Milk: p. 206.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration: p. 228, 230, 231.

Fred Palumbo: p. 295 (R). Ivo Shandor: p. 96.

Shutterstock: p. 14, 32, 92, 197, 257, 260, 262, 269, 272, 275, 276, 279, 281, 290, 298, 300, 302, 304, 309, 312, 313, 315 (L and R), 317, 327, 329, 330, 332, 340, 343, 345, 348, 350, 352, 358, 360, 361, 364.

Gloria Steinem: p. 207.

Toastydave: p. 192.

Wystan from Ann Arbor: p. 169.

Public domain: pp. 5, 7, 11, 16, 19, 21, 23, 25, 30, 34, 37, 39, 42, 44, 46, 48, 51, 53, 57, 60, 64, 68, 69, 71, 74, 76, 78, 79, 81, 83, 86, 88, 97, 99, 101, 102, 103, 106, 108, 114, 116, 119, 125, 128, 130–131, 135, 137, 139, 141, 143, 147, 149 (L and R), 151 (L and R), 152, 154, 156, 158 (L and R), 164, 170, 171, 173, 175, 180, 183, 185, 188, 190, 194, 202, 209, 224, 226, 234, 240, 242, 244, 249, 251, 253, 264, 266, 283, 284, 288, 291, 293, 295 (L), 306, 320, 322, 326, 344, 357.

Introduction

History always interested me more than all other subjects in school. I couldn’t find enough information about different historical figures, battles, movements, and eras. While I later took courses on ancient Greek and Roman history, Russian history, and modern European history, my favorite was American history.

That is one reason why I remain grateful to Roger Jänecke of Visible Ink Press because he gave me the opportunity to write a book on American history. When he asked if I would like to write this book for the Handy Answers series, I couldn’t help but say yes.

The Handy Answers series provides information on important subjects in an accessible, easy-to-read format. Previously, I have worked on several works in the series—The Handy Supreme Court Answer Book, The Handy Law Answer Book, The Handy Presidents Answer Book (2nd edition), and The Handy History Answer Book, (3rd edition). The Handy American History Answer Book is a natural extension of the series.

Hopefully, the Handy American History Answer Book will supplement high school or community college courses on American history. Students in the United States need more education on history and civics. The book also can provide a starting point for those who simply want to refresh their memory or learn more about the subject.

The difficulty with such a work is determining what material most merits inclusion. But that is a great problem to have because it leads to more reading, more research and more writing. It helps satisfy the thirst for more knowledge. If you don’t find what you are looking for, let us know and we will consider it for the next edition. It is impossible to include every fascinating detail of America’s story in one book, so the intention of this work is to provide a solid overview of this nation’s history, hitting the high points and illuminating the most significant events and people of the last couple hundred years.

I truly hope you enjoy reading this book as much as I enjoyed working on it.

Timeline of U.S. Events

EARLY AMERICANS

Who were the first people to inhabit North America?

There is no sure answer to this question, but many historians or paleontologists believe the first people to inhabit what is present-day North America crossed near the Bering Sea, which connects Asia with Alaska. There is a piece of land known as the Bering Strait, which is less than sixty miles long. Many believe that during the Ice Age—sometime between 34,000 B.C.E. and 30,000 B.C.E.—many people crossed the Bering Sea or Bering Strait when it was a land mass to reach North America. While scientists agree that the first people crossed the Bering Strait during the Ice Age, they do not know the identity of these first peoples.

Most scholars also agree that there were several discrete, and perhaps isolated, movements of various peoples from Asia to the Americas. The migrations might have been prompted by population increases in the tribes of central Asia, which impelled some to move eastward in search of food sources—animals. As game moved across the Bering Strait, hunters followed.

Who are the Native Americans?

Native Americans is a term often used to describe American Indians, widely believed to be the first peoples to inhabit the Americas, including North America. Some historians have claimed that at one time there were sixty million Native Americans living on the continent. Their population declined dramatically when they came into contact with Europeans and diseases or epidemics Europeans transmitted.

Around 5,000 B.C.E., the disappearance of large game animals in both North and South America produced a series of regional developments, culminating in the emergence of several great civilizations, including the Inca, Maya, and Aztec.

Is there much evidence of these early peoples?

Not much, as it was so long ago. However, archaeologists have found numerous artifacts dating back to at least 12,000 or 10,000 B.C.E. in parts of North America. For example, artifacts from that time period have been found in Alaska, Oregon, and New Mexico.

Who are the Anasazi?

The Anasazi refer to an ancient Pueblo Indian tribe that inhabited parts of the southwestern United States during 10,000 to 5,000 B.C.E. Anasazi is roughly translated to ancient ones. This ancient Pueblo culture featured adobe buildings and beautiful baskets. They are sometimes referred to as the Basket Makers. The ancient Pueblo peoples were also known for their mastery of pottery.

What were mounds?

Mounds, also known as earthworks, were man-made piles of land and/or rocks created by early Indians in the United States. There is evidence of mounds in Louisiana and Florida dating back to at least 3,000 B.C.E. There is a mound complex known as Watson Brake in Louisiana that is believed to be the oldest mound complex in North America. Historians date this complex to around 3,500 B.C.E.

The Escalante pueblo in Colorado is an example of ruins left behind by the Anasazi people, who occupied it in the twelfth century.

What was the environment of the first Americans?

The original people of North America lived in many different types of environments. On the eastern side of North America, Native Americans lived in woodlands, hunting elk and deer. On the grass plains of the Midwest, Native Americans hunted camel and other mammals—some of whom are extinct on this continent. In the desert regions of the Southwest, Native Americans relied on the gathering of seeds and smaller animals. In the Arctic north, there was much more hunting and fishing.

What were the first crops developed by the early Indian cultures?

The earliest crops were squash and chili in the southwestern United States. The Native Americans also developed corn, or maize, as an early crop. They then started cultivating various types of beans.

THE FIRST EUROPEANS TO REACH AMERICA

Who was the first European to reach North America?

Many believe the first European to reach North America was a Norse explorer named Leif Ericsson (970–1020), who arguably reached North America around 1,000 B.C.E.—more than 400 years before Christopher Columbus. He established a small Norse settlement known as Vinland in what is now modern-day Newfoundland in Canada. Ericksson was born in Iceland and was the son of the famous explorer Erik the Red (950–1003).

About 1001, Ericsson set out from Greenland with a crew of thirty-five men and probably landed on the southern end of Baffin Island, due north of the province of Quebec. The expedition likely made it to Labrador, Newfoundland (on the northeastern North American mainland), and later landed on the coast of what is today Nova Scotia or Newfoundland, Canada; this landfall may have been at L’Anse aux Meadows (on Newfoundland Island). Ericson and his crew spent the winter of 1001–1002 at a place he called Vinland, which was described as well wooded and produced fruit, especially grapes. He returned to Greenland in the spring of 1002.

Who was Christopher Columbus?

Christopher Columbus, or Christoforo Columbo (1451–1506), was an Italian-born explorer best known for his multiple voyages to the Americas, or the so-called New World. Columbus studied maps and had a fascination for seafaring exploration. He initially approached King John II of Portugal about funding his explorations to the New World that Columbus knew existed. King John rejected his proposals after asking several of his expert advisors, who cautioned that the distance to this new land had been underestimated by Columbus. The explorer again asked King John, but the king became more interested in explorations to Africa, as Portugese explorer Bartolomeu Dias (1451–1500) had just sailed by the southernmost point of the African continent. King John wanted to focus exploratory activities in that region.

How did America get its name?

America is derived from the name of Italian navigator Amerigo Vespucci (1454–1512), who took part in several early voyages to the New World. Vespucci had been a merchant in service of the Medici family in Florence. He later moved to Spain, where he worked for the company that outfitted the ships for Christopher Columbus’s (1451–1506) second and third voyages. He sailed with the Spaniards on several expeditions (in 1497, 1499, 1501, and 1503).

Though scholars today question his role as an explorer, in a work by German mapmaker Martin Waldseemüller (c. 1470–c. 1520) published in 1507, the author credited Vespucci with realizing that he had actually arrived in a New World—not in the Far East, as other explorers (including Columbus) had believed. Thus, Waldseemüller suggested the new lands be named America after Amerigo Vespucci. For his part, Waldseemüller was led to believe this by Vespucci himself, who had written to Lorenzo de Medici in 1502 or 1503, relaying his discovery of a new continent and vividly describing it.

The designation America was used again in 1538 by Flemish cartographer Gerardus Mercator (Gerhard Kremer; 1512–1594). Today the term in the singular refers to either continent in the Western Hemisphere and sometimes specifically to the United States. In the plural, it refers to all the lands of the Western Hemisphere, including North and South America and the West Indies.

Columbus then presented his plans to the monarchs of Spain—King Ferdinand II of Aragon (1452-1516) and Queen Isabella of Castile (1451-1504). They eventually approved Columbus’s exploits. They designated Columbus with the title Admiral of the Seas, although it is speculated that they expected him to not be successful and return to Spain.

Where did Christopher Columbus first land in the New World?

Columbus set sail from Palos, in southwest Spain, on August 3, 1492, and he sighted land on October 12 that year. Going ashore, he named it San Salvador, alternately called Watlings Island (a present-day island in the Bahamas). With his fleet of three vessels, the Nina, the Pinta, and the Santa Maria, Columbus then continued west and south, sailing along the north coast of Cuba and Haiti (which he named Hispaniola). When the Santa Maria ran aground, Columbus left a colony of about forty men on the Haitian coast where they built a fort, which, being Christmastime, they named La Navidad (Christmas in Spanish).

In January 1493, Columbus set sail for home, arriving back in Palos on March 15 with a few Indians (Native Americans), as well as some belts, aprons, bracelets, and gold. News of his successful voyage spread rapidly, and Columbus journeyed to Barcelona, Spain, where he was triumphantly received by Ferdinand and Isabella.

On his second voyage, which he undertook on September 25, 1493, he sailed with a fleet of seventeen ships and some fifteen hundred men. In November he reached Dominica, Guadeloupe, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. Upon returning to Haiti (Hispaniola), Columbus found the colony at La Navidad had been destroyed by natives. In December 1493, he made a new settlement at Isabella (present-day Dominican Republic, the eastern portion of Hispaniola), which became the first European town in the New World. Before returning to Spain in 1496, Columbus also landed in Jamaica.

Although famed explorer Christopher Columbus made multiple treks to the New World, he never actually landed in North America.

On his third voyage, which he began in May 1498, Columbus reached Trinidad, just off the South American coast. On his fourth and last trip, he reached the island of Martinique before arriving on the North American mainland at Honduras (in Central America). It was also on this voyage, in May 1502, that he sailed to the Isthmus of Panama—finally believing himself to be near China. But Columbus suffered many difficulties and in November 1504 returned to Spain for good. He had, of course, never found the westward sea passage to the Indies in the Far East. Nevertheless, the Caribbean islands he discovered came to be known collectively as the West Indies. And the native peoples of North and South America came to be known collectively as Indians.

Why does controversy surround Christopher Columbus?

History wrongly billed Columbus as the discoverer of the New World. The native peoples living in the Americas before the arrival of Christopher Columbus truly discovered these lands. It is more accurate to say that Columbus was the first European to discover the New World, and there he encountered its native peoples.

But it was for his treatment of these native peoples that Columbus is a controversial figure. Columbus was called back from the New World twice (on his second and third voyages) for investigation regarding his dealings with the Native Americans, including charges of cruelty. The first inquiry (1496–1497) turned out favorably for the explorer. His case was heard before the Spanish king, and charges were dismissed. However, troublesome rumors continued to follow Columbus, and in 1500 he and two of his brothers (Bartholomeo and Diego) were arrested and sent back to Spain in chains.

Though later released and allowed to continue his explorations (making one final trip to the New World), Columbus never regained his former stature, lost all honor, and died in poverty in the Spanish city of Valladolid in 1506.

SPANISH CONQUERORS AND EXPLORERS

Who were the Conquistadors?

Conquistador is the Spanish word for conqueror. The Spaniards who arrived in North and South America in the late 1400s and early 1500s were just that—conquerors of the American Indians and their lands. In many cases, the Spaniards were the first Europeans to arrive in these lands, where they encountered native inhabitants including the Aztec of Mexico, the Maya of southern Mexico and Central America, and the Inca of western South America. By the mid–1500s these native peoples had been conquered, their populations decimated by the conquistadors. The conquest happened in two ways: First, the Spaniards rode on horseback and carried guns, while their native opponents were on foot and carried crude weapons, such as spears and knives; second, the European adventurers brought illnesses (such as smallpox and measles) to which the native populations of the Americas had no immunities, causing the people to become sick and die.

By 1535 conquistadors such as Francisco Pizarro (c. 1475–1541), Hernéan Cortés (1485–1547), and Vasco Núñez de Balboa (1475–1519) had claimed the southwestern United States, Mexico, Central America, and much of the West Indies (Caribbean islands) for Spain.

Who was Ponce de León?

Juan Ponce de León (1474–1521) was a Spanish conquistador who explored Puerto Rico for the Spanish crown and who also ventured into modern-day Florida. De León became the first governor of Puerto Rico and the first Spanish explorer to discover Florida. De León actually named the Sunshine State La Florida, translated as Flowery Land.

De León traveled to Florida in search of the mythical Fountain of Youth. De León had traveled with Christopher Columbus in his second (1493) mission to the New World. During Columbus’s missions, the Spanish established a colony called Hispaniola. De León would later serve in a leading capacity in that region under Governor Nicolas de Ovando.

Ovando later named De León governor of Puerto Rico in 1509. Spanish King Ferdinand II convinced De León to explore other lands, leading De León to his voyage to Florida. He led an expedition of three ships—including the Santiago, the San Christobal, and the Santa Maria—on the mission.

A tiny town in Holmes County, Florida, called Ponce de León, is named after the famous explorer.

What areas of present-day America did Hernando de Soto explore?

Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto (c. 1500–1542) ventured throughout the Southeast before he caught fever and died along the banks of the Mississippi River.

Having been part of a brutal expedition that crushed the Inca Empire (in present-day Peru), in 1536 de Soto returned to Spain a hero. But he sought to return to the New World and got his wish when King Charles I (1500–1558) appointed him governor of Cuba and authorized him to conquer and colonize the region that is now the southeastern United States.

Arriving in Florida in the winter of 1539, de Soto and an army of about six hundred men headed north during the following spring and summer. In search of gold and silver, they traveled through present-day Georgia, North and South Carolina, and the Great Smoky Mountains, and into Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama. After defeating the Choctaw leader Tuscaloosa in October 1540 in south-central Alabama, the Spaniards headed north and west into Mississippi. They crossed the Mississippi River on May 21, 1540, and de Soto died later that same day. Since he had shown no mercy in his conquests of the native peoples, de Soto’s troops sunk his body in the river so it would not be discovered and desecrated by the Indians. Then his army continued on without him; under the direction of Luis de Moscoso, they reached Mexico in 1541.

Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto was the first European to see the Mississippi River, which he discovered in 1541, as portrayed in this 1853 painting by William Henry Powell.

Did the Europeans introduce anything besides disease to the Americas?

The European explorers brought with them many things that were previously unknown in the Americas. When Christopher Columbus landed at Hispaniola in 1492, he carried with him horses and cattle. These were the first seen in the Western Hemisphere; the American Indians had no beasts of burden prior to the Europeans’ arrival. In subsequent trips, Europeans introduced horses and livestock (including cattle, sheep, pigs, goats, and chickens) throughout South and North America. They later carried plants from Europe and the East back to the Americas, where they took hold. These included rice, sugar, indigo, wheat, and citrus fruits—all of which became established in the Western Hemisphere and became important crops during colonial times. With the exception of indigo (which was used as a fabric dye), these nonindigenous crops remain important to the countries of North and South America.

What was the claim to fame of Balboa?

Vasco Núñez de Balboa (1475–1519) was a Spanish explorer best known for laying claim as the first European to lead an expedition to see the Pacific Ocean. He set sail for the New World, eventually landing in modern-day Colombia. He established the first colonial settlement established by the conquistadors in mainland America at Santa Maria la Antigua del Darren. Balboa became governor of the area. He also crossed the Isthmus of Panama and discovered the South Sea.

Were the Spaniards the first Europeans to reach North America after the Vikings?

No, that distinction goes to explorer John Cabot (c. 1451–1498), who in 1497 sailed westward from Bristol, England, in search of a trade route to the East. Cabot’s story began in 1493, when Columbus returned to Spain from his New World voyage, claiming to have reached Asia. From the accounts of the trip, Cabot, who was himself a navigator, believed it was unlikely Columbus had traveled that far. He did, however, believe it was possible (as did subsequent explorers) to find a route—a northwest passage—that ran north of the landmass Columbus had discovered and by which Asia could be reached. In 1495 the Italian Cabot—born Giovanni Caboto—took his family to England, and in March 1496, appealed