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    Pyroelectric Infrared Detectors
    Pyroelectric Infrared Detectors
    Pyroelectric Infrared Detectors
    Ebook147 pages1 hour

    Pyroelectric Infrared Detectors

    By Stephen G Porter

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    About this ebook

    Pyroelectric
    Infrared
    Detectors

    Stephen G. Porter


    This little book introduces pyroelectricity and pyroelectric detectors for students, scientists, engineers, and others with a basic grounding in physics and mathematics. It covers the basic concepts of the pyroelectric effect and includes a chapter on pyroelectric materials. It discusses device
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherS G Porter
    Release dateDec 1, 2021
    ISBN9781399910712
    Pyroelectric Infrared Detectors

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      Book preview

      Pyroelectric Infrared Detectors - Stephen G Porter

      Introduction

      After dusk a few weeks ago, I was walking along a street where I live when I noticed that, as I approached each house, a light switched on outside the front door.  Why and how did this happen? The answer to this question is that each house had an external light fitted with a passive infrared light switch, probably incorporating a pyroelectric detector.

      The aim of this little book is to explain some of the basic physics behind pyroelectric detectors and to describe something of the design, operation, and applications of pyroelectric devices.  We will start with an introduction to pyroelectricity.

      Pyroelectricity

      The strange effects occurring when the mineral tourmaline is heated have been known for many hundreds of years [1].  It is generally thought that tourmaline is being referred to when the Greek philosopher Theophrastus refers to ‘lyngourion’.  A natural history book, Hortus Sanitatis Major, printed in 1497, states [1] [2]: the gem Ligurius is called in this way because it comes from the solidified urine of the lynx.  It is tawny, like amber and attracts leaves that come near it by energy.  Theophrastus says that the ligurium has the colour of amber, that it attracts chaff, that it soothes aching stomachs, that it gives back colour to people affected by jaundice, and that it contracts the movement of the bowels.

      The term pyroelectricity was first used by Brewster [3] in 1824.  He studied the phenomenon in a variety of substances, including Rochelle salt.  It was Rochelle salt in which ferroelectric properties were first observed by Valasek [4] in 1921.

      The importance of the pyroelectric effect in infrared detection was emerging in 1970, and it was in this year that a widely acclaimed review of pyroelectric detectors by Putley was published [5].  At that time the only pyroelectric material of significant value was triglycine sulphate.  A considerable amount of research and development was devoted to pyroelectric detectors in the latter quarter of the twentieth century, covering all aspects of materials, device fabrication and applications.  An update of Putley’s review appeared in 1977 [6], and the current author published a review in 1981 [7].

      A pyroelectric material is one which possesses an inherent electrical polarization, the magnitude of which is a function of temperature [3] [8] [9]. Most pyroelectrics are also ferroelectric, which means that the direction of their polarization can be reversed by the application of a suitable electric field, and their polarization reduces to zero at some temperature known as the Curie temperature, Tc , by analogy with ferromagnetism [10].  The dependence of polarization on temperature is typically of the form illustrated in Figure 2.1.  The gradient of this curve, dP/dT, at a particular temperature, T, is the pyroelectric coefficient, p.

      Figure 2.1  Temperature dependence of polarization for a ferroelectric material.

      It has been said that all ferroelectrics are pyroelectric, but not all pyroelectrics are ferroelectric.  However, the distinction between ferroelectric and pyroelectric materials given above is somewhat arbitrary because the ability to reverse the polarization of a given material may depend on experimental limitations such as crystal perfection, electrical conductivity, temperature, pressure, etc.  An alternative distinction is that the polarization of a ferroelectric decreases to zero at some temperature, but it could be argued that some ferroelectrics decompose before the Curie temperature is reached.  In general, no distinction is made between ferroelectricity and pyroelectricity in the theoretical treatment of the phenomena.

      Crystal structures may be divided into 32 crystal classes according to their symmetry.  Of these, 21 classes do not have a centre of symmetry, and 10 of these have a unique polar axis and possess a polarisation which is generally a function of temperature.  Crystals of this type are pyroelectric.  For a comprehensive treatment of crystal structure see, for example, Zhdanov [11].

      Consider the hypothetical two-dimensional crystal structure represented in Figure 2.2, in which the large circles with crosses represent positive ions and the smaller circles with dashes represent negative ions.  This figure represents the configuration at temperatures above the Curie point, Tc.  If the temperature is reduced below the Curie point, the equilibrium positions of the negative ions move with respect to the positive ions, as illustrated in Figure 2.3, and a spontaneous polarization is generated.  If an external electric field is applied, the negative ions may be forced to move in the opposite direction relative to the positive ions, and the direction of polarization is reversed.

      Figure 2.2 A hypothetical two-dimensional ionic crystal at T>Tc

      Figure 2.3  A hypothetical two-dimensional ionic crystal at T

      If we consider a ferroelectric material with one ferroelectric axis in the absence of any external stress, the free energy, G, relative to the un-polarized state, may be written as:

                        2.1

      where P is the polarization and a, b, and c are coefficients.  The series is truncated at the third term, and only even powers are included because the energy must be the same for both directions of polarization, i.e. when P is negative or positive.

      If an electric field, E, is applied the free energy will change in proportion to E and P (at least when E and P are close to zero).  Equation 2.1 then becomes:

                        2.2

      and:

                        2.3

      The essence of the Landau-Devonshire theory [12] is that a phase transition occurs at a temperature, T0 , and the coefficient a changes sign at this temperature, and this is expressed as:

                  2.4

      The other coefficients are assumed to be independent of temperature. Note that T0, the temperature at which a changes sign, is close to, but not necessarily equal to the Curie temperature, Tc . Substituting equation 2.4 into 2.1 and 2.3 gives:

                        2.5

      and:

                        2.6

      The spontaneous polarization, P0 , is the value of P when the electric field is zero and G is a minimum, so δG/δP is zero.  Putting P = P0 , E = 0 , and δG/δP = 0 into equation 2.6 gives:

                        2.7

      This has two possible solutions:

                              2.8

      or:

                        2.9

      If b is positive, solving equation 2.9 as a quadratic equation in P0², we find that it has real solutions for P0 only if T < T0. So for temperatures above T0 the only solution is equation 2.8, i.e. P0 = 0, and for temperatures below T0 the solution to equation 2.9 gives P0 as a function of T of the form shown in Figure 2.4, and we have a second order phase transition.

      Figure 2.4  Spontaneous polarization as a function of temperature for a

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