Delhi, Agra, Fatehpur Sikri: Monuments, Cities and Connected Histories

For my three sisters, Jyotsna, Arpana and Rashmi,

and their most caring respective halves, Ravi Sinha,

Satish Chandra and Sanjay Sinha

CONTENTS

List of Figures and Maps

A Note on the Series

How to Read This Book

Prologue: A Tale of Three Imperial Cities

Introduction: Monuments, Cities and Connected Histories

1.The Qutb Minar and its Monuments

2.Humayun’s Tomb

3.The Agra Fort

4.Fatehpur Sikri

5.The Taj Mahal

6.The Red Fort

Author’s Note

Endnotes

Index

LIST OF FIGURES AND MAPS

IMAGES

Introduction

1.The Qutb Minar and its Monuments

2.Humayun’s tomb

3.The Agra Fort

4.Fatehpur Sikri

5.The Taj Mahal

6.The Red Fort

All photographs are taken by the author, other than those credited otherwise.

SITE MAPS

The Qutb Minar complex

Humayun’s tomb complex

The Agra Fort complex

Fatehpur Sikri

The Taj Mahal complex

The Red Fort complex

A NOTE ON THE SERIES

Departing from existing studies on the subject, this series looks at heritage sites and the cities in which they are located in their larger geographical, sociocultural and historical contexts. It brings together latest and complex academic research from across disciplines, including history, archaeology, architecture, art history and heritage studies and presents it in an accessible form. Addressing the gap between the academic and popular understandings of history, the series discusses how stereotypes, assumptions and myths come into being around monuments and their builders, and how they impact our reading of the related historical periods.

Each volume in the series provides a multilayered and multidimensional account of the evolution of monuments, their architectural details, the life and times of rulers who built them, their afterlives, anecdotes and folklore surrounding them as well as debates and controversies related to the heritage sites. They also contain comprehensive, illustrated and self-sufficient chapters on the UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the respective geocultural region.

The books in the series will form essential reads for teachers, students and scholars of history, archaeology, architecture, art history, heritage studies and tourism and hospitality. Authoritative and accessible, they will be indispensable for tourists, foreign and domestic, and heritage enthusiasts. Finally, architects, conservationists, policymakers, think tanks and organizations working on monuments and heritage cities will also find these volumes very useful.

HOW TO READ THIS BOOK

The book is divided into three parts – a substantive prologue about the six UNESCO World Heritage Sites (Qutb Minar, Agra Fort, Humayun’s tomb, Fatehpur Sikri, Taj Mahal and Red Fort) in the context of the rise of three imperial cities related to the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal India; a detailed introduction which discusses the larger geocultural and historical contexts in which the three imperial cities came into being and how their settlements and monuments developed; and six chapters on the individual World Heritage Sites.

HOW MUCH TIME DO YOU HAVE AND WHAT DO YOU WANT TO KNOW

You can choose to read the book in the following ways depending on how much time you have and how much you want to know:

If you have enough time and want to get a comprehensive idea of the larger geocultural and historical contexts within which the three cities and their monuments developed, then you should read the complete book.

If you have less time and want to know more about the six UNESCO World Heritage Sites and how they relate to the three imperial capitals of medieval India, then read the prologue (A Tale of the Three Imperial Cities) and the six individual chapters.

If you have still less time and want to learn about some specific sites and their builders and their times, then read the chapters along with the relevant portions of the introduction (Monument, Cities and Connected Histories). The introduction follows a chronological framework and all the headings are clearly laid out.

xiv HOW TO READ THIS BOOK

If you don’t have much time and want to know only about some specific site(s), then just read the individual chapter(s) connected with the site(s). The individual chapters are designed to be self-sufficient and standalone resources.

WHAT TO EXPECT IN THE CHAPTERS

The six chapters of this book bring together in a concise format, a multilayered and multidimensional history of these World Heritage Sites. They incorporate the latest research on the subject and modern controversies surrounding the sites. Any person who chooses to read any chapter should have, in around thirty pages, accessible yet authoritative information.

All chapters follow a consistent format and include the following components:

• Circumstances leading to the construction of the heritage site

• Information on the design and layout

• Site map and photographs of monuments. Some photographs have been labelled to give a better idea of what commonly referred architectural motifs look like.

• Graphic account of all monuments at a site including their evolution, histories, architecture, functions, myths, folklore and connected human stories.

• Boxes containing interesting trivia and key insights

• Afterlife of the site: What happened to the site after the primary builders left the scene?

• One section connected with the most controversial/debated/discussed aspect of the World Heritage Site appears towards the end of each chapter. These include:

▪ How Delhi’s first Friday Mosque became the ‘Might of Islam’ mosque (Qutb Minar)

▪ How the tomb complex was restored in the 21st century (Humayun tomb)

▪ How ‘Somnath Gate’ ended up being in the Agra Fort (Agra Fort)

▪ Was shortage of water the reason for the decline of Sikri? (Fatehpur Sikri)

▪ How the idea of the Black Taj and other myths came into being (The Taj Mahal)

▪ How the Red Fort became a site of India’s Independence Day celebrations (Red Fort)

• The chapters also contain mini stories about the development of certain architectural features or practices/icons associated with royalty.

▪ The chapter on Qutb Minar discusses the evolution of arches and domes.

▪ The chapter on Humayun’s tomb has stories on the evolution of tombs in Islam, char bagh (four-fold garden) and the deployment of the concept of hasht bihistht or a design representing an irregular octagon (an allusion to eight gates of the ‘Garden of Paradise’) in tomb architecture. It also covers the conversation between red sandstone and white marble in Sultanate and Mughal architecture.

▪ The chapter on Agra Fort explores the evolution of jharokha darshan and the Diwan-i Aam (‘Hall of Public Audience’) besides glass-art technique or ayina kari (elements of which are seen in the Shish Mahal).

▪ The chapter on Fatehpur Sikri shows how the layout of a new city borrowed on the idea of a Mughal camp which formed a mobile mini city in itself.

▪ The chapter on Taj Mahal discusses how an improvised tomb garden came to symbolize the ‘Garden of Paradise’ on earth. It also explores the evolution of architectural features like the dome, the minaret and the jilaukhana or the forecourt.

▪ The chapter on Red Fort shows how the concept of irregular octagon came to influence the design of the palace-fort. It also discusses how the emperor’s seat in the Diwan-i Aam evolved to reflect his exalted status alongside the stories of the famous peacock throne and the Koh-i-Noor diamond.

PROLOGUE

A Tale of Three Imperial Cities

Delhi and Agra are among the most densely populated cities in the world. They have also always been the seats of power and empires, along with Fatehpur Sikri, for more than a millennium, and ongoing excavations reveal settlements from much earlier times. No wonder the monuments of Delhi and Agra figure on the itinerary of every tourist – foreign or domestic. While some tourists come specifically to see Delhi and Agra, many arrive primarily to see the Taj Mahal but do not leave without visiting the six UNESCO World Heritage Sites – Qutb Minar, Humayun’s tomb and the Red Fort in Delhi and the Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri and the Taj Mahal in the Agra–Sikri region. Even though Fatehpur Sikri is not a part of the Agra district administration, its proximity to both the cities often makes it a part of the sightseeing tour packages. Sikri forms an integral part of the experience of Delhi and Agra, and the Mughal empire. Over a period, these six heritage sites of the three imperial capitals have become preferred tourist destinations of India. They consistently figure in the list of top ten monuments that attract most tourists – international and domestic – and generate most revenues.

For the foreign tourists not as familiar with Indian history, visits to these six World Heritage Sites mostly form their first encounter with the country’s rich cultural heritage, their introduction to the exotic world of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughals. For domestic tourists who are perhaps relatively more familiar with India’s history, such trips help them revisit, perhaps revise, their understanding of these monuments and personalities or prominent events linked with them from their school textbooks.

Monuments, however, always offer a lot more. They tell us multiple stories not just about the specific history of the individual monuments but also of the cities they belong to and the larger historical period they represent. These monuments, identified by the UNESCO as World Heritage Sites, have larger connected histories which also include their afterlives and the popular, sometimes political, constructions of their pasts. Unpeeling these layers of history can be a lot more informative, engaging and interesting if done in a way in which these connect with the visiting public. And, this is one of the key features of this book and the series. This book has been crafted for tourists, general readers, history enthusiasts and even teachers and students of related courses so that detailed academic research is distilled in an attractive and accessible format. But this series of books goes beyond that; it also looks at the myths, folklore and popular histories surrounding the sites.

IS THIS BOOK ANY DIFFERENT

Despite their strongly connected pasts and present, most books on Delhi, Agra and Fatehpur Sikri are either city-centric and deal with an individual city or are monument-centric and focus only on individual monuments or heritage sites. So far, there is no single book which discusses the connected histories of these three cities and of the monuments within them. Comprising a detailed introduction and six self-sufficient chapters – one on each World Heritage Site – this book also provides an illustrated history of almost 500 years of the medieval and early modern period, from around the 12th century to the 18th century. It brings together different perspectives and the latest research from archaeology, architecture, history, art history and heritage studies, but presents them in a simple and accessible language. So, the volume provides a multidimensional and multilayered account of the evolution of Delhi, Agra and Fatehpur Sikri and their monuments, examining the role of diverse factors including the Indian and Central Asian political and cultural influences, local power dynamics, role of the Sufi saints, political economy, dynastic and individual ambitions, migrations and invasions and attempts at repairs and restorations in later times.

The six individual chapters of this book bring together in a concise format, the comprehensive and multilayered history of the six World Heritage Sites of Delhi, Agra and Fatehpur Sikri. After discussing the circumstances leading to the construction of the sites, these chapters take the readers on a graphic historical tour of the monuments discussing their evolution, their architectural styles, related anecdotes as well as myths and folklore surrounding them. Simultaneously, they also make the readers aware of the debates and controversies surrounding the sites and their individual monuments. Finally, they also explore the afterlife of the heritage sites – what happened to the sites once the primary builders or sponsors left the scene? In this sense, the book goes beyond the 18th century and brings the history of the monuments to near modern times.

DELHI, AGRA, FATEHPUR SIKRI: SHIFTS OF THE IMPERIAL CAPITAL

This book is also an exploration of the capital cities of north India along with the UNESCO heritage monuments. These monuments are from the long historical period of the 12th century to 18th century, which marked the transition of power from Rajput states to the Delhi Sultanate to the Mughals. The Delhi Sultanate – lasting from the late 12th to early 16th century – saw a succession of dynasties who were either Turks or Afghans, including the Mamluk Turks, Khaljis, Tughlaqs and Lodis. The Lodis in turn gave way to the Chaghtai or Timurid Mongols who came to be popularly known as the Mughals in the mid-16th century. The Mughals were replaced by the British colonial power in the 18th–19th centuries. The British ruled India till the country secured its independence in 1947.

Delhi remained the capital of the Sultanate from around the late 12th century to early 16th century. The capital shifted to Agra under the Lodis. The Mughals, by and large, preferred to rule from Agra till around the mid-17th century when emperor Shah Jahan (r. 1628–58/66) brought the seat of power back to Delhi. It would however be wrong to say that only Delhi or Agra remained imperial capitals in this entire duration – it moved to other places as well, though temporarily. The key to understanding this conundrum is to understand the movements of the rulers – either of the Delhi sultans or of the Mughal emperors. When the rulers moved, their courts moved and with them the courtiers, administrative machinery and service providers. And, most ambitious rulers remained mobile either to acquire new territories or quell revolts in the acquired territories. Some temporarily moved for better weather or repose. Most architectural constructions took place when the rulers stayed at a place for a relatively longer time.

During the period of the Delhi Sultanate, the capital once temporarily shifted to Daulatabad in the Deccan, presently Aurangabad, in Maharashtra. The Deccan was the final frontier for ambitious rulers based in Delhi–Agra. Their approaches differed, though. The Delhi sultan Alauddin Khalji (r. 1296–1314) sent imperial campaigns also aimed at securing booty or tribute. Muhammad bin Tughlaq (r. 1325–51) preferred to conquer the region and he also created a co-capital in Daulatabad to rule Deccan/peninsular India better. After the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, the sultans let go off their control of the Deccan and chose to concentrate on north India, which broadly came to be known as Hindustan. With the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate, peninsular India saw the emergence of Deccani sultanates, which later gave a tough time to the Mughals. Akbar and Jahangir mostly tried to manage Deccan from Agra, which was strategically better located for the purpose than Delhi. Jahangir also stayed in tents during his Deccan operations. Over a period, the Mughal encampments had become well-equipped mobile cities and served like on-field capitals. In the chapter on Fatehpur Sikri, we will discuss how such encampments inspired the construction of Mughal palaces and imperial establishments. Towards the late 17th–early 18th century, Aurangzeb stayed in such encampments in the Deccan for a very long time, trying to save a disintegrating empire from the older Deccani sultanates and the emerging Marathas.

Under the Mughals, the capital also moved to places like Fatehpur Sikri and Lahore. The Mughal emperor Akbar’s decision to shift the imperial seat to Fatehpur Sikri also had a spiritual component: his proximity to the Sufi saint Salim Chishti. However, Lahore (now in Pakistan) served an important strategic purpose. The Mughal empire had expanded to include Afghanistan, Badakshan and surrounding areas. Besides, the rise of the Safavid empire in Central Asia necessitated a continuous watch. Emperors like Akbar (r. 1556–1605), Jahangir (r. 1606–28) and later Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707) therefore stayed for longer periods in Lahore.

Despite occasional changes in the imperial seats, the rulers kept coming back to the strategic Delhi–Agra axis along the river Yamuna. For those migrating from the politically unstable areas of Central Asia of the 10th–12th centuries, Punjab and Delhi offered a land of opportunities, particularly for those looking eastwards. Mahmud of Ghazni’s invasions had shown that the mountain passes in the north-west were not invincible and Punjab–Multan could serve as a springboard for campaigns in north India. Later, Muhammad of Ghuri and the early Turks used Punjab as a base to launch their attacks on the Rajputs in north India.

But why was the Delhi–Agra axis so important? Control over Delhi offered a continuous command over the vast Gangetic plains, right up to the Bay of Bengal. The later move to Agra offered direct control over the rich agricultural tract between the rivers of Ganga and Yamuna, the doab; better connectivity to trade routes of the subcontinent and enhanced commercial prospects; and strategic access to Rajasthan, Gwalior, Malwa, Gujarat and later, the Deccan. River Yamuna, which connected Delhi and Agra, offered huge possibilities for transport and communication.

THE CONNECTED HISTORIES OF DELHI AND AGRA

Little do the visitors to Delhi and Agra realize how much the histories of the two cities intersect. They are sometimes referred to as twin imperial cities or capitals. For a small but significant period, Fatehpur Sikri near Agra too became a third imperial capital of the region. These connections became established in the 16th century, when the Lodi rulers from Delhi shifted their capital to Agra. The city was probably under the control of the Rajputs or Jats, an agricultural community, before passing under the control of the Delhi Sultanate.

The city of Delhi mostly developed as a series of settlements which were planned as capital cities by successive rulers and dynasties over time. These have coalesced into a continuous overarching megacity of the present time. With the establishment of the Sultanate, Delhi’s first ‘Red Fort’, the Lal Kot, (not to be confused with the prominent Red Fort built later by the Mughals) became the site of the first Muslim settlement in north India. Located in the arid spurs of Delhi Ridge in modern Mehrauli, this erstwhile Rajput citadel gave way to what presently constitutes the Qutb Minar complex. This complex and the eponymous Qutb Minar, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, forms a major tourist centre of attraction and is discussed in a chapter in this book. Known as the original ‘Old Delhi’, the imperial-residential area around the Qutb remained the seat of the Delhi sultans till Alauddin Khalji decided to build a new fortified city, Siri, around what are now known as the Siri Fort and Shahpur Jat village. Frequent Mongol invasions were making Delhi vulnerable at a time the Sultanate was trying to extend imperial control over Rajasthan, Malwa, Gujarat and send campaigns to south India. The Khaljis were replaced by the Tughlaq dynasty whose soldier-founder, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (r. 1320–25), established a new settlement called Tughlaqabad, on the southern end of the ridge in Delhi, between modern Badarpur and Faridabad. It is said that a curse by the Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya led to the abandoning of the new city before it was fully populated. The next sultan, Muhammad bin Tughlaq, not only extended the Sultanate’s control over Deccan and peninsular India, he also fortified the area between Qutb and Siri and called it Jahanpanah (‘The Refuge of the World’). But Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign also saw the beginning of the disintegration of the Sultanate; it had become too large and unwieldy by now. His successor, Firuz Shah Tughlaq (r. 1351–88), tried to maintain control over north India and let the Deccan and other areas go. He also did something most ambitious sultans would do: find a new settlement. Located on the banks of the river Yamuna, this new city was called Firuzabad. Henceforth, all future settlements of Delhi would adjoin the Yamuna rather than the rocky Aravalli ridge – Salim Garh, built by the rulers of Sur dynasty; Dinpanah (‘Refuge of the Faithful’), built by the Mughal emperor Humayun; Humayun’s tomb, built by emperor Akbar; and Shahjahanabad, built by Akbar’s grandson, Shah Jahan.

The shift to Agra came at a critical point in the career of the Sultanate which had started disintegrating under the Tughlaqs. Sindh and Multan in the west, Bengal in the east and states in Rajasthan and the Deccan broke away. And, the governors of Malwa, Gujarat and Jaunpur declared their independence. A Mongol invasion in 1398, led by Timur Lane, gave a death blow to an already weakened Delhi. Sikander Lodi (r. 1489–1517), the second ruler of the Lodi dynasty, re-established imperial control over parts of north India and shifted the capital of the Sultanate from Delhi to Agra. The shift, it was hoped, would strengthen Sultanate’s fragile control over the crucial Ganga–Yamuna doab and bring more resources by way of agriculture and trade. It would also help them recover parts of central India. An old brick Rajput structure, called the Badalgarh Fort, became the imperial seat of the Lodis and, later, the Mughals. With the shift of the imperial seat to Agra, Delhi receded into the ranks of a provincial city for a while. However, it continued to remain important spiritually and symbolically as the foundational centre of Muslim rule in north India. The Lodis continued to build their tombs and mosques in Delhi and these can be seen in places currently known as Lodi Gardens, Green Park, South Extension I and II, Defence Colony and Mehrauli.

After defeating the last Lodi sultan Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat (1526), Babur, the Mongol ruler from Ferghana valley, laid the foundations of what came to be known as Mughal rule in India. One of the first things he did was to ask his son Humayun to rush to Agra to take control of the Lodi imperial treasury. Babur, however, stayed in Delhi to celebrate and perhaps consolidate and legitimize his victory. He visited the tombs of Sufi saints Bakhtiyar Kaki and Delhi sultans like Balban and Alauddin Khalji, alongside the Qutb complex, and other buildings, pools, gardens and landmarks of Delhi. Interestingly, he also had his name proclaimed as the sovereign in the mosques of Delhi. Soon after, he left for Agra and preferred to rule from there. During his short reign (1526–30), he built gardens in Agra modelled on the ones in Kabul. Upon Babur’s death in 1530, his son Humayun was coronated at the Agra Fort, which had been wrested from the Lodis. However, the second Mughal emperor (r. 1530–40; 1555–56) chose Delhi to lay the foundations of his new city called Dinpanah or the ‘Refuge of the Faithful’. Humayun chose a site located on the banks of the river Yamuna, close to the Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya’s hospice. This city project was carried forward by the Afghan ruler, Sher Shah Suri under the name of Shergarh. Founder of the Sur dynasty, he defeated Humayun in successive battles (1539–40) and brought Delhi and Agra under Afghan control. Humayun had to live in exile till he regained the throne in 1555. Remains of Dinpanah and Shergarh can still be seen in the Purana Qila complex near the Delhi Zoo. Some Sur constructions can also be seen around the Qutb complex in the vicinity of the tomb of Sher Shah Suri’s favoured Sufi saint, Bakhtiyar Kaki.

Akbar, Humayun’s son and successor, occupied the first Mughal fort in Delhi, the Dinpanah by defeating the Surs and other independent chieftains. However, he preferred to rule from Agra, a decision also motivated by an unsuccessful assassination attempt on his life during his visit to Delhi in 1564. But Akbar did not neglect his father’s constructions in Delhi. Asserting control over Humayun’s legacy, he ordered the building of a magnificent mausoleum (c 1562–71) near Nizamuddin Auliya’s hospice, known as Humayun’s tomb – a structural complex which is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is explored in a chapter in this book. Akbar also provided large Afghan-style tombs for his wet-nurse Maham Anga and her arrogant son, Adham Khan, in Delhi. Located near the Qutb complex, Adham Khan’s tomb is situated on the top of a wall that once enclosed the Lal Kot. In his imperial seat Agra, Akbar rebuilt the old Badalgarh fort located on the banks of Yamuna. The right bank of the river, in the direction of the flow. was earmarked for the residences of the nobility. Gradually, havelis (mansions) and habitations began to develop along the right bank. Thanks to consolidation of Mughal rule under Akbar and his wide-ranging administrative and economic reforms, imperial Agra began to grow, in size, wealth and influence. It also began to emerge as a major commercial hub in north India.

Akbar decided to shift the capital to Sikri, 45 kilometres from Agra, protected by the spiritual realm of the Sufi saint Salim Chishti by whose blessings he had an offspring and successor. With the Mughal conquest of Gujarat in 1572–73, Sikri began to be known as Fatehpur Sikri which meant, ‘City of Victory’. This planned city is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and forms a separate chapter of this book. Over the next thirteen to fourteen years (1571–85), the new capital saw Akbar trying to integrate a population with diverse socio-religious inclinations. Political uncertainties in the north-west, arising out of the death of his brother Mirza Hakim in 1585, led Akbar to shift his capital to Lahore where he stayed till 1598. When he came back, the Deccan was embroiled in warfare and Akbar decided to shift to Agra, rather than returning to Sikri. Akbar died in 1605 after striking a truce with his rebellious son Salim, who had been named after the Sufi saint Salim Chishti. Salim ascended the throne at Agra under the name Jahangir or ‘Seizer of the World’.

The new emperor Jahangir spent a lot of time in Lahore, Agra and Kashmir. However, the Delhi connect always remained important. Jahangir’s predecessor Akbar had paid a visit to Delhi’s holy places in 1576. Shah Jahan also made visits to the tomb of Nizamuddin Auliya much before Delhi became the capital again. Mughal emperors would also visit Delhi for hunting purposes. The area around Dinpanah and Nizamuddin Auliya’s tomb remained important on the trade map as it lay on the highway connecting Agra and Lahore. A huge rest house, Azimganj Sarai, came up at this site – it lies between the Delhi Zoo and the Sunder Nursery today, and is being restored. Agra’s location had however become strategically important to deal with the upheavals in the Deccan from the time of Jahangir. His reign saw Agra growing along the Yamuna. Havelis, streets, houses, bazaars and shops developed along the right bank along with gardens which came up on both sides of the river.

During the early decades of the 17th century, Agra had emerged as a major commercial hub and exchange centre for goods manufactured in the subcontinent. It had surpassed Delhi in many ways. The town was buzzing with the presence of domestic and foreign traders, merchants, middlemen or agents, financiers, money changers, insurers and transporters. Sarais, workshops and markets began dotting the city. By the time Jahangir’s successor, Shah Jahan, ascended the throne, Agra had become known as ‘a wonder of the age’ and ‘one of the biggest cities in the world’. He changed the name of Agra to Akbarabad, ‘the city of Akbar’, to honour his grandfather. Shah Jahan’s reign (1628–58/66) is known for its imperial grandeur and golden period for architecture. He renovated Agra Fort by adding three new marble palace courtyards and, when his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal died, he built the iconic Taj Mahal in Agra in her memory. The monument is still regarded as one of architectural wonders of the world. In this book, the Taj Mahal is explored as the most famous UNESCO World Heritage Site of the Indian subcontinent, which is visited by millions of visitors every year. During Shah Jahan’s time, gardens with buildings along the Yamuna became a common building form, though the left bank remained primarily occupied with imperial ones. Agra also became a great literary and cultural centre. The city, however, developed as a long, narrow strip. Unlike Delhi, which saw successive ambitious sultans build respective settlements or cities at different places – generally moving away from the dry Aravalli spurs in the south towards the river Yamuna in the