ASSOCIATION FOR THE STUDY OF MARBLE & OTHER STONES IN ANTIQUITY
ASMOSIA XII
Proceedings of the XII. Asmosia
International Conference of 8-14 October 2018, Izmir
Dokuz Eylül University, Desem Halls
İzmir-Türkiye
Edited by
Ali Bahadır YAVUZ
Burak YOLAÇAN
Matthias BRUNO
CONTENTS
Preface ...................................................................................................................................... vii
Applications to specific archaeological questions – use of marble
New research on iasian marble,
Fede Berti and Diego Peirano ................................................................................................... 3
Lepcis Magna and the Lesbos marble,
Fulvia Bianchi, Matthias Bruno, Donato Attanasio and Walter Prochaska ........................... 13
Quarry items from a marble yard at the ancient harbour of Smyrna,
Matthias Bruno, Fulvia Bianchi, Donato Attanasio, Akın Ersoy, Ali Bahadır Yavuz,
Burak Yolaçan and Hakan Göncü ............................................................................................ 33
Glass imitations of ornamental rocks: substitutes or luxury items? The case of marmor
numidicum and its glass skeuomorphs,
Miguel Cisneros, Esperanza Ortiz and Juan Á. Paz ................................................................ 45
Local and imported marbles in real and imitation painted revetment at Aphrodisias in Karia,
Peter D. De Staebler ................................................................................................................ 55
The Agora of Smyrna: marble and architectural decoration,
Akın Ersoy, Fulvia Bianchi, Matthias Bruno, Donato Attanasio, Ali Bahadır Yavuz,
Burak Yolaçan, and Hakan Göncü ......................................................................................... 65
Villa del Casale (Piazza Armerina, Sicily): the opera sectilia of the Basilica’s floor and
its marbles,
Enrico Gallocchio, Lorenzo Lazzarini, Lorella Pellegrino and Patrizio Pensabene .............. 75
Mt. Filfila and marble in Rusicade (Skikda, Algeria) in Roman times,
John J. Herrmann Jr., Robert H. Tykot and Annewies Van Den Hoek ...................................... 83
Thasian Hadrians: portraits of the emperor in dolomitic marble from Thasos,
John J. Herrmann, Jr. .............................................................................................................. 95
Polychrome marble at Aphrodisias: the interior scheme of the North Stoa of the Place of Palms,
Allison B. Kidd and Ben Russell............................................................................................. 105
Exploring the uses of white asiatic marbles at Roman Athens: three statuettes from the
Athenian Agora,
Brian Martens, Yannis Maniatis and Dimitris Tambakopoulos ............................................ 115
The “Centauri Furietti” in bigio morato marble. New fragments from the Atrio Mistilineo
at Hadrian’s Villa,
Adalberto Ottati...................................................................................................................... 127
iii
The use of greco scritto in Roman Campania: evidence from the Vesuvian area (Murecine,
Pompeii, Herculaneum) and the Western Bay of Naples (Cuma),
Simona Perna and Rita Scognamiglio ................................................................................... 139
Marble fragments of monumental inscriptions from the Tarraco Circus (Hispania Citerior),
Julio C. Ruiz, Pilar Lapuente, Diana Gorostidi and Mauro Brilli ........................................ 151
Provenance identification I: marble
Provenance matters: a multi-proxy approach for the determination of white marbles in the
Eastern Rhodopes and the Villa Armira, Bulgaria,
Vasiliki Anevlavi, Walter Prochaska, Zdravko Dimitrov and Sabine Ladstätter................... 165
Marble at Aeclanum (Italy): new evidence from three public buildings,
Martina Astolfi, Ben Russell, Philip Harrison, Girolamo Ferdinando De Simone and
Antonio Mesisca ..................................................................................................................... 175
On the presence of white and black Göktepe quarry marbles at Rome and Ostia,
Donato Attanasio, Matthias Bruno, Walter Prochaska and Ali Bahadır Yavuz .................... 185
On the nomenclature of the greco scritto marble: Scripta Cursiva vs. Scripta Monumenta,
Patricia A. Butz ...................................................................................................................... 195
New data on the phrygian statues from the Basilica Aemilia in the Roman Forum,
Francesca Consoli, Sabrina Violante, Emma Cantisani, Susanna Bracci and Donata Magrini ... 203
Columns of Felix Romuliana (Serbia),
Bojan Djurić, Walter Prochaska, Nuša Kovačič, Andreja Maver, Špela Okršlar, Luka Škerjanecù
and Maja Živić ....................................................................................................................... 217
Serial imports of Troad granite shafts in the large Eastern Mediterranean islands,
Eleonora Gasparini, Patrizio Pensabene, Javier A. Domingo and Isabel Roda ................... 235
Yellow-and-white breccia in Cherchel, Algeria: local or imported?
John J. Herrmann, Jr., Robert H. Tykot and Annewies van den Hoek....................................... 249
Coloured marble column shafts from some cities of Africa Proconsularis and Byzacena.
Quantitative and analytical data,
Patrizio Pensabene, Romina Monti and Alessandro D’Alessio ............................................. 257
Asiatic coloured marbles in Roman architecture in Arles (France),
Delphine Remeau .................................................................................................................. 273
Multimethod marble identification for three Augustan inscriptions in Emporiae (NE Hispania),
Isabel Rodà, Pilar Lapuente, Diana Gorostidi and Philippe Blanc ...................................... 291
The provenance of coloured marbles and granites used for column shafts preserved
at Byrsa (Carthage, Tunisia),
Ameur Younes and Lorenzo Lazzarini ................................................................................... 301
Provenance identification II: other stones
Porphyrite pebbles of the Adda river (Italy) in comparison with porfido serpentino,
Roberto Bugini and Luisa Folli .............................................................................................. 321
New data on the stone furniture of the early christian church at Bilice in the Roman province
of Dalmatia,
Mirja Jarak and Ana Maričić................................................................................................. 327
iv
On the provenace, use and distribution of granito verde a erbetta. New investigations on its
occurence and petrographic and geochemical properties,
Vilma Ruppiene, Tatjana Mirjam Gluhak and Hartwig Löhr ................................................ 337
New petrologic and geochemical methods to determine local provenance of non-marble
building stone used in the sanctuary of the Great Gods, Samothrace, Greece,
William B. Size, Bonna D. Wescoat and Michael Page ......................................................... 355
Advances in provenance techniques, methodologies and databases
Polished stone slabs and opus sectile tiles from the Promontory Palace at Caesarea Maritima,
Frankie Snyder, Barbara Burrell and Kathryn Gleason........................................................ 375
Quarries and geology: quarrying techniques, organisation, transport of stones, new
quarries, stone carving and dressing, hazards to and preservation of quarries
Stone quarry sites at Kourion in Cyprus: new archaeological and geological data,
Martina Astolfi ....................................................................................................................... 389
The “portasanta-like” marble from the Akçakaya quarry on the Limontepe near Izmir,
Hakan Göncü, Burak Yolaçan, Ali Bahadır Yavuz, Akın Ersoy, Donato Attanasio and
Matthias Bruno....................................................................................................................... 397
The Roman marble quarry zone of Spitzelofen, Austria. Mapping, finds and excavation,
Stephan Karl ........................................................................................................................... 407
The extraction technique with square-head wedges at Thasos (Greece),
Tony Koželj and Manuela Wurch-Koželj ............................................................................... 421
The ancient quarries of coastal southern Mysia and Mount Pindasos (Madra),
Hüseyin Murat Özgen and Ertunç Denktaş............................................................................ 429
Insights into the serial production of marble relief slabs in 2nd century Attika: additional
technical observations on the reliefs from Piraeus,
Arne Reinhardt ....................................................................................................................... 441
The unknown “pavonazzetto-like” marble quarry of Tirazli (Smyrna),
Ali Bahadır Yavuz, Matthias Bruno, Donato Attanasio, Akın Ersoy, Burak Yolaçan and
Hakan Göncü.......................................................................................................................... 451
Stone properties, weathering effects and restoration, as related to diagnosis problems,
matching of stone fragments and authenticity
Investigation of weathering and surface depositions on cycladic marble figurines,
Vasiliki Anevlavi and Yannis Maniatis................................................................................... 463
Geology, petrography, geomechanical properties, antique quarries and utilizations of Hereke Puddingstone (breccia di Hereke): a forgotten ancient decorative stone in Istanbul (Constantinople),
O. Serkan Angı and Yılmaz Mahmutoğlu ............................................................................... 475
Terracina (Italy). An Oriental “Barbarian” statue discovered in the Roman Theatre,
Nicoletta Cassieri ................................................................................................................... 485
Sandstone as building and decorative stone at Bolskan-Osca-Wasqua-Huesca (northeast Spain),
José Antonio Cuchí, Pilar Lapuente and Luis Auque ............................................................ 497
v
Pigments and paintings on marble
The painted reproduction of porfido rosso and porfido serpentino (14th-15th centuries),
Roberto Bugini and Luisa Folli .............................................................................................. 507
Celadonite from Smyrna (Izmir - Türkiye): did Vitruvius get right?
Mümtaz Çolak, Hamdallah A. Béarat and İbrahim Gündoğan ............................................. 517
Aspects of gilding in Roman marble sarcophagi
Eliana Siotto ........................................................................................................................... 529
vi
COLUMNS OF FELIX ROMULIANA (SERBIA)
Bojan Djurić1, Walter Prochaska2, Nuša Kovačič1, Andreja Maver4, Špela Okršlar1,
Luka Škerjanec1 and Maja Živić3
1
2
University of Ljubljana, Department of Archaeology, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Montanuniversität Leoben, Department of Applied Geosciences and Geophysics, Leoben, Austria
3
National Museum Zaječar, Zaječar, Serbia
4
Ljubljana, Slovenia
Abstract
Felix Romuliana was a retreat villa of the Emperor Galerius at Gamzigrad (Serbia), the
remains of which include a fair number of stone fragments belonging to its columnar architecture. In
recent years, work has been undertaken with the help of students from the University of Ljubljana to
comprehensively analyse the column remains. The material for analysis comprised 83 bases or parts
thereof, 227 fragments and three complete shafts, as well as 72 fragments of Ionic and Corinthian
capitals recovered during the archaeological excavations undertaken at the site from 1953 onwards.
The text below focuses on the column remains in marble, white and coloured. The white marbles
mostly came from Prokonnesos and Pentelicon, but also from Thasos and Berkovica. Coloured
marbles comprising marmor thessalicum, marmor troadense, marmor syenite and pink Berkovica
marble (BG) were only used for column shafts and even there rarely.
Keywords: Felix Romuliana, Roman columns, white and coloured marbles.
Introduction
The “retreat palace” 1 or villa of the Emperor C. Galerius Valerius Maximianus (c. 260
– 311), named Felix Romuliana and located near the present-day village of Gamzigrad
(Zaječar, Serbia) (Fig. 1), was built over a short period between 293 and 311 2. Its remains
consist of monumental fortification walls with towers and two main gates (East and West),
lower parts of the buildings in the interior, as well as architectural elements that are
considerably less well-preserved 3. Once extremely rich in imported white and coloured
marbles, used in two residential complexes, three temples and baths for architectural members
(columns, entablatures, door frames etc.) and a range of opera sectilia, the villa was almost
completely stripped of its marble, which was used most probably for the production of lime 4
and possibly cannon balls 5.
Archaeological excavations have been taking place at Felix Romuliana since 1953 6,
unearthing numerous fragments of architectural elements that have not previously been
studied in detail 7. In spite of a high level of fragmentation, they are of importance in the
1
Duval 1997, 148; Bülow 2011.
According to Vasić Č. 1995; Vasić Č. 1997, 149, it was constructed between 303 and 310. For different
opinions, see Vasić M. 2007 and Bülow 2016.
3
For a detailed description, see Bülow et al. 2009; Srejović et al. 1978; Srejović 1985; Čanak-Medić, StojkovićPavelka 2011.
4
Breitner notes that several limekilns were presumably found west of the Temple of Jupiter; Bülow et al. 2009, 137.
5
See Greenhalgh 2005, 19-21.
6
For the history of research, see Živić 2010.
7
A catalogue of the surviving column shafts, bases and capitals from Palace D1 and several other elements from
other parts of the villa is published in Čanak-Medić 1978, 177-218. The fragments of architectural elements
unearthed during later excavations are summarily presented in Srejović 1983, 88-92. Breitner published a brief
analysis of the architectural decoration of the villa in Bülow et al. 2009, 136-142.
2
217
Figure 1: Location of Felix Romuliana in the province
of Dacia Ripensis.
general context of the Late Roman imperial architecture (Palaces of Diocletian in Split, of
Galerius in Thessaloniki and Sofia, imperial palace in Sremska Mitrovica etc.), but even more
so in their well-defined and very short period of use.
The great majority of the architectural elements was excavated in Palace D1 and the
Temple of Jupiter (Fig. 2). That said, it is only possible to more precisely locate those
fragments that either bear the number of the square grid in which they were excavated or were
published with these data 8. The markings inscribed on the fragments have alas faded on many
of the fragments stored in the open.
Figure 2: Plan of the retreat villa after Bülow et al.
2009.
Destruction and reuse
The shape of the fragments reveals the most effective manner of breaking up large
pieces of marble for reuse. For the column bases, the first step was to break off the projecting
parts of the square plinths, as well as of both tori; the remaining core was then broken up into
smaller pieces. For the Ionic and Corinthian capitals, the volutes and parts of the abacus were
8
Čanak-Medić 1978.
218
detached first; the resulting core was broken up further, first vertically and then horizontally.
The shafts of white marble were first broken up horizontally into short pieces, usually less
than a metre long. These were cleft into segments as you would with a tree trunk (Fig. 3). The
long triangular-sectioned pieces were finally broken up into short pieces. The shafts of other
marbles (marmor troadense, marmor thessalicum, marmor syenite) were only broken into
short cylinders and not cleft lengthwise. One, of marmor troadense, shows the early stage of
producing a spherical object, possibly a cannon ball or a stone vessel.
Seven almost complete Attic column bases have been discovered in addition to
numerous fragments (76 in total). Six are preserved at more than half their original size (8%),
twelve are not larger than one quarter (16%) and 58 are medium-sized to small fragments
(76%). Only three column shafts survive to their complete length, unintentionally broken
widthwise. The remaining 68 shaft parts survive as variously large fragments 9.
Figure 3: Fragment forms of column shafts and
bases.
Spatial distribution
In addition to three complete column shafts and seven more or less complete bases,
there were 220 fragments of different sizes recorded at the site that belonged to different parts
of columns. The total number of all column parts (base, shaft, capital) 10 is made up of three
numerically almost identical groups (37% bases, 31% shafts, 32% capitals) that correspond
with the three elements of a column and corroborate the representative nature of the surviving
fragments in spite of the high degree of fragmentation.
Unfortunately, only 59 fragments and complete parts (26%) have a precise findspot
within the villa. Their spatial distribution suggests that the process of fragmentation largely
took place where the fragments originally stood, though some degree of fragment migration
within the site is also to be expected.
The markings on the 83 recorded bases or their parts show that 27 (32.5%) can be
located as to their position within the site’s square grid. Of the 71 recorded shafts or their
parts, 22 (31%) can be located in this way, as well as six (13.6%) of the 44 Ionic capitals and
9
10
57% in the size of 10–40 cm, 20% of 41–80 cm and 23% of 81–197 cm.
83 (37%) whole complete and fragmented bases, 74 (31%) whole and fragmented column shafts, 44 (19%)
fragments of Ionic capitals and 29 (13%) of Corinthian capitals.
219
four (13.8%) of the Corinthian capitals. All of the spatially determinable fragments and whole
parts come from two investigated complexes: Palace D1 and the templum cum porticibus
dedicated to Jupiter. A single column is known to have originated from the interior of the
baths located in the SE corner of the villa. The palace is known to have yielded seven column
bases (of the type without plinth), three shafts, two Ionic and two Corinthian capitals. The
north, south and east porticoes of the temple and the temple itself revealed 20 bases, 18
column shafts, four Ionic and two Corinthian capitals.
Bases
The column bases 11 used in different architectural contexts at Felix Romuliana are
without exception of the “Greek” Attic-Ionic type 12 with the upper torus in line with the
scotia's upper fillet, with or without plinth 13. They are generally similar to the bases used in
two other Tetrarchic palaces – Diocletian's Palace in Split 14 and Galerius' Palace in
Thessaloniki 15, where only the “Greek” Attic-Ionic type was used. The bases from the
Tetrarchic palace in Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) have not yet been published.
Two large groups of column bases stand out for their size (Fig. 4). The first (B3)
measure 62 cm in lower diameter and 52-53 cm in the diameter of the upper torus. They
include fourteen bases without (B3a; base height of 17 cm) and ten bases with plinths (B3b;
base height of 18-19 cm). They bear a round dowel hole at the centre of the upper torus
bedding surface, some have two additional rectangular dowel holes, one on either side of the
round hole. The resting surface bears two eccentric and rectangular dowel holes. The seven
spatially determinable base fragments show that the bases of this group were used in Palace
D1. Two other fragments without plinth have a reconstructed lower diameter of 66 cm and the
upper diameter of 55 cm; they most likely belong to Group B3a.
The second group (B4) consists of 23 bases with plinths, measuring 70-74 cm in plinth
length, 60-62 cm in upper torus diameter and 25-29 cm in height (one base is 33 cm high).
Seven better-preserved bases have a round dowel hole at the centre of the bedding surface and
a square hole at the centre of the resting surface. Complete or fragmented iron dowels encased
in lead survive in five of the holes. The bases of this group do not appear to have been
finished, one is only half finished 16. Five of the fragments of this group have been found in
the area of the Temple of Jupiter, hence we may ascribe the group as a whole to this
architectural complex.
Five core fragments of the column bases without plinth measure 22-23 cm in height
and roughly 78 cm in the reconstructed lower torus diameter. They bear a square dowel hole
at the centre of the bedding surface. To these we can add two more fragments of a similarlysized lower torus, recovered from the area of Palace D1; they are likely the bases of the
same group (B4).
11
For the terminology of column bases, see Ginouvès 1992, 70-74, and Wesenberg 1994.
Vitruvius (III 5, 1-3) states the proportions of the Attic bases. Much has been written on this subject from the
18th century onwards, Stuart, Revett 1762-1794; for the summary of the research, see Dirschedl 2013, 285. The
Late Antique and Early Byzantine column bases have not often been discussed as a specific category of
architectural elements; on the subject, see the synthetic article by Joachim Kramer 1970, with earlier references.
13
It would appear that the Ionic-Attic bases without plinth are specific to the architecture of Felix Romuliana, as
they are unknown in either the palace of Galerius in Thessaloniki, those of Diocletian in Split and Izmit, or the
imperial palace at Sremska Mitrovica.
14
Hebrard, Zeiller 1911; Mirnik 1990; Mcnally 1996.
15
Demadiou 2015.
16
See Asgari 1992.
12
220
The two largest bases from the site, without plinths (B5), also come from the palace,
and measure 95 cm in their lower diameter and 82 cm in the upper torus diameter (base height
of 26 cm), as does a small base without plinth (B2) with a lower diameter of 49 cm and an
upper torus diameter of 39 cm (base height of 15 cm). In size, it is similar to a base with
plinth (B1) that measures 46 cm in plinth width and 33 cm in upper torus diameter (base
height 17.5 cm). The smallest column base (B0) from the site is fragmentary and has a 40 cm
wide plinth. The findspot of both of the two small bases is unknown.
The column bases from the palace are all smoothly finished. In contrast, the bases
from the temple appear unfinished; most are roughly dressed with a toothed chisel and at least
one appears at the quarry production level. Their sizes vary by several centimetres in all
groups, particularly in those from the temple complex.
Figure 4: Forms and groups of coloumn bases.
Shafts
Column shafts (Fig. 5) are almost all of white Prokonnesos marble, but some also of
Thasos and Pentelikon marbles; fragments of coloured marbles are rare.
The column shafts of Prokonnesos marble are of two kinds. Most (31) terminate above
in an astragal moulding, below in a flare. Some (9) terminate above and below in the same,
but inverse flare, with the fillet slightly conical in some cases.
Only three shafts survive to a complete length. One comes from Atrium H of Palace
D1 and is 415 cm, i.e. 14 pedes high 17 (lower fillet diameter 57 cm, astragal diameter 52.5
cm) 18; it is not completely finished. One comes from the temple complex and is 398 cm or
13.5 pedes high (lower fillet diameter 54 cm, astragal diameter 45 cm). The third comes from
the baths and is 355 cm or 12 pedes high (lower fillet diameter 46 cm, astragal diameter 39
17
18
Čanak-Medić 1978, 104, 207, Fig. 197; published height of 414 cm.
Because of the specific fragmentation of the moulded shaft terminals, it was in most cases only possible to
reliably reconstruct the diameter at the astragal or lower fillet. The reconstructed height is based on the average
(smaller) diameter above the flare.
221
cm). The first two terminate above in an astragal and fillet moulding, the third one in a fillet 19.
All share a classic canonical 1:8 ratio between lower shaft diameter and height 20.
The diameters of the upper and lower parts of the column shafts vary slightly within
individual size groups, making it very difficult to reconstruct the original size from fragments,
particularly small ones. The surface finish also varies, from rough with a toothed chisel to
smooth.
Most shaft fragments (37) belong to the group with the astragal diameter of 48–52 cm
and the lower fillet diameter of ca. 58 cm. Some of them are smoothly dressed, others finished
with a toothed chisel. Thirteen fragments were found in the temple complex. The only three
known pieces recovered from the palace also fall into this group; the shaft from Atrium F is
finished, i.e. smoothed 21, not so the two shafts from Atrium H 22. The completely surviving
shaft found in the temple complex, with the astragal diameter of 44–45 cm and the lower fillet
diameter of 54 cm, is apparently unlike any other shaft fragment from the site.
Figure 5: Form and size of coloumn shafts.
The column shafts that terminate above in a fillet include five with a maximum upper
diameter of 48–50 cm. One of them was found in the temple area, hence we may ascribe the
group as a whole to this architectural complex. One complete column shaft and two
fragments, with a maximum upper diameter of 39 cm and the lower fillet diameter of 46 cm,
come from the bath complex. The findspots for one fragment with maximum upper diameter
of 31 cm and for two others with lower fillet diameter of 34 cm, are unknown.
Ten of the coloured column shaft fragments belong to three shafts of marmor
thessalicum. Their astragal diameter varies from 60 to 62 cm, the lower fillet diameter from
64 to 67 cm; the reconstructed height of these shafts is 17 pedes or 503 cm.
The only column shaft of marmor troadense measures 43.5 cm in astragal diameter
and 12 pedes oz. 355 cm in reconstructed height. The lower part of the shaft of pink
Berkovica marble has a lower fillet diameter of 27 cm and a height of 6 pedes or 177 cm.
The 520 and 420 cm of column shaft length as published in Srejović 1983, 48, Fig. 44, cannot be confirmed.
Wilson 2000, 150-151.
21
Čanak-Medić 1978, 208, fig. 199.
22
Čanak-Medić 1978, 207, fig. 197. The only completely surviving column shaft, found broken in two upon
discovery, has a round central dowel hole on the bedding surface and a similar but smaller and eccentricallypositioned hole beside it, and no pour channel.
19
20
222
The fragmentary red porphyry shafts have different diameters (52 cm, 40 cm, 30 cm),
indicating that they belonged to several columns. At least one was roughly 14 pedes high. The
two fragments of pink Aswan granite measure 51–52 cm in diameter, with the likely height
being 14 pedes or 414 cm.
Ionic and Corinthian capitals
The 72 fragments of white marble capitals comprise 43 from Ionic (Fig. 6) and 29
from Corinthian capitals (Fig. 7). Two of the Ionic examples, recovered in Palace D1, have an
echinus base diameter of 41–42 cm 23. The Ionic capitals from the temple complex have an
echinus base diameter 49–50 cm 24. The fragmentary conservation of the capitals of Felix
Romuliana does not always allow their exact typological identification. The most relevant or
best-preserved fragments belong to normal Corinthian capitals of the Asiatic type.
Figure 6: Fragment of Ionic capitals.
The Corinthian capitals are formally highly varied and belong to different types within
the proposed classifications 25; practically no two large pieces are the same. They vary much
less in size. Seven or eight capitals are approximately of the same size, with a preserved or
estimated height of 60-61 cm and a lower diameter of 47-50 cm 26. As such, they would
correspond with the largest size group of column shafts made of Prokonnesos marble. Two of
these capitals were found in the temple complex and are made of Prokonnesos marble 27, while
two others of Prokonnesos marble were presumably recovered from Palace D1 28. Two of the
capitals of Prokonnesos marble have a decorated abacus. On one, the decoration is clearly
visible and consists of a cable pattern above and a pattern of water plant leaves with a midrib
below. The same abacus moulding decoration is found on several fragments of similarly sized
abaci; these were possibly chipped off the same or similar capitals during the process of
breaking up for reuse. The abacus decoration on the second capital is poorly visible,
particularly the upper pattern; the lower pattern may be either water leaves without a midrib
or a hollow tongue. There are several small abacus fragments with a similar decoration,
consisting of a cable pattern and water plant leaves without the midrib. Formal variations
continue on the helices. One capital has moulded unsymmetric helices; all other helices are
23
They would correspond with 11 pedes or 355 cm high column shafts, but no such fragments have been
identified among the surviving remains from the site.
24
For such Ionic capitals, see Beykan 2012.
25
E.g. Pensabene 1986; Fischer 1992.
26
Breitner 2011, 146, writes of a series of five Corinthian capitals from the large temple, but does not specify them.
27
One published in Breitner 2011, 146, fig. 4, the other in Srejović 1983, 49, fig. 44.
28
One excavated in 1961 in Atrium F of Palace I, Čanak-Medić 1978, cat. no. 51, 208-209, the other found by
chance in 1958, Čanak-Medić 1978, cat. no. 63, 214.
223
unmoulded, on one capital the unmoulded helices are connected with a short bar. The capitals
further show differences in the shape of the leaves. They are arranged in two tiers on most
fragments, with four folioles in the lower lobe and five in the medial lobe where visible; the
leaves are either contiguous or separate. All fragments bear cauliculi in the shape of simple
triangular knobs. One capital, found by chance in the temple complex, is smaller and
measures 50 cm in height 29. An even smaller capital (height 37 cm; lower diameter 34.5
cm), 30 from the palace complex (either Palace D1 or D3), has a single tier of contiguous,
almost crammed leaves showing unusually low relief towards the bottom, with three folioles
in the lower lobe and four in the medial lobe, as well as upturned leaves instead of helices.
This capital is made of Prokonnesos marble.
Apart from the formal diversity, the Corinthian capitals from Felix Romuliana show a
differentiated use of stone, with Proconnesian, Thasian and Pentelic 31 marbles used alongside
local limestone. It is a diversity known from other sites as well, notably the Palace of
Diocletian in Split 32 and Sirmium 33. The three sites also share the bulk of construction
activities in the Tetrarchic period and a number of different forms of Asiatic capitals, with
parallels across the Mediterranean.
Provenance analysis of the white marbles in Romuliana’s architecture
The marble analysis involved a total of 90 fragments of architectural elements (83)
and veneer slabs (7). For geological reasons, the wider area around Romuliana is lacking in
marble. The macroscopic analysis of the marble fragments and the general petrographic
characteristics and isotopic composition of the white marble samples points to prokonnesian,
pentelic and thasian marbles. These were selected as reference groups and examined using a
multivariate discrimination analysis based on the results of the isotope analysis, the trace
element analysis of the structure bound trace elements and the chemical analysis of
microinclusions 34.
Figure 7: Fragments of Corinthian capitals.
Čanak-Medić 1978, 214, fig. 214.
Čanak-Medić 1978, cat. no. 63, 217.
31
Two fragments of unknown findspots have been identified as made of Pentelic marble. One is a piece of the
abacus, the other of the lower kalathos, but neither can be determined as to their form.
32
Mcnally 1996; Matetić 2009.
33
Jeremić 1995; Maver et al. 2009
34
For the methods used, see Prochaska, Attanasio 2020.
29
30
224
The isotope diagram (Fig. 8) shows that the compositional fields of the Prokonnesos
and Thasos samples overlap to a considerable degree, while those of the Pentelic and
Berkovica marbles are clearly separated. The majority of the samples plot into the
Prokonnesos/Thasos area preventing a clear separation and assignment of the samples on that
basis alone. A group of seven slab and veneer samples, as well as one column base,
characterised by a very light O-isotopic composition, falls well outside these fields and a
corresponding equivalent of quarry samples. A similar isotopic composition to these
fragments has been observed in the architectural pieces of pink marble from Felix Romuliana.
The source of this marble is in Moesia Superior, near present-day Berkovica in the vicinity of
Montana (Bulgaria) 35.
Figure 8: Isotope diagram of the white marble
samples from Felix Romuliana. The values for
prokonnesian, thasian and pentelic marbles are
presented as statistical 90% probability ellipses. The
overlap of the former two prevents a clear assignment
of individual samples (Graph: W. Prochaska).
To overcome the problem of overlapping data, a multivariate discrimination analysis
was performed using the Statistika and SPSS software packages. The best discrimination
between the marble populations and the best reassignment was achieved when using the Mg,
Fe, Mn, DS, Li/Na, Cl/Na, K/Na, Br/Na, I/Na, δ18O‰, δ13C‰ variables (Tab. 1). The table
clearly shows the improvement in the attainable discrimination and a very high degree of
separation of the datasets, with almost no uncertainties left.
Figure 9: The bivariate diagram with the two most
powerful canonical factors of the multivariate
calculation (Graph: W. Prochaska).
The bivariate diagram (Fig. 9) with the two most powerful canonical factors of the
multivariate calculation shows that the compositional fields of the considered marble
provenance areas are largely separated when considering a larger number of variables. It has
to be borne in mind, however, that the graphic display is only an approximation because a
35
See Prochaska, Živić 2018.
225
multidimensional system cannot be displayed in a bivariate diagram. The correct degree
(numerical data) of assigning a given sample to a certain population can only be achieved by a
mathematical, statistical calculation.
The white and coloured marbles of Felix Romuliana
Analyses 36 show that three intact column shafts and fragments of others from Atria F
and H of Palace D1 were made of Prokonnesos and Thasos marbles. Of the numerous other
shaft fragments made of white marbles and coming from the area of the Jupiter temple with
porticoes, most were made of Proconnesos marble. The shaft fragments analysed from this
group include one of thasian marble. The findspot for the shaft fragment of Pentelicon
marble is unknown.
Of the coloured marbles, ten fragments with unknown findspots belong to three shafts
of marmor thessalicum. Three belong to a single shaft of marmor troadense, two fragments
are of marmor syenite. Three shaft fragments are of lapis porphyrites; one of these was used
as an inlay to repair a damaged shaft and was found in the floor of the East Gate, while
another fragment shows part of a cavity prepared for repair. Also found were two fragments
of smaller column shafts of pink Berkovica marble 37. For one the original position is
unknown, while the other was reused as a stoup in the Early Byzantine complex southeast of
the Temple of Jupiter.
The macroscopic analysis of the marble used for column bases, confirmed by
chemical, as well as 18 O and 13C stable isotope analyses, shows that those without
plinths used in Palace D1 were made of Pentelic marble. The bases with plinths from the
large temple are all made of Prokonessos marble. The bases with plinths of pentelic
marble most likely come from Palace D1, as do those of thasian marble. One large base
with plinth was made of white Berkovica marble. The Ionic capitals and their fragments
recovered in Palace D1 are of pentelic, those from the temple area of prokonnesian,
some also of grey thasian marble. The Corinthian capitals are made of prokonnesian (16
fragments), thasian (2) and pentelic marbles (3).
Conclusion
The intensive destruction and reuse has left the columns that once adorned the
luxurious architecture in Felix Romuliana in a very poor state of conservation. The bestpreserved of the elements found during the decades of investigation of the site are column
bases. Their measurements suggest at least five different groups: B1 46/33 cm (1 piece), B2
49-39 cm (1), B3 62/53 cm (24), B4 74/58-60 cm (30) and B5 95/82 cm (2), which may help
us in reconstructing the different sizes of the columns. Groups B3 and B4 come in two
variants, either with or without plinth. The bases of Group B3 are linked to Palace D1 and
made of Pentelic marble, those of Group B4 are linked to the Temple of Jupiter and made of
prokonnesian marble. Some of the latter survive in quarry condition. The column shafts
corresponding to the B4 bases are those of white Proconnesos marble as well as of red
porphyry and pink Aswan granite, measuring 58/48 cm in diameter and 415 cm or 14 pedes in
height, which is consistent with the classic canonical 1:8 ratio 38. The white marble column
shafts originate from both Palace D1 and the Temple of Jupiter, and show a predominance of
a standardised column size. The B3 bases cannot positively be associated with any of the
36
Analyses by Walter Prochaska.
Defined by Walter Prochaska.
38
Wilson 2000, 150-151.
37
226
column shaft fragments, but possibly with two Ionic capitals 39. Badly damaged fragments of a
shaft made of thasian marble found in Atrium F of Palace D1 could correspond to these Ionic
columns37. It is also not possible to tie any of the column shaft fragments to the B1 40 and B5
bases 41. The B2 bases may correspond with only two shaft fragments 42. Most Ionic and
Corinthian capitals correspond with the B4 bases and associated column shafts.
The surface finish of some shafts and even more so the bases suggests that parts of
the excavated temple complex were not completely finished at the time of Galerius’ death.
The column shafts from Atrium H of Palace D1 indicate that this part of the palace was also
not fully finished.
The results of the marble analyses have shown the predominant use of two white
marbles for bases and shafts: pentelic (but also thasian) in Palace D1 and prokonessian in the
temple complex. The recovered Corinthian and Ionic capitals were mainly made of
prokonessian alongside thasian and pentelic marbles. One base with plinth made of white
Berkovica marble also confirms the use of this regional marble for architectural elements 43.
Together with several other architectural fragments of the same marble, two small column
shafts of Berkovica pink marble are the little of what remains of an unknown building (or its
part). Other coloured marbles cannot reliably be linked to any of the known buildings or
complexes despite some reconstruction attempts that link the shafts made of marmor
thessalicum to the Temple of Jupiter 44.
The considerable diversity of columns in both size and material reflects the
architectural complexity of Galerius’ villa on the one hand, and opens the possibility of an
at least partial use of spoliated elements in the villa on the other. Some of the bases without
plinth for example, made of pentelic marble, show damage and repair prior to being built
into the villa (Fig. 10), which would suggest they were removed from their original setting
and reused in Romuliana. The column shafts of pentelic marble could also belong to this
presumably reused group of elements. In contrast, the unfinished state of several bases of
Prokonnesos marble 45 (Fig. 11) and their half-finished products, coupled with the unfinished
state of numerous column shafts is irrefutable evidence of these column elements being
used in their quarry state. The Ionic capitals of Prokonnesos marble associated with the
latter are poorly preserved, but nevertheless show a fairly high degree of formal
homogeneity; the Corinthian capitals made of grey prokonnesian are formally diverse, but
more or less the same size. The forms of the bases indicate deliberate differences in the
design of at least two buildings (Palace D1 and the Temple of Jupiter). Inasmuch as we can
discern from the publications, these features distinguish Felix Romuliana from the known
architectural complexes of the same category – Galerius’ Palace in Thessaloniki 46,
Diocletian’s Palace in Split 47 and the imperial palace in Sremska Mitrovica 48, none of which
yielded bases without a plinth.
The white marbles used in Romuliana all came from quarries in the eastern
Mediterranean with the exception of the regional quarry at Berkovica. The products of
prokonnesian marble undoubtedly came directly from the quarry, possibly also those of
39
The column shafts would be 355 cm or 12 pedes high.
The corresponding column shaft is 237 cm or 8 pedes high.
41
The corresponding column shaft is 622 cm or 21 pedes high.
42
The shafts would be 296 cm or 10 pedes high.
43
White, grey and coloured marble from Berkovica was mostly used for slabs and opus sectile floors. See Djurić,
Prochaska 2021.
44
Čanak-Medić, Stojković-Pavelka 2010, 82, fig. 45.
45
These are closely comparable with the bases from the palace of Galerius in Thessaloniki; Demanidou 2015.
46
Demanidou 2015.
47
Hébrard, Zeiller 1911.
48
Jeremić 2016.
40
227
thasian; the same is less certain for the products of pentelic marble. What is certain is that all
these quarries lie close to the presumed supply route that led across the sea to the mouth of the
Danube. With the exception of the two coloured marbles from Egypt (red porphyry and pink
granite), the quarries of other coloured marbles (marmor thesalicum, marmor troadense) were
also located close to this route that continued up the Danube to the likely reloading point.
Figure 10: Fragment of a column base of Pentelic Figure 11: Fragment of a column base of Prokonnesos
marble, without plinth and with clamp holes.
marble in quarry condition.
Although it is possible that half-finished products were being transported up the
Danube to the confluence with the Timok and up the Timok to the immediate vicinity of Felix
Romuliana, it seems logistically more likely that cargo was reloaded in Ratiaria (modern
Arčar, BG) on the Danube and from there transported on land to the construction site. The
marble from Berkovica was also transported on land, via Montana (civitas Montanensium)
and along the same road from Ratiaria49. The products of the white and coloured marbles
from Berkovica recovered at Felix Romuliana also indicate that workshops from the
stonemasonry centre at Montana 50, geographically closest to Romuliana of all major centres,
may have played a significant role in finishing the architectural elements at the villa.
49
50
See Lemke 2016.
See Ivanov, Luka 2015, 252-254.
228
229
Lab
no.
5475
5945
5956
5962
5965
5969
5981
5986
5988
5963
5940
5987
5994
8480
8481
8482
5941
5947
8465
5966
5992
5995
5942
5943
5948
5949
5950
5952
5954
5955
5957
5958
5959
5960
5961
5968
5970
5971
5972
5973
5974
Sample
no.
FRM 074
FRM 211
FRM 226
FRM 232
FRM 235
FRM 240
FRM 252
FRM 258
FRM 260
FRM 233
FRM 206
FRM 259
FRM 267
FRM 268
FRM 269
FRM 302
FRM 207
FRM 215
FRM 007
FRM 236
FRM 264
FRM 270
FRM 208
FRM 209
FRM 218
FRM 219
FRM 220
FRM 222
FRM 224
FRM 225
FRM 227
FRM 228
FRM 229
FRM 230
FRM 231
FRM 239
FRM 241
FRM 242
FRM 243
FRM 244
FRM 245
Artifact
Quarry
Corinthian capital
Corinthian capital
Corinthian capital
Corinthian capital
Corinthian capital
Corinthian capital
Corinthian capital
Corinthian capital
Corinthian capital
Corinthian capital
Corinthian capital
Corinthian capital
Corinthian capital
Corinthian capital
Corinthian capital
Corinthian capital
Corinthian capital
Corinthian capital
Corinthian capital
Corinthian capital
Corinthian capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Penteli
Penteli
Penteli
Thasos
Thasos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Absolute
probability
53,5
68,8
40,1
72,3
84,4
76,0
13,8
4,9
64,4
0,0
7,7
96,6
45,3
96,3
51,0
65,8
29,2
41,0
0,1
67,3
70,8
92,7
51,9
58,0
82,6
89,4
68,7
49,1
88,2
96,0
51,4
77,1
92,1
87,5
97,8
96,4
91,2
99,6
62,9
42,6
75,7
DS
MgCO3
9262
3025
866
1180
1416
1681
1483
955
2957
2854
2234
1210
979
9781
11059
2500
3948
10104
15605
1867
1100
4056
3142
3017
4466
2550
1696
2167
1977
2845
2962
4293
2028
5429
4076
4067
2389
2304
3250
2622
2817
1,00
1,27
0,44
1,11
1,08
1,14
5,68
0,70
0,80
5,57
0,89
0,87
0,70
0,99
1,60
2,93
1,17
1,06
1,27
0,76
0,49
1,06
2,01
2,03
4,62
2,70
1,41
1,39
1,85
1,52
1,44
1,66
0,94
4,51
1,29
1,29
1,42
0,88
1,26
1,53
1,47
Fe
ppm
48
49
84
75
75
108
110
46
49
244
74
106
55
111
76
104
274
274
469
49
57
75
231
186
99
106
41
64
95
61
102
65
61
171
50
80
77
59
67
80
51
Mn
ppm
16
10
35
33
11
11
12
17
11
17
31
51
47
24
45
36
60
53
74
40
27
16
13
11
10
11
10
9
14
10
11
10
9
18
8
17
15
10
10
13
10
Sr
ppm
151
154
155
198
144
144
303
143
139
684
247
247
191
172
124
160
161
168
187
189
243
204
234
137
160
145
143
203
280
175
257
236
187
196
168
184
159
157
145
249
177
Li/Na
Cl/Na
K/Na
Br/Na
I/Na
SO4/Na
δ18O ‰
δ13C ‰
0,053
0,116
0,559
0,866
0,405
0,374
0,986
0,285
0,076
0,385
1,375
1,028
0,574
0,12
0,794
1,371
1,222
0,915
1,159
0,302
0,677
0,869
1,131
1,125
0,283
0,134
0,124
0,206
0,649
0,264
0,325
1,135
0,280
1,322
0,164
0,521
0,259
0,111
0,290
0,762
0,283
1068
1061
647
826
1288
1974
956
922
1444
456
1378
1102
612
88
346
1176
1998
2589
4764
1390
951
1384
1336
1488
1408
1790
886
1401
1775
1220
1251
1317
1505
1937
1313
1420
1693
1581
1645
1152
1341
537
506
555
462
397
319
404
440
259
564
2072
440
308
40
63
457
340
102
149
1374
445
216
583
578
240
261
452
326
475
235
239
258
405
234
134
122
246
207
511
329
167
1,1
3,1
5,7
3,2
3,9
5,1
12,6
5,7
3,8
3,7
4,2
3,0
0,6
0,6
1,4
4,1
2,8
4,1
4,6
1,1
3,0
10,3
8,3
5,7
6,4
8,2
3,8
11,9
10,2
4,3
14,9
7,3
8,8
10,9
8,5
6,7
5,7
7,5
7,6
13,4
7,8
7,8
15,9
18,3
32,4
8,5
10,1
72,1
45,0
9,3
17,1
19,5
31,6
32,1
4,2
5,2
20,8
2,2
1,8
2,5
22,1
98,2
24,7
53,0
9,2
11,0
10,2
19,3
51,8
35,8
22,5
68,9
16,8
22,2
31,5
30,3
32,0
12,6
21,3
30,6
35,5
23,3
81,1
1349,5
3192,9
2542,6
1355,8
671,9
6831,0
18180,8
1026,4
1212,8
593,8
6009,8
15225,1
4091,7
4078,6
2303,7
115,7
71,0
179,3
1038,5
38586,7
6529,6
1669,8
1233,2
784,9
1242,1
1597,2
1092,2
3962,8
2694,4
1514,3
1519,8
963,2
550,2
809,7
333,1
908,8
1142,1
952,6
2331,3
1243,1
-2,37
-0,91
-2,08
-1,33
-1,21
-1,32
-1,21
-1,63
-0,96
-1,92
-3,00
-2,95
-0,47
-2,02
-1,50
-2,08
-5,38
-5,12
-5,50
-0,71
-0,70
-1,64
-1,23
-1,50
-1,30
-1,64
-1,28
-1,31
-1,99
-1,67
-1,50
-3,53
-2,06
-3,36
-2,10
-2,87
-1,66
-2,20
-3,38
-1,18
-1,04
3,40
3,28
3,17
3,94
3,26
3,15
2,90
3,48
3,48
2,57
3,58
3,69
3,82
3,46
3,84
2,17
2,73
2,79
2,75
3,84
3,84
2,53
3,09
2,69
3,52
3,72
3,44
1,58
3,15
3,08
2,63
3,04
2,56
2,77
3,36
3,19
3,22
2,80
2,95
2,89
3,57
Table 1: Median contents of the analyzed variables. Stable isotopes are presented in the usual δ quotation. The results of the fluid analyses are normalized to
Na*1000. DS (dissolved solids in ppb) is the sum of the main ions (Na, K, and Cl in ppb) of the leaching procedure. Trace element contents are given in pp.
229
230
Lab
no.
5975
5977
5978
5979
5980
5982
5983
5984
5985
5989
5991
5993
5463
5464
5944
5946
5967
5976
5951
5953
5470
5939
8474
8476
8477
8475
5469
8478
5964
8466
8467
8470
8471
5459
5460
5461
5462
5467
5468
8472
8473
8469
5465
Sample
no.
FRM 246
FRM 248
FRM 249
FRM 250
FRM 251
FRM 253
FRM 255
FRM 256
FRM 257
FRM 261
FRM 263
FRM 265
FRM 061
FRM 062
FRM 210
FRM 214
FRM 237
FRM 247
FRM 221
FRM 223
FRM 069
FRM 189
FRM 162
FRM 192
FRM 194
FRM 177
FRM 068
FRM 295
FRM 234
FRM 087
FRM 096
FRM 100
FRM 103
FRM 057
FRM 058
FRM 059
FRM 060
FRM 066
FRM 067
FRM 104
FRM 106
FRM 098
FRM 063
Artifact
Quarry
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
Ionic capital
column shaft
column shaft
column shaft
column shaft
column shaft
column shaft
column shaft
column shaft
column base
column base
column base
column base
column base
column base
column base
column base
column base
column base
column base
column base
column base
column base
slab
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Penteli
Penteli
Penteli
Penteli
Penteli
Thasos
Thasos
Thasos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Penteli
Thasos
Thasos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Proconnesos
Penteli
Penteli
Penteli
Penteli
Penteli
Penteli
Penteli
Penteli
Berkovica
Berkovica
Absolute
probability
97,4
67,1
42,8
76,2
99,6
85,1
77,7
82,3
22,4
74,6
65,2
56,7
84,3
42,8
46,5
41,5
80,1
47,6
58,8
67,6
47,0
76,9
80,0
50,8
2,9
12,4
48,6
0,0
86,7
59,3
4,1
47,4
37,1
90,7
86,7
53,5
98,0
14,2
0,5
72,7
56,1
94,7
0,4
DS
MgCO3
2704
1781
2609
5137
3014
2470
3927
2991
3607
2908
3630
2141
11222
13166
8938
8878
11140
6163
1444
1001
1130
5229
7634
3857
17033
4993
9370
3103
1947
2761
3792
4178
12327
7568
5913
4449
7214
12333
30458
17268
20186
4862
2582
1,57
0,85
6,25
1,22
2,51
1,67
2,04
2,01
1,07
0,79
1,30
0,91
1,52
1,28
1,40
1,30
1,93
1,42
1,15
0,69
1,25
2,20
2,65
9,19
3,80
1,80
1,87
0,88
1,49
1,77
0,68
3,35
14,90
1,02
1,16
0,97
1,22
1,13
3,01
3,62
2,43
0,57
0,50
Fe
ppm
80
49
42
53
99
77
221
75
55
66
85
72
300
287
344
129
349
63
71
42
89
73
106
116
193
1024
78
840
54
136
100
528
76
153
316
279
327
385
1119
650
415
1977
889
Table 1: (continued).
230
Mn
ppm
12
10
10
10
30
16
19
16
16
10
18
11
61
158
219
93
180
19
28
15
17
8
21
12
15
89
22
67
9
20
22
55
92
45
99
70
115
178
150
168
137
112
83
Sr
ppm
143
143
209
133
158
153
203
145
126
144
153
171
177
160
194
265
159
177
165
184
191
249
171
224
468
221
204
168
197
179
366
230
164
155
199
174
197
184
154
182
247
168
143
Li/Na
Cl/Na
K/Na
Br/Na
I/Na
SO4/Na
δ18O ‰
δ13C ‰
0,733
0,246
0,209
0,045
0,303
0,169
1,180
0,161
0,207
0,433
0,549
0,468
0,547
1,195
1,272
1,119
1,744
0,596
0,627
0,221
0,329
0,289
1,799
0,397
1,197
1,190
0,629
2,289
0,216
1,114
0,348
0,743
0,483
1,209
1,178
0,858
1,334
1,161
1,683
0,924
0,780
3,683
0,762
1485
1085
1676
1139
1286
1759
1471
1738
1659
1237
1274
1107
2000
2057
2564
2374
2127
1542
1384
1449
989
1178
1393
1578
1054
1787
1333
1356
1292
1327
473
1416
1452
2113
2129
1882
2063
2282
2164
2037
2128
1904
1388
246
257
263
125
271
258
193
301
1006
404
196
227
215
558
110
117
93
117
437
656
419
387
203
358
171
271
123
1339
243
341
286
823
167
136
230
338
169
135
166
300
131
1458
557
4,6
6,7
6,0
6,7
2,8
5,0
8,4
4,9
8,7
7,0
7,9
9,2
3,6
3,3
5,5
4,6
4,6
5,4
5,7
4,8
8,7
4,7
4,1
7,6
4,9
3,0
4,7
3,4
3,7
7,1
0,4
3,9
2,4
2,8
4,9
3,2
3,9
5,2
3,2
4,0
3,9
2,8
2,8
7,3
18,4
14,2
23,4
6,2
8,4
52,2
8,5
15,2
13,6
33,9
26,7
2,7
2,0
3,2
3,4
2,4
52,1
62,0
64,9
20,6
16,5
11,4
28,2
16,3
3,8
57,0
30,2
11,3
55,0
1,1
5,1
10,9
2,2
3,3
3,2
3,6
5,3
2,5
3,3
2,9
1,1
3,7
642,7
554,8
1866,7
752,4
2253,2
1070,1
1619,8
9732,2
1468,2
8081,3
1531,6
7028,9
4362,5
114,1
73,8
88,6
90,7
1113,5
500,7
568,4
3894,6
668,6
10298,9
1891,9
1628,9
2609,7
34,2
542,5
424,2
4053,6
3172,5
348,6
3728,2
121,9
188,5
179,3
140,3
92,2
168,4
8349,4
1256,6
1492,6
247,8
-1,75
-0,85
-1,18
-1,00
-2,14
-2,18
-2,68
-1,91
-3,26
-1,31
-1,03
-0,78
-6,11
-7,97
-8,73
-8,98
-7,48
-0,30
-0,45
-1,08
-1,48
-3,35
-2,46
-2,64
-2,14
-6,59
-0,39
-4,06
-1,92
-2,25
-4,51
-3,19
-0,91
-6,70
-7,15
-6,49
-6,95
-3,63
-5,48
-7,18
-7,12
-12,21
-10,41
2,95
2,85
3,13
2,87
3,01
3,76
2,52
3,73
2,94
2,83
3,19
2,45
2,64
2,61
2,90
3,12
2,76
2,46
2,96
3,92
2,38
2,67
3,49
2,48
2,58
2,57
2,69
2,64
3,75
3,41
2,94
2,41
3,08
2,69
2,77
2,68
2,88
2,48
4,31
2,87
3,01
0,83
0,70
Lab
no.
5466
5471
5476
5477
5479
5480
Sample
no.
FRM 064
FRM 070
FRM 075
FRM 076
FRM 078
FRM 079
Artifact
Quarry
slab
slab
Slab
Slab
Slab
Slab
Berkovica
Berkovica
Berkovica
Berkovica
Berkovica
Berkovica
Absolute
probability
0,8
2,4
7,0
22,7
78,2
8,0
DS
MgCO3
1829
2193
2246
3526
7552
2461
0,55
0,95
0,54
0,40
0,53
0,36
Fe
ppm
899
2199
3187
1693
2154
949
Mn
ppm
81
313
99
152
70
122
Sr
ppm
156
229
150
135
126
122
Li/Na
Cl/Na
K/Na
Br/Na
I/Na
SO4/Na
δ18O ‰
δ13C ‰
0,475
3,065
0,502
0,311
0,727
0,933
1042
868
937
1505
1495
1572
700
704
979
609
804
971
3,4
2,7
2,1
3,0
1,2
2,1
6,5
9,8
2,5
0,7
0,6
3,7
571,2
115,0
322,8
100,5
56,6
122,5
-9,81
-6,27
-12,03
-12,48
-10,46
-12,24
0,60
0,03
0,72
0,40
0,23
0,97
Table 1: Median contents of the analyzed variables. Stable isotopes are presented in the usual δ quotation. The results of the fluid analyses are normalized to
Na*1000. DS (dissolved solids in ppb) is the sum of the main ions (Na, K, and Cl in ppb) of the leaching procedure. Trace element contents are given in pp.
(continued).
231
231
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