This article was originally published in the Encyclopedia of Archaeology, published by Elsevier, and the attached copy is provided by Elsevier for the author's benefit and for the benefit of the author's institution, for noncommercial research and educational use including use in instruction at your institution, posting on a secure network (not accessible to the public) within your institution, and providing a copy to your institution’s administrator. All other uses, reproduction and distribution, including without limitation commercial reprints, selling or licensing copies or access, or posting on open internet sites are prohibited. For exceptions, permission may be sought for such use through Elsevier's permissions site at: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/permissionusematerial Charlton Thomas H and Fournier Patricia, Historical Archaeology in Mexico. In: Encyclopedia of Archaeology, ed. by Deborah M. Pearsall. © 2008, Academic Press, New York. Author's personal copy 182 AMERICAS, NORTH/Historical Archaeology in Mexico to agriculture. In one version of the process, leaders of complex hunter-gatherer societies are deemed to have initially adopted agriculture not to fulfill subsistence needs but to produce food surpluses for the purpose of sponsoring feasts and other forms of conspicuous consumption. Through these displays ambitious leaders would have gained prestige, followers, allies, and authority. In an extension of this model, exchange of prestige goods with highland peoples, illustrated by the widespread presence of highly valued highland obsidian in Archaic period coastal sites and the concomitant ornamental marine seashell found in the highlands, would have brought maize seed along with other high-status goods to the coast where they were redistributed by status-hungry leaders to individuals within and beyond their community. The precocious appearance of chiefdom societies, religious complexity, and architectural sophistication in the ensuing Early Formative period along Middle America’s Pacific lowlands lends support to this hypothetical reconstruction. Once adopted on the coast, agriculture would have spread to lowland localities further inland where it provided the subsistence basis for later Olmec and Maya societies. More research will be needed to determine whether this model is valid for the lowlands and perhaps other regions of Middle America. See also: Americas, Central: Classic Period of Meso- america, the Maya; Lower Central America; Postclassic Cultures of Mesoamerica; The Olmec and their Contemporaries; Extinctions of Big Game; New World, Peopling of; Plant Domestication. Further Reading Bonnichsen R and Turnmire KL (eds.) (1999) Ice Age Peoples of North America: Environments, Origins, and Adaptations of the First Americans. Corvallis, Oregon: Center for the Study of the First Americans. Oregon State University Press. Doebley J (2004) The genetics of maize evolution. Annual Review of Genetics 38: 37–59. Jablonski NG (ed.) (2002) The First Americans. The Pleistocene Colonization of the New World. San Francisco, CA: Memoirs of the California Academy of Sciences, No. 27. Lohse JC, et al. (2006) Preceramic occupations in Belize: Updating the Paleoindian and Archaic record. Latin American Antiquity 17(2): 209–226. MacNeish RS (1981) Tehuacán’s accomplishments. In: Sabloff JA (ed.) Supplement to the Handbook of Middle American Indians, Vol. 1. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. Marcus J and Flannery KV (1996) Zapotec Civilization. How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. London, England: Thames and Judson Ltd. Meltzer DJ (2003) Peopling of North America. Development in Quaternary Science, vol. 1, pp. 539–563. Pearsall DM (1995) Domestication and agriculture in the New World tropics. In: Price TD and Gegauer AB (eds.) Last Hunters – First Farmers, pp. 157–192. Santa Fe, New Mexico: School of American Research Press. Pohl MP, et al. (1996) Early agriculture in the Maya Lowlands. Latin American Antiquity 7(4): 355–372. Smith BD (2005) Reassessing Coxcatlan Cave and the early history of domesticated plants in Mesoamerica. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United State of America 102: 9438–9445. Straus LG, Meltzer DJ, and Goebel T (2005) Ice Age Atlantis? Exploring the Solutrean-Clovis ‘connection’. World Archaeology 37(4): 507–532. Voorhies B (2004) Coastal Collectors in the Holocene. The Chantuto People of Southwest Mexico. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. Zeitlin RN and Zeitlin JF (2000) The Paleoindian and Archaic cultures of Mesoamerica. In: Adams REW and MacLeod MJ (eds.) The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, Vol. II, Mesoamerica, Part 1, pp. 45–121. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Historical Archaeology in Mexico Thomas H Charlton, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA Patricia Fournier, Escuela Nacional de Antropologı́a, Mexico City, Mexico ã 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Glossary audiencia Spanish imperial administrative unit for political, judicial, and fiscal ends. capilla (English, chapel). Usually associated with a church complex or with a section of a community. Casa de Cultura Regional museum of archaeology, history, and contemporary art and handicrafts. Ciudadela (English, citadel). Large building in Mexico City built in the late eighteenth century to house a state monopoly on tobacco. Later used for other activities. Classic period period from CE 300 to 900; subdivided into Early (c. CE 300–600), and Late (c. CE 600–900). Colonial period Culture period from c. CE 1521 to 1820. Precise starting date varies from region to region. May be subdivided into Early (c. CE 1521–1620), Middle (c. CE 1621–1720), and Late (c. CE 1721–1820). convent (Spanish, convento). Meaning varies by context. Residential section of a church or Mission complex housing male regular or secular clergy. Also refers to the complex in which cloistered nuns live (nunnery). hacienda Large and often ostentatious rural residential estate associated with animal husbandry and agricultural activities. Generally, late appearance in central Mexico but may be earlier in northern regions. Independence period Also known as Republican period. Culture period from CE 1821 to the present. indios principales Indigenous community leaders. Encyclopedia of Archaeology (2008), vol. 1, pp. 182-192 Author's personal copy AMERICAS, NORTH/Historical Archaeology in Mexico 183 palaces Large, luxurious elite residential structures of the Colonial period and the nineteenth century, particularly in the Historic Center of Mexico City, are often referred to as palaces even though they had no direct governmental functions. Postclassic period Preconquest indigenous culture period from c. CE 900 to c. CE 1519–1520. presidios Fortified sites usually in the northern borderlands, most dating from the eighteenth century. ranch (Spanish, rancho). Small rural residential complex associated with animal husbandry and agricultural activities. Occurs in all three Colonial periods and during the Independence period where small ranches were associated with large haciendas. Introduction For background on the history of historical archaeology in Mexico, three articles are useful starting points. One of these, by Patricia Fournier and Fernándo Miranda, published in 1992, presents a general overview of the development of historical archaeology in Mexico until the early 1990s, emphasizing its relationship with the conservation of Colonial and Republican period monumental buildings, as well as salvage projects. The second (by Elsa Hernández Pons), published in 1998, in the memoir edited by Enrique Fernández Dávila and Susana Gómez Serafı́n, presents a well-thought-out statement of the development and current (pre-1998) status of Mexican historical archaeology. A third article by Araceli Peralta, also in the Fernández Dávila and Gómez Serafı́n edited memoir, presents a geographically and typologically organized summary of some studies in historical archaeology in the Basin of Mexico. Religious, civil (secular), and production (industrial, ranching, and farming) archaeological site categories are included in the Peralta paper. In our treatment of Mexican historical archaeology, we expand on the format in this paper by including studies from outside the basin, and by elaborating on the categories used. We have included six tables with this article, organizing by area and identifying by topic the papers included in the abovementioned memoir. These papers probably present the best current cross-section of approaches and topics under active consideration in Mexican historical archaeology. Of the total papers published in the Memoir of the First National Congress on Historical Archaeology, eighteen are on investigations in Mexico City (Table 1); ten on investigations in the Basin of Mexico and adjacent areas in the central plateau (Table 2); eight on investigations in the highlands of Oaxaca Table 1 Studies in Mexico City Reference Area Theme Baños Ramos (1998) Mexico City, Historic Center Flores and Pérez Rivas (1998) Fournier (1998) Mexico City, Tlatelolco Mexico City, the Templo Mayor and Tlatelolco Mexico City, the Templo Mayor Mexico City, Historic Center Mexico City, Historic Center Mexico City, Historic Center Salvage archaeology and historical study of the old Convento de la Concepción Documentary sources and maps related to Tlatelolco Interpretations of the ceramics recovered from the two sites Fournier and Charlton (1998) Garcı́a Samper (1998) González Leyva (1998) Hernández Pons, Nieto, and Feria (1998) López Palacios (1998) Nieto (1998) Peralta (1998) Pérez Rivas and Flores (1998) Pérez and Corona (1998) Mexico City, Historic Center Mexico City, Historic Center Mexico City and the adjacent Basin of Mexico Mexico City, Historic Center Mexico City, Historic Center Sala and Santaella 1998 Salas (1998) Santa Cruz and Moreno (1998) Mexico City, Historic Center Mexico City Mexico City, Historic Center Temple (1998) Mexico City, Historic Center Tovar (1998) Mexico City, Historic Center Zapata 1998 Mexico City, Tlalpan Majolica chronology Historical study of the iconography of a church Documentary studies of the architecture of a chapel Excavations in the old Convento de Betlemitas Chronology of glazed candeleros Analysis of hooded figurines recovered from various sites Archaeological and documentary studies of religious and industrial public structures Documentary study and salvage exploration of urban zones Salvage archaeology in the Biblioteca de Finanzas Públicas in the National Palace Excavations in the old Convento de San Jerónimo Historical and archaeological study of an industrial structure Historical and archaeological study of the old Convento de Santo Domingo Study of lebrillos recovered in salvage excavations and in the Metro Study of historic documents related to a guild in the Convento de Santo Domingo Connections between archaeology and history with a proposal for investigation in the parish of Tlalpan In Fernández Dávila E and Gómez Serafı́n S (eds.) (1998) Primer congreso nacional de arqueologı´a histórica, memoria. Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de Antropologı́a e Historia. Encyclopedia of Archaeology (2008), vol. 1, pp. 182-192 Author's personal copy 184 AMERICAS, NORTH/Historical Archaeology in Mexico Table 2 Studies in the Basin of Mexico and adjacent Central Highlands Reference Area Theme Alvarez Santiago (1998) Brambila and Avilez (1998) Puebla, Puebla Jilotepec, Hidalgo Cedilla Ortega (1998) Puebla, Puebla Cedillo Vargas (1998) Tepozotlan, State of Mexico Otumba, State of Mexico Urban and industrial studies related to urban renewal Historical and architectural studies of religious and secular structures of the sixteenth century Salvage archaeology and historical studies related to religious and industrial structures Hydraulic construction in religious structures Charlton and Otis Charlton (1998) Contreras (1998) Córdova (1998) Martı́nez Magaña (1998) Oviedo (1998) Pastrana and Fournier (1998) San Francisco Tlaxcala, Tlaxcala Huejotzingo, Puebla Huichapan, Hidalgo Pachuca and Real del Monte Sierra de las Navajas, Hidalgo Historical and archaeological studies of the sixteenth century Historical and architectural studies related to salvage archaeology in an old convent Historical and archaeological studies of the convent group of Huejotzingo Historical and archaeological studies of a religious architectural group Industrial archaeology of mining Exploitation of obsidian during the Colonial period In Fernández Dávila E and Gómez Serafı́n S (eds.) (1998) Primer congreso nacional de arqueologı´a histórica, memoria. Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de Antropologı́a e Historia. Table 3 Studies in Oaxaca and Veracruz Reference Area Theme Alvarez Franklin (1998) Fernández and Gómez (1998b) Cuilapan, Oaxaca Oaxaca City, Oaxaca Fernández and Gómez (1998c) Oaxaca City, Oaxaca Fernández and Gómez (1998d) Oaxaca City, Oaxaca Gómez and Fernández (1998a) Oaxaca City, Oaxaca Gómez and Fernández (1998b) Oaxaca City, Oaxaca Herrera (1998) Oaxaca City, Oaxaca Matadamas (1998) Teotitlán del Valle, Tlacolula, Oaxaca Córdoba, Veracruz Historical studies of a ruined religious building complex Archaeological studies in the old Convento de Santo Domingo de Guzmán Archaeological studies of the hydraulic works in the old Convento de Santo Domingo de Guzmán Studies of lime production in the old Convento de Santo Domingo de Guzmán Studies of local majolica recovered from the old Convento de Santo Domingo de Guzmán Studies of the ceramics recovered from the old Convento de Santo Domingo de Guzmán Studies of the botanical remains recovered from the old Convento de Santo Domingo de Guzmán Archaeological salvage of the historical architecture, with preColumbian and historical archaeology Salvage archaeology and historical documents Miranda and Becerril (1998) In Fernández Dávila E and Gómez Serafı́n S (eds.) (1998) Primer congreso nacional de arqueologı´a histórica, memoria. Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de Antropologı́a e Historia. and one on the highlands of Veracruz (Table 3); six refer to investigations in the northern and western areas of Mexico (Table 4); six lack a specific geographical association, with one being on nautical archaeology, three being analyses of documents (historiography and/or interdisciplinary), one an ethnohistoric study of Spanish–indigenous interaction, and one a brief history of historical archaeology in Mexico (Table 5), and finally three papers deal with research in the Maya area and one in the State of Tabasco (Table 6). Strictly speaking, archaeological scholars investigating the Late Postclassic civilizations of the central (Aztec) and southern (Zapotec, Mixtec) Mexican highlands or the Classic and Postclassic Maya civilization in eastern Mesoamerica (Yucatan Peninsula and the highlands of Chiapas and Guatemala extending into parts of Honduras and all of El Salvador, as well as the Belize lowlands) can be said to be conducting historical archaeological research, insofar as they use available relevant textual documentary sources in conjunction with traditional archaeological materials. Indeed, some of the earliest historical archaeology carried out by Mexican scholars was a by-product of research into the Templo Mayor in Mexico City. Noguera’s research in the 1930s perceptively identified and described some of the diagnostic ceramics for the Colonial period but the main Encyclopedia of Archaeology (2008), vol. 1, pp. 182-192 Author's personal copy AMERICAS, NORTH/Historical Archaeology in Mexico 185 Table 4 Studies in north and west Mexico Reference Area Theme Arciniega (1998) Brown (1998) Crespo and Cervantes (1998) Mendoza (1998) San Blas, Nayarit El Carrizal (northern border) The states of Querétaro and Guanajuato Guanajuato, Guanajuato Moguel and Carballal (1998) Valencia (1998) Culiacán, Sinaloa Aquascalientes, Aguascalientes Historical and archaeological studies of urban structure Historical and archaeological studies of the Spanish expansion Studies of historical religious structures and documents related to otomı´ families Historical architecture and interventions for the conservation of religious structures Salvage archaeology in various areas in and near Culiacán Salvage archaeology and historical studies In Fernández Dávila E and Gómez Serafı́n S (eds.) (1998) Primer congreso nacional de arqueologı´a histórica, memoria. Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de Antropologı́a e Historia. Table 5 Studies in Veracruz related to underwater archaeology, historiography, the history of historical archaeology, and ethnohistory Reference Area Theme Luna (1998) Spores (1998) Hernández Aranda (1998) Corona (1998) Hernández Pons (1998) Martı́nez Torres (1998) Coastal waters Underwater archaeology and documentary studies of the colonial period Historiography, guide to the documents Historiography, use of documents Historiography, use of documents Short history of historical archaeology Ethnohistory; the monks and the natives based on the use of indigenous plants In Fernández Dávila E and Gómez Serafı́n S (eds.) (1998) Primer congreso nacional de arqueologı´a histórica, memoria. Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de Antropologı́a e Historia. Table 6 Studies in Chiapas, Quintana Roo and Tabasco Reference Area Theme Lee Whiting (1998) Chiapas and Guatemala Chicomuselo, Chiapas Quecchula, Chiapas Chetumal, Quintana Roo Tabasco Documentary and archaeological studies along the Camino Real De la Cruz and Lee Whiting (1998) Navarrete (1998) Cortés de Brasdefer (1998) Ledesma (1998) Archaeological studies of a foundry Historical and archaeological studies of the church of Quecchula Historical and archaeological studies in Oxtankah Historical studies of the Franciscan foundations in the Sierra Tabasqueño In Fernández Dávila E and Gómez Serafı́n S (eds.) (1998) Primer congreso nacional de arqueologı´a histórica, memoria. Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de Antropologı́a e Historia. orientation of the study was on the Aztec Late Postclassic main temple buildings. In this paper, however, we restrict the practice of historical archaeology to the period of initial European contact and conquest (c. 1519–21) continuing through the Colonial period (to 1820) and the period of Independence (1821–present), within the borders of Mexico today. Historical Archaeology in Mexico: An Overview origin, from sites occupied during the Colonial and Independence periods and found within the modern boundaries of Mexico. The problem orientations of investigations into these data generally include one or more of the following: (1) a study of the variable contact period interaction situations between indigenous and intrusive cultures, (2) a study of subsequent continuities and changes within both the indigenous and the intrusive European cultural traditions, and (3) a study of the emergence of new cultural and ethnic traditions, throughout the Colonial and Independence periods. Subject Matter Research Trends and Disciplinary Origins The subject matter of historical archaeology in Mexico includes archaeological remains and relevant historical documents, both indigenous and European in There are many different research approaches within postconquest historical archaeological investigations practiced in Mexico today. Such a diversity of Encyclopedia of Archaeology (2008), vol. 1, pp. 182-192 Author's personal copy 186 AMERICAS, NORTH/Historical Archaeology in Mexico approaches is common in the current worldwide burgeoning field of historical archaeology and reflects, according to K. Kelly in 2005, a dynamic and a recently emerging field, in Latin America in general, and for this article, in Mexico specifically. In Mexico, the field of historical archaeology has multiple origins, domestic and foreign, and multiple disciplinary backgrounds. As we suggest later on, the majority of foreign influences come from North American archaeology. As practiced, Mexican historical archaeology contains varying proportions of the disciplines of history, ethnohistory, cultural and historical geography, archaeology, and anthropological archaeology in the mix. The amount of each in any investigation depends upon (1) the time period addressed, (2) the cultural functions and structures under investigation, and (3) the disciplinary backgrounds and institutional affiliations of the investigators. As a result, Mexican historical archaeology is not a monolithic structure in origin, practice, or theory. There is considerable variation between the investigations carried out within the borders of the national state and we may speak of ‘‘many historical archaeologies’’ (with apologies to Leslie Byrd Simpson). Since the late 1970s, Mexican scholars have increasingly reflected on the relevance of historical archaeology for increasing our level of knowledge of the past by combining, in various ways, archaeology and history, and by increasing protection of Mexico’s cultural heritage. Such reflections form part of their search to validate and integrate this still-evolving field of research. Some considerations have focused on the terminology or nomenclature to be used to denote the field. Names suggested within these discussions include archaeohistory, the archaeology of capitalism, colonial archaeology, historical archaeology, world systems archaeology, and industrial archaeology (see Industrial Archaeology), all reflecting aspects of a multi-faceted Mexican historical archaeology which takes into consideration the significant political and economic changes in a worldwide setting following CE 1492. Despite this ‘war of words’ over the designation of a recent development in Mexican archaeology in general, it is generally understood that what is practiced as historical archaeology in non-Mexican settings is what is practiced in Mexico today. Historical archaeology in Mexico is a discipline which makes use of both archaeological and historic data studying the material remains of any postcontact historical period. This is possible whenever there is a documentary record providing additional information about the materials and contexts recovered in archaeological investigations. Historical archaeology in general, and in Mexico in particular, studies the materials related to European cultural expansion throughout the world beginning in the fifteenth century and ending with industrialization or the present day, depending on local conditions. As so defined, historical archaeology can make important contributions to contemporary anthropology by examining the processes of European expansion, exploration, and colonization as well as those of culture contact and imperialism. These processes form a basis for one of the most dynamic periods in world history, reflected both in documents and material culture, recovered by archaeological investigations (see Historical Archaeology: As a Discipline). Discussions have also addressed the relationships of Mexican historical archaeology to current archaeological theoretical perspectives ranging from historical particularism, to culture history, processual (new archaeology) (see Processual Archaeology), postprocessual (see Postprocessual Archaeology), and Marxist archaeology (see Marxist Archaeology), alone or in various combinations. In some projects, theoretical positions have included critical theory and Iberoamerican social archaeology. In addition, there have also been debates about legal issues related to the national patrimony as well as more mundane, but relevant, topics such as artifact taxonomic systems. Historical Archaeology Institutional Contexts – INAH As noted above, investigations in Mexico are varied in part because of their many different institutional contexts. Today the major institutional context includes, as mandated by law in 1972, the Instituto Nacional de Antropologı́a e Historia (INAH), whose relevant dependencies in Mexico City and in the regional state offices are obligated to carry out archaeological salvage and rescue operations, not only for preconquest remains but also for those of the Colonial and post-Independence periods whenever archaeological deposits and structures would be adversely affected by contemporary activities. Examples of such activities include Mexico City’s still ongoing Metro construction, along with, there and elsewhere, the maintenance and construction of roads, sewer and water systems, dams, reservoirs, canals, and water supply systems. Also included are architectural restoration projects, building expansion, and building demolition. Site reports from such operations in salvage and rescue historical archaeology in Mexico, although not widely distributed, provide valuable information on associated artifacts and architecture, and on laboratory and technical analyses of the materials recovered. Initially, the results of such research were Encyclopedia of Archaeology (2008), vol. 1, pp. 182-192 Author's personal copy AMERICAS, NORTH/Historical Archaeology in Mexico 187 not always fully published. However, there are now increasing numbers of books and articles presenting the results of research, thus enriching the record for Mexico and for Hispanic America as well. At times, many of these data have been used to examine general theoretical questions of culture contact and acculturation along with the construction of Colonial and Independence period social systems, identities, and meanings. Such questions would be addressed by both documentary records and archaeological material correlates. Historical Archaeology Institutional Contexts – Academic Settings Domestic and Foreign Although academic historical archaeology in Mexico does include the salvage and rescue of historical archaeological materials, more frequently archaeologists from academic settings try to combine such salvage and rescue operations with problem-based research projects tied to a variety of theoretical perspectives on social and cultural dynamics and evolution. In general, these would be related to studies of those processes leading to the modern world and to capitalism. In Mexico, the rise of national systems and national identities as well as the appearance of new social and ethnic identities would characterize these studies. Formal academic training in historical archaeology in Mexico is relatively rare. Undergraduate courses in historical archaeology have occasionally been offered at the National School of Anthropology and History in Mexico City, and at the University of the Americas in Cholula, Puebla. The Autonomous University of San Luis Potosi will include historical archaeology as part of the bachelor’s program. However, there is only one graduate program in historical archaeology at the National School of Anthropology and History. There are very few active full-time professional historical archaeologists in Mexico, most being Prehispanic archaeologists who have extended their interest through chance or design into the historic periods. Regional Cultural and Administrative Variability in Time and Space Further differentiation in the subject matter of Mexican historical archaeology is introduced by the great degree of Prehispanic regional cultural variability within Mesoamerica between various state systems such as the Maya, the Zapotec, the Aztec, and the Tarascans. In the immediately adjacent culture areas to the north such as the Greater Southwest, the peninsula of Lower California, and northeastern Mexico, there were many non-state-level cultures ranging from hunting and gathering nomadic people to sedentary agrarian villages. The Spanish empire governed these areas, from Panama to what is now the Southwest United States, through three audiencias (Guatemala, Mexico, and Guadalajara) with political, judicial, and fiscal powers. Although they overlap, the borders of Mesoamerica, with complex state systems, the Greater Southwest with village agriculturalists, and the peninsula of Lower California and northeast Mexico with hunters and gatherers, do not coincide completely with those of the audiencias or of Mexico today. Communities may have participated in several larger cultural, political, and economic systems during their existence. Beyond the variations present in indigenous cultures and imperial administrative structures, additional complexity was provided by the different regional origins of Spanish settlers from the Iberian Peninsula. Many of these regional cultural variations and their impact on Hispanic America have been discussed in detail by George Foster in his 1960 monograph on culture and conquest. In addition, there was extreme variability in the kind of church institutions introduced initially for Christian conversion and subsequently maintained for the spiritual care of the indigenous people as well as Spanish settlers. Variations occurred in the order of regular clergy present and the nature of the transition to secular clergy in some areas. Additional regional and local differences in Mexico were brought about by demographic decline due to disease, the acquisition of land and the introduction of Spanish-owned ranchos and haciendas, and the exploitation of metal ores and petroleum resources. The impact of these too would vary according to the time period and political situation in the imperial center of Spain, and during the Independence period, in Mexico City, capital of the new republic. Themes of Historical Archaeological Investigations in Mexico Recent urban expansion and economic development have severely impacted the physical remains of Mexico’s past, both Prehispanic and postconquest. Given the almost five centuries of Colonial and Independence period construction in Mexico, major population increases during the twentieth century associated with urban renovation, expansion, and industrialization, along with an underlying pervasive concern for the preservation and rehabilitation of the cultural heritage of Mexico, it should not be surprising that historical archaeology has come of age in Mexico during the last half of the twentieth century. These processes are especially true for all areas within the orbit of Mexico City, but also increasingly relevant for provincial cities and small towns in the countryside, also undergoing similar population and Encyclopedia of Archaeology (2008), vol. 1, pp. 182-192 Author's personal copy 188 AMERICAS, NORTH/Historical Archaeology in Mexico economic growth. In one sense, historical archaeology is most abundant in urban settings where most of the religious, secular, and private buildings occur. Much recent historical archaeology has accompanied, in various guises, the saving, restoration, refurbishing, and recycling of imperiled buildings, some religious, some governmental, some industrial, and some private residences (the latter when especially luxurious and occupied by members of Mexico’s colonial elite, being referred to as palaces). In many cases, such structures are located in the older sections of cities in Mexico, such as the Historic Center (Centro Histórico) of Mexico City. Religious Institutions through Their Buildings Of all the themes of historical archaeology in Mexico, a shared, widespread interest in the preservation and investigation of religious buildings from the very beginnings of Mexico through the nineteenth century is the greatest unifier of the practitioners of historical archaeology today. Mexico is the legal owner of all religious buildings in the country, and they are everywhere, throughout the country, in various stages of use and disintegration. They range in time from the early sixteenth century to the twentieth century. These buildings are a legacy of anticlericalism which can be seen in the expulsion of the Jesuits and the appropriation of their possessions, through the Liberal Reforms of the nineteenth century, the socialist revolution of the early twentieth century, and the subsequent closing of the churches. The recognition in the twentieth century that many of these monumental structures could be refurbished and used to attract tourists marks the beginning of an official positive interest in those buildings. Although archaeology is usually carried out at such sites, frequently the archaeological part of the investigations has been subordinated to the architectural rehabilitation of the structures. Missions, their convents, and indigenous residential areas Early interest in missions and their associated convents was expressed by American scholars after the acquisition of substantial areas of Mexico by the United States in the nineteenth century. Such interest continues today as demonstrated by the three volumes edited by D. H. Thomas. Archaeological investigations were in part stimulated by cultural geographers under the tutelage of Carl Sauer in the Southwestern US and in northern Mexico during the 1920s and 1930s. Elizabeth Graham in her 1998 article on mission archaeology has detailed many of these studies, including the Maya areas in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, Guatemala, and Belize, along with those borderlands from California to Florida once under Spanish and later, in places, Mexican control before being ceded to the United States. Studies of missions often emphasize first-contact and conversion contexts because of the importance of the Church in converting the indigenous peoples. As first-contact contexts, these are linked with those historical and archaeological studies interested in contact within a broader cultural framework. Research on a sixteenth century town church and associated residential convent in central Mexico by Charlton in 1969 and published in 1973 deals essentially with the same topic. In central Mexico, when many towns were abandoned at the end of the sixteenth century due to depopulation as a result of introduced epidemic diseases, the churches and residential complexes were also abandoned. Since these missed out on later Colonial and Independence period modifications such as towers and facade updates in eighteenth century style, they preserve the structure of the church when it had a major conversion mission-like function. Examples of continuing studies of mission sites and artifacts occur in northwestern and northern Mexico at Casas Grandes, Chihuahua. Similar studies of mission sites have been carried out in the Mexican state of Durango, the peninsula of Baja California, and in the American state of New Mexico. Many mission studies have been part of current consolidation of standing buildings related to efforts to increase tourism in Mexico. There are some additional studies in D. H. Thomas’ edited volume I for these regions, and in volume III for the Maya area in Mexico and Central America. Ledesma in 1998 reported on research and consolidation at a mission site in the Sierra de Tabasco founded in 1537 but occupied sporadically until 1709 when it was permanently abandoned (Table 6). Carlos Navarrete investigated another similar site in Chiapas in the 1960s, while Fernándo Cortés de Brasdefer investigated Oxtankah, a mission site in Quintana Roo. It should be remembered that mission archaeology is in part evidence of the initial spread of Spanish culture in Mexico (and areas to the south and north now outside of Mexico’s borders). Such missions are generally later in time in the northern and southern areas than those churches that began as missions in central Mexico. Today, such sixteenth century mission churches or chapels, when they have survived, are usually treated as parish churches rather than as missions (see Table 4). Mexico City convents (nunneries) Since the 1970s, Mexico City has been the locale of major conservation projects that included as part of the research the architectural history of the affected buildings as well as information about the different archaeological materials recovered, mostly human burials and, in Encyclopedia of Archaeology (2008), vol. 1, pp. 182-192 Author's personal copy AMERICAS, NORTH/Historical Archaeology in Mexico 189 some cases, ceramics and other artifacts. As noted previously, we have summarized in six tables the Mexican archaeological and historical investigations published in a memoir on Mexican historical archaeology, edited by Fernández Dávila and Gómez Serafı́n in 1998. The studies have dealt with numerous convents (nunneries) including that of San Jerónimo, home of the famous seventeenth century nun, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz. Fournier carried out studies of the European and oriental tradeware and published these in 1990. Other examples of nunneries studied in Mexico City include La Concepción (see Table 1) and the Colegio de San Joaquı́n of the Carmelite Order. Mexico City convents (monasteries) Monasteries have also recently been studied in Mexico City. The Convento de Betlemitas was founded in the final third of the eighteenth century and entrusted to the Order of Nuestra Señora de Bethlem whose main charges were the care of ill but convalescing patients and the education of children from poor families. Architectural restoration of the extant structures was combined with extensive archaeological excavations. The remaining architecture of Santo Domingo, a Dominican foundation, has also been investigated through archaeology and documents (Table 1). Convents (monasteries and nunneries): Investigations in other regions of Mexico Outside of Mexico City (see Tables 2 and 3), but still in the Basin of Mexico, studies of hydraulic works were carried out at the Jesuit monastery complex of Tepozotlán. Outside of the Basin of Mexico, but still in the Central Highlands, there have been similar recent studies at the monasteries of San Francisco, Tlaxcala, and Huejotzingo, Puebla, in the high plateau of Mexico, directly east of the Basin of Mexico. In the city of Puebla, archaeological excavations were carried out exposing the remains of the sixteenth century Convento de San Francisco as well as at the Convento (Nunnery) de San Jerónimo. We may also include here rescue archaeology described by Mendoza Garcı́a in the city of Guanajuato in architectural studies accompanied by archaeology at the Templo de San Diego. To the south, in the City of Oaxaca, major restoration and investigation were conducted at the Convento de Santo Domingo de Guzmán. The Casa del Artesano in Huichapan, Hidalgo, to the north, is another provincial example of archaeological research during the refurbishing of part of the complex for a Casa de Cultura. Mexico City churches Mexico City has had numerous historic preservation projects which included the architectural histories of church structures and information from the associated archaeological materials, including burials and ceramics and other artifacts. These are mostly stand-alone churches but often have convent-like residences attached to them. Hernández Pons has noted that archaeological research located the first cathedral of Mexico City, the Capilla de Necatitlán, as well as complementing engineering work during attempts to stabilize the present cathedral. Other churches of note in Mexico City are Santa Teresa La Antigua, La Santa Cruz y Soledad de Nuestra Señora, San Juan de Dios, the parish (in Xochimilco) of San Bernardino de Sena, and the Jesuit chapel of San Pedro and San Pablo. Hernández Pons et al. list many others (Table 1). Although not a church, the Palacio de la Inquisición did carry out church-related business and has also been investigated archaeologically. Churches and chapels in other regions of Mexico These include churches in many different areas (see Tables 3 and 4). In San Luis Potosı́, there have been minor archaeological operations at the Chapel of Aranzazu. Alvarez Franklin describes the search for documentation on a now-ruined church in Cuilapan, Oaxaca. Also in Oaxaca, Matadamas carried out salvage archaeology at a Prehispanic mound behind, and possibly extending under, a sixteenth century church in Teotitlán del Valle. Crespo and Cervantes have carried out an ethnoarchaeological and documentary study on household oratorios among Otomı́ families in Querétaro and Guanajuato. Secular Institutions through Their Buildings The structures mentioned here include Colonial and Independence period governmental structures, hospitals, private residences (often referred to as palaces), presidios, and monuments. There is uneven archaeological treatment of these structures with heavy emphasis being placed upon those in Mexico City, and much less on similar structures in other areas. As is the case for religious structures, the historical archaeology carried out is usually associated with major restoration and maintenance of these structures and is always in a secondary role to the restoration and architectural history. Secular structures: Governmental, medical, and residential Mexico City These include the Palacio Nacional, on the east side of the Zócalo near the Metropolitan Cathedral. This site was a center of governmental power before and during the Colonial and Independence periods. The Castillo de Chapultepec has served as a fortified hilltop, a military school, and Encyclopedia of Archaeology (2008), vol. 1, pp. 182-192 Author's personal copy 190 AMERICAS, NORTH/Historical Archaeology in Mexico the residence of Maximilian and Carlota before becoming a present-day museum. Other structures examined archaeologically are the Hospital Real de los Naturales and the Hospital del Amor de Dios, which at the end of the Colonial period was converted into the Fine Arts Academia de San Carlos. Residences studied include La Casa del Marqués del Apartado. Research by Eduardo Matos Moctezumas in the Centro Histórico of Mexico City has extended to include excavations to provide information on the urban character of the city as well as to identify many houses whose occupants are known. Monuments archaeologically investigated in Mexico City (see Table 1) include that of the Molino del Rey, erected to commemorate the Mexican heroes of the war with the United States in 1847. Secular structures: Urban archaeology Outside Mexico City We have included here a study of the evolution of a town plan in San Blas, Nayarit, described by Arciniega, and the circular town plan of Culiacán, Sinaloa, reported by Moguel and Carballal. The archaeology undertaken by INAH in the city of Aguascalientes as part of a modern urban project designed to develop an underpass system for traffic and reported by Valencia also falls into the category of urban salvage or rescue archaeology, some of which did more than merely define areas of previous occupations based on test pits. In the city of Guanajuato, excavations were conducted around the Teatro Juarez (1873–94) preparatory to carrying out restoration plans. Research was also carried out in the Palacio de Cortés in Cuernavaca during the restoration of the building. In Mérida, the Casa Montejo has been investigated and restored. Presidios in the northern borderland and the northwest of Mexico have been focal points of archaeological investigation, often emanating from across the United States–Mexico border, similar to the impulse for the study of religious buildings, especially missions, and as we shall note, ceramics. Not only were northern presidios studied archaeologically but so were some nineteenth and twentieth century forts in Puebla and Veracruz (see Table 4). Secular structures: The archaeology of industry Industrial archaeology as part of historical archaeology is taking its first few steps in Mexico (see Tables 1–3 and 5). More historians than archaeologists have shown an interest in Mexican industrial development. In part, this is due to the absence of legal protection and required archaeological investigations at sites from the late nineteenth and the twentieth century unless they are in a historic district or are important time-markers on their own. Some recent research incorporating studies of industrial sites have been published in the Fernández Dávila and Gómez Serafı́n edited volume. Salas carried out investigations at the tobacco factory of the Ciudadela in Mexico City on the foundations of the late eighteenth century structure. Archaeological research in the city of Puebla by Alvarez Santiago encountered the foundations of textile factories first established there in 1884. Mining, a major Colonial and Independence period activity, has been studied by Oviedo Gámez at Pachuca and Real del Monte in the northeast Basin of Mexico. Another industrial site, Molino de Papel in the southeast of the Basin of Mexico, is mentioned by Peralta. The production of lime and ceramics at the Convento de Santo Domingo de Guzmán should be considered an industrial site, albeit of a much smaller scale than the nonhousehold industries of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The same is true for the production of Colonial period obsidian scrapers (probably for cattle hides) at the famed Cerro de las Navajas obsidian mines used in the Prehispanic period, as related by Pastrana and Fournier. Although greater than household production, the level of scraper production is not in the same league as that of nineteenth and twentieth century industrial production. In northwest and northern Mexico, mining facilities including towns have been surveyed in the Pima–Opata region of Sonora as well as in Chihuahua, Durango, and the state of New Mexico. In the state of Chiapas, De la Cruz and Lee (Table 6) have reported on the archaeology of a foundry. Secular structures: The archaeology of ranching and farming Ranches and haciendas Ranches and haciendas in rural areas are the physical manifestation of a system which ensured that land and labor were available for food production for the cities. The buildings were the residences and working areas of Spaniards or members of the Indian elite. These buildings today, where they are extant, belong to individuals or to towns. Although the land was nationalized after the 1910–20 revolution, the buildings were, for the most part, not taken over by the government, being included in a small parcel of land left with the former owners. They differ from religious buildings in another way; the system they represent was and is detested by the local village farmers who had to work in the system because of land shortages. There is great regional variability in the scale and timing of such buildings. Of interest are the ranches and haciendas where the laborers were housed instead of commuting daily to their work. The owners Encyclopedia of Archaeology (2008), vol. 1, pp. 182-192 Author's personal copy AMERICAS, NORTH/Historical Archaeology in Mexico 191 of these enterprises had taken control of land either by renting it through compliant indios principales or by purchasing it outright. Although we have a good sequence of such ranches and haciendas in the northeastern Basin of Mexico, we lack excavation of a single structure at any one time. At the moment, Harold Juli is conducting excavations at a nineteenth century hacienda in Puebla. Underwater archaeology The underwater or nautical archaeology of Colonial period sites has become a valuable adjunct to terrestrial historical archaeology because of the ability to date with some certainty the ships being excavated. This is important because of the good associations between the dated shipwreck and the artifacts, including ceramics, found on board as Marken has noted in 1994. The main proponent of these studies has been Pilar Luna Erreguerena. She includes a brief overview of Mexican underwater archaeology in a paper in the Fernández Dávila and Gómez Serafı́n edited volume with an example of the search for the 1631 fleet. Later, in 2001, she co-edited a volume of papers on underwater archaeology. Regional Projects These types of projects, surveys, and excavations undertaken by Mexican and American archaeological teams, working individually or in collaboration, in central and northern Mexico as well as in the Maya lowlands and other regions, are usually derived from avowedly scientific research agendas, based on a variety of theoretical frameworks. Such projects include those directed by Fournier in the Mezquital Valley and Charlton in the Teotihuacan Valley. Rani Alexander carried out similar research in the Yucatan as did R. B. Brown and Fournier in Chihuahua, and Janine Gasco in the Soconusco. The basic point of these projects is to recover archaeological materials from indigenous sites at the time of contact and beyond, in some cases up to the time the project was carried out. This means dealing with the reaction of the indigenous people to the new economic, social, and political order brought by the Spanish conquerors. The key to understanding these developments are the settlement patterns which include the native communities and the introduction of ranches and haciendas as a means whereby the Spaniards, and the Mexican elite after Independence, appropriated labor and land at the expense of the indigenous people. At times, missions, forts, and road systems are important as well. Artifact Analyses One of the trends leading to historical archaeology in Mexico was an interest by collectors, and then by archaeologists, in gaining a solid ceramic chronology, especially from majolicas. This led such scholars as John Goggin to carry out excavations in the 1940s in Mexico at various historic sites, usually church and convent complexes. Studies of majolicas continue today with the use of neutron activation analyses. Studies of all kinds of materials, such as ceramics including figurines, obsidian, and metal tools, are represented in the Fernández Dávila and Gómez Serafı́n edited volume (Tables 1–3). Osteological Studies of Burials Human skeletal remains have been located in Colonial period cemeteries in both rural and urban contexts. Descriptive osteological analyses have been carried out defining the age structure and health status of the deceased. Added to these studies have been analyses for lead poisoning and dietary data through isotopic analyses (see Stable Isotope Analysis). Conclusions Mexican historical archaeology is alive and well. Although it is necessary to combine two disciplines in innovative ways to develop research questions and to interpret data recovered, this does not seem to be an impediment in its growth. The growth of Mexican historical archaeology is tightly linked to salvage archaeology when buildings or urban streetscapes are being modified. Such a link will undoubtedly continue for the foreseeable future. At the same time, archaeologists are increasingly recognizing that the inclusion of a postconquest component in regional studies will enlarge upon the written word alone in understanding how today is linked to the past. See also: Africa, Historical Archaeology; Americas, North: Historical Archaeology in the United States; Americas, South: Historical Archaeology; Historical Archaeology: As a Discipline; Methods; Industrial Archaeology; Marxist Archaeology; Postprocessual Archaeology; Processual Archaeology; Stable Isotope Analysis; Underwater Archaeology; Urban Archaeology. Further Reading Andrews AP (2006) Historical Archaeology in the Maya Area: A Working Bibliography. http://faculty.ncf.edu/andrews/ research/habib.htm accessed Feb 2007. Charlton TH (1973) Post-Conquest Developments in the Teotihuacan Valley, Mexico, AD 1400–1969, Part I, Excavations. Report Encyclopedia of Archaeology (2008), vol. 1, pp. 182-192 Author's personal copy 192 AMERICAS, NORTH/Lower Central America No. 5, Office of the State Archaeologist. Iowa City: Office of the State Archaeologist. Fernández Dávila E and Gómez Serafı́n S (eds.) (1998) Primer congreso nacional de arqueologı́a histórica, memoria. Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de Antropologı́a e Historia. Foster GM (1960) Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology 27: Culture and Conquest, America’s Spanish Heritage. New York: Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, Inc. Fournier P (1990) Evidencias arqueológicas de la importación de cerámica en México, con base en los materiales del exconvento de San Jerómino. Colección Cientı́fica 213. Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de Antropologı́a e Historia. Fournier P and Miranda F (1992) Historic sites archaeology in Mexico. Historical Archaeology 26: 75–83. Graham E (1998) Mission archaeology. Annual Review of Anthropology 27: 25–62. Hernández Pons E (1998) Arqueologı́a histórica en México: Antecedentes y Propuestas. In: Fernández Dávila E and Gómez Serafı́n S (eds.). pp. 1–26. Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de Antropologı́a e Historia. Kelly KG (2005) Historical archaeology. In: Maschner HDG and Chippindale C (eds.) Handbook of Archaeological Methods vol. II, pp. 1108–1137. New York: AltaMira Press. Luna P and Roffiel R (coordinators) (2001) Memorias del congreso cientı́fico de arqueologı́a subacuática ICOMOS. Colección Cientı́fica 435. Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de Antropologı́a e Historia. Marken MW (1994) Pottery from Spanish Shipwrecks 1500–1800. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. Noguera E (1934) Estudio de la cerámica encontrada donde estaba el Templo Mayor de México. Anales del Museo Nacional de Arqueologı́a, Historia y Etnografı́a 1, 5th Epoca, pp. 267–282. Mexico: Talleres Gráficos de la Nación. Thomas DH (ed.) (1989–1991) Columbian Consequences (3 vols.). Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. Lower Central America Anthony Ranere, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA ã 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Glossary Holocene A geologic time period from c. 10 000 BC to the present when the climate approximated to that witnessed today. Intermediate Area An archaeological culture area that includes Lower Central America and northwestern South America; so named because it sits between the Mesoamerica and Peru culture areas. Late Pleistocene A geologic time period from c. 16 000 to 10 000 BC at the end of the last glaciation when mean annual temperatures were c. 5–8 C below modern values. swidden A form of agriculture where forest patches are cleared, burned, and planted for a short time period (2–5 years is common) and abandoned when crop yields drop; also known as shifting cultivation or slash-and-burn cultivation. terrane A geological unit that has been transported from a distant location and then accreted onto the edge of another plate during subduction. Introduction Central America (CA) is normally considered to encompass all countries south of Mexico and north of Colombia – that is, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. While this is a convenient definition in terms of modern political boundaries, it does not serve us well in looking at the region’s prehistory. During the Late Pleistocene, Early Holocene, and Middle Holocene (c. 15 000–3000 BC) (all dates mentioned in this article are calibrated unless specifically identified as 14C dates) an argument could be made that a discussion of Central American prehistory should encompass an area extending from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec to the southern end of the Panama Isthmus and perhaps beyond. During the Late Holocene (3000 BC to present), the cultural trajectories in the northern and southern portions of CA diverged into the widely recognized ‘Mesoamerican’ cultural pattern and a less well-defined ‘Intermediate Area’ cultural pattern. These patterns, of course, extended both north and south of CA. The boundary between these two areas initially falls in western Honduras but late in prehistory, the southern boundary could be extended along the Pacific Coast as far south as the Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica. In this overview, the territory from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec to the Panama–Colombian border will be under review for the early portion of Central American prehistory. Once the division between Mesoamerican and Intermediate Area cultures becomes clear, this review will focus on the southern part of CA or what is often referred to as Lower Central America (Figure 1). The Landscape Central America has only been a terrestrial bridge between the North and South American continents for about 2.5 million years. Previously, much of CA was a narrow peninsula at the southern end of North America and earlier in the Miocene, an island arc that existed in the area where eastern Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama are today. The geology of CA owes many of its features to its placement in the region where there are a number of geological plate boundaries. The subduction of one plate under another has led to uplifting and folding of the crust to form highlands and the volcanic arc that gives much of CA its distinctive character. The sliding of one plate by another along the Motagua Fault in Guatemala and Honduras results in frequent earthquakes, some of them quite massive. Earthquakes are also common along the volcanic arc in CA where the Cocos Plate is diving down below the Caribbean Plate. Encyclopedia of Archaeology (2008), vol. 1, pp. 182-192