From 1949 to post-Mao China: An analysis of Chinese education reforms and their influence on societal development in China. Mary Chen Candidate 000251-027 Subject area: History Stanton College Preparatory School Word Count: 3999  Abstract China was not known for its education system until the twenty-first century, when the world was alerted to its presence as an intellectual powerhouse. However, China at the start of the twentieth-century had a tremendously low literacy rate, which presided over most of the century until the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. The following decades changed China from a relatively rural country to a power, and most important in the development of Chinese education were the reforms of party leader Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping. Additionally, a correlation was discovered between Chinese education and the development of Chinese society; to that effect, this essay asks, “how did the post-1949 reforms to Chinese education influence its societal development?” To answer this question, a great number of primary and secondary sources in the Chinese language were analyzed and translated for their purposes, as well as sources available in English. Among them were original works of Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping, as well as papers regarding the impact of Chinese comparative education pulled from university databases. Furthermore, statistics regarding literacy rates and basic statistics on education were obtained from national education databases in China, to serve as proof for China’s progress. In determining the influence of those education reforms on Chinese society, a phone interview was conducted in additional in gathering individuals’ beliefs on this subject from having first-hand experience of China’s improving education. The impacts of post-1949 reforms were varied. While Mao Zedong’s reforms had stimulated and united Chinese society prior to the Cultural Revolution, he ultimately failed to improve Chinese education by a great margin. The reforms of Deng Xiaoping proved to be pivotal in introducing Western culture to China, and forged a new competitive drive in Chinese education to be the best in the world. [Word Count: 300] Table of Contents Introduction: Chinese Education Pre-1949………………………………………………….5-6 Analysis: Mao’s Education Reforms……………………………………………………7-9 Deng’s Era of Reforms……………………………………………………… 9-10 Comparative Higher Education………………………………………11-12 The Nine-Year Compulsory Education Law…………………………13-14 Societal Impacts extending towards a new China…………………….14 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………....15 References…………………………………………………………………………....16-23 Appendix……………………………………………………………………………..24-28 Introduction China, being one of the oldest civilizations in history, placed immense importance on education. China’s education system in historic times has been the model for several other countries, Japan especially. Kobayashi, T. (1990) China, India, Japan and Korea, in Halls, W.D. (ed) ( i 992) Comparative Education. Contemporary Issues and Trends. (London: J. Kingsley Publishers), pp.200-226 However, years of political conflicts had contributed to social unrest in China, and after the fall of the Qing dynasty The last Qing emperor, Xuantong, had officially abdicated on 29th February, 2012., the newly established Republic of China sought to stabilize the country by implementing mass reforms, including ones in education. The education reforms were slow to show progress as the education received by rural China was still considerably far from that of the upper classes. Mao Wen Jun, “Recent China (1911-1937) People’s Education Museum” (Master’s diss., Sichuan University,2002). [my translation] Instead of past dynastic methods of education, most important to the development of modern Chinese education was largely based on a series of reforms implemented by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) Hereafter the usage of “party” refers to the CCP. under Mao’s guidance, as well as later reforms under Mao’s successors, namely Deng Xiaoping. In total, there were several distinct periods of reforms made to the Chinese education system within the twentieth century, which extended into a few years of the twenty-first century. As it is, China is forever trying to improve its education system, and in effect, Chinese society accelerates into a global market. The rapid growth of China into a world country has put many countries on alert; among those are not only East Asian countries such as Japan and Korea but also the United States. In answering the question of how did Chinese education reforms influence its societal development, this paper will aim to analyze the post-1949 education reforms of the CCP and its impact on the changing mindset of Chinese society; to provide insights to some of the reasons behind China’s development into a powerhouse of intellectuals in the twenty-first century. Chinese Education Pre-1949 Historically, Chinese education was based largely on Confucianism, as the Chinese Civil Examination, or Keju, The Keju had been put in place as a national exam around 606 B.C.E., and had existed until its abolishment in 1905. had major components of Confucian texts and philosophy as the basis of qualifying scholars. Lan Yu and Hoi K.Suen, “Historical and Contemporary Education Fever in China.” (Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Diego, California, April 12-16, 2004). Likewise, the Qing Dynasty also used Confucianism as its governing philosophy, emphasizing the need for “people respecting the Confucian teachings of filial piety; aiming to be a scholar of the world.” Zhao Wen Tian, “Qing Dynasty’s attitude towards Confucian education in Mongolia” Institute of Modern History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, accessed March 11, 2012. (my translation) Additionally, in the year 1670, the Emperor Kangxi had issued his “圣谕十六条” (Sixteen Imperial Mandates) Ibid. to help spread Confucian teachings to the “commoners.” The historically accurate term is MinJian (民间), which refers to China outside of the Summer Palace; more specifically to China as a dwelling of commoners, excluding court officials. The move towards offering more education for the commoners had its roots in the Qing dynasty, but saw a new fervor when the Republic of China was founded. In the period from between the Republic of China to the founding of the People’s Republic of China (1912-1949), education in China went under great reform under Sun Yat-Sen’s philosophy “Only with knowledge can we move forward; Students must always seek to serve the nation in order to build a stronger Republic of China.” Yan Li Hao, “The Education Philosophy of Sun Yat-Sen.” The Revolutionary Cmmittee of the Chinese Kuomintang, September 26, 2008. Accessed March 12, 2012. (my translation) Sun wanted everyone to have equal opportunities for education, regardless of their ability to pay. His belief was that, “in order for poor children to be able to study, the government needs to not only pay for school fees but also their clothing, food, and living conditions.” Institute of Modern History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, The Compilation of Sun Yat-Sen (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1900), Vol.10, 24. (my translation) Sun Yat-Sen was the first to spread mass education to Chinese rural, setting up countless government funded schools and night schools Ibid. for children and adults. This philosophy was to later become the cornerstone in Mao Zedong’s education reforms. Mao’s Education Reforms In the years between the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949 and post-Mao leadership in the late 20th to early 21st century, Chinese education went through a plethora of changes and new policies to finally take shape in the late 20th century. During this long period, there have been two big waves of education reforms in China, first in Mao’s era from 1949 to 1976, and second in post-Mao leadership of China. The first wave of Chinese education reforms occurred with the Chinese Communist Party under Chairman Mao. Mao followed Sun’s education philosophy and initiated an education drive that encompassed China, starting many programs that increased literary rates in China for males and females, including night classes. Sreemati Chakrabarti, “Women and Adult Literacy in China,” Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, http://ignca.nic.in/new_main.htm (accessed 8 Mar. 2012) It was the start of Mao’s era, where the peasants were to become the dominating force in the nation. In an earlier report, Mao mentioned that “ninety percent of China’s population has never received an education, and among them, most are peasants. Mao Zedong, 湖南农民运动考察报告, 10. (my translation) Coming from a rural background, Mao intended his educational reforms to be propaganda for his ideals and policies, in making the peasants more educated and society more centralized, but not to the effect of making them “pure intellectuals.” In fact, Mao greatly disliked intellectuals because he felt that they represented the polar opposite of his “proletariat” ideals; “teachers were less kind in rural schools than in urban schools,” Ibid. and intellectuals believe themselves to be above the “common people.” Xinhua News, “Mao Zedong Theory,” accessed March 15, 2012. Mao realized that the peasants were not cultured, and in his effort to educate them China went through a great leap in education. Groups such as the All-China Women’s Federation had lessened the female illiteracy rate from over 90% in pre-Mao China by a great amount, and many more industrial workers were able to receive an adequate education Chakrabarti, “Women and Adult Literacy in China,” Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts.. An interview in 1993 with a Chinese woman showed not only the educational benefits of Mao’s reforms but also its political side, as "the women's organization of Feng Tian has also played an important role. The women cadres took initiatives to study the Theory [of Mao's Revolution] and formed a vital team along with other women. They continuously mobilized more and more women to participate in the studies. They also imparted training to women to become (political) theory instructors. They also helped women to solve their problems so that they could come to study. All these efforts created enthusiasm for studies among women and strengthened the movement to study Mao's work." Ibid. Original source: 1960 Zhong Guo Funu (lit.trans. Chinese Women) – a journal published by the All-China Women’s Federation in the 1950s and 60s. With increased emphasis on education, Mao was able to impose his common man policies further into the hearts of Chinese people, and the result of such education-turned-political propaganda instilled a strong nationalism into Chinese society during the 1950s. Unfortunately, once Mao began his great Cultural Revolution in mid-1960s, his previous education reforms had vanished completely, and Chinese education was essentially frozen. Education as a whole took a great step backwards, becoming virtually nonexistent. MacFarquhar and Schoenhals, Mao’s Last Revolution (Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006), 156-159 During the Cultural Revolution, Mao sought to revolutionize the entire thought system in China by re-educating peasant to follow strictly follow the “education” provided by the Chinese Communist Party. In achieving this, Mao ceased the teaching of traditional Chinese texts of poetry, philosophy, and all texts with “flowery language” Feng Siu Ju. Interview by author. Telephone call. December 30, 2012. in Chinese schools, and urged students to become his Red Guards These Red Guards were student-formed units acting under the CCP as a civilian military force.; essentially to get rid of Mao’s enemies. The Beijing Military Region had set up Red Guard Reception Stations in over hundreds of middle schools, over 50 colleges, and many high schools across China MacFarquhar and Schoenhals, Mao’s Last Revolution, 157-60. Military officers trained Chinese students in classrooms and communities all over China for the Red Guard Rallies; an event where students would hail praises of Chairman Mao and the Chinese Community Party. This was the primary form of education during the Cultural Revolution that persisted for ten years. During this time, not only were traditional textbooks banned, but anything having to do with modern thinking was encouraged by Mao to be burned. Feng Siu Ju. Interview by author. Many bookstores across the country went out of business, and the central education goal changed from “educating the masses” to “lessen the refined characteristics of upper and upper-middle class thinking.” Youth were caught in the fervor of becoming Mao’s helpers, and they were urged to take on more practical roles in society rather than to sit in a classroom and study. Ibid. The lack of proper education during the Cultural Revolution caused Chinese society to be divided into two factions: Mao’s supporters, mainly the peasants, and those who lived in fear of the CCP, or the intellectuals. China was equally thrown into chaos as students rose against the established educational institutions, and the literacy rate dropped as China entered a “dark age.” Ibid. Mao’s revolution undid most of his earlier education reforms, and his attempt to spread communist ideals shattered the fragility of China’s education system. He ultimately destroyed the relative peace established in China after the party’s founding, leaving the pieces to be picked up by his successors. It was only after Mao’s death and under Deng Xiaoping’s leadership that Chinese education was able to be revived, prompting the second wave of education reforms. Deng’s Era of Reforms (1977-2003) Although Deng did not lead China from earlier 1990s to his death in 1997, the party followed his theory in education reforms. In 1977, Deng Xiaoping started to lead China. Deng assumed leadership of the CCP in 1978 He soon began reforming China, aiming to bring back the glory that was lost during the Cultural Revolution. Deng followed the “Four Modernizations” philosophy of Zhou Enlai, “to strengthen science and technology, political education, and support changing ideologies [education on the sciences, agriculture, medical studies], so that China can be on par with the [industrialized] world.” Zhou Enlai, “The Four Modernizations presented by Zhou at the Conference on Scientific and Technological Work in Shanghai,.”People’s Daily, January, 1963. (my translation) Together with the “Four Modernizations,” Deng had other plans for Chinese society, the main ones being “breaking out of the rigidities impose by the dogma of Mao Thought,” Lieberthal, Covering China: From Revolution Through Reform (New York: Norton & Company, 1995), 129 and to have China “catch up with the most advanced countries in the world.” Deng Xiaoping, “Some Comments on Work in Science and Education,” in vol.2 of Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping Deng’s first major education reform was to restore the National College Entrance Examination (NCEE), or gaokao in Chinese. Xinhua News, “1977 Deng Xiaoping regarding restoring the Gaokao.” The NCEE is the foremost examination in China for qualifying students to colleges, but it had stopped, like many other education programs, during the Cultural Revolution. The restoration of the NCEE signaled a new beginning in Chinese education because it ended the recommendation system used in the Mao era. Lan Yu and Hoi K. Suen, “Historical and Contemporary Exam-driven Education Fever in China,” KEDI Journal of Educational Policy (2005): 25 The NCEE brought more equality to Chinese education in allowing rural students with high test scores to become a legal resident in areas with more key universities; the status itself became a prerequisite for people to work in wealthy areas as well. Ibid. Thus, education became a new focus in China, as students thrived for high test scores to score an opportunity for better living and working conditions in the future. The heightened awareness of education was also coupled with the fact that many students in rural areas saw the NCEE as their only ticket moving up the social ladder. Ibid. Beyond this, Deng also advocated for students to broaden their thinking by studying abroad, starting with four study tours sent in the spring of 1978; one to Eastern Europe, Hong Kong, Japan, and Western Europe. Vogel, Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China, 219. From these tours, Deng called for his “open-door policy” “Send people abroad to familiarize themselves with the outside world.” Excerpt from Deng Xiaoping’s “Carry out the Policy of Opening to the Outside World and Learn Advanced Science and Technology from Other Countries,” October 10, 1978. to introduce western thinking into Chinese education, especially for postsecondary studies. Despite the restoration of the NCEE, Deng Xiaoping’s greatest contributions were not in the two years of his party leadership, but rather in the 1980s, where several grand reforms were made into law, forming an actual Chinese education system. Two elements were crucial to this reform era: comparative and higher education, as well as the Nine-Year Compulsory Education law. Comparative and Higher Education China in the early 1980s still suffered from a moderately high illiteracy rate (see Appendix B). To lower illiteracy rates, Deng focused intently in improving Chinese higher education, with the establishments of more universities, research facilities, in order to boost China’s stance as a country specialized in science and technology. Wang Huai Yu, “Deng Xiaoping’s Philosophy on Higher Chinese Education and the Development of Major Universities in China,” Beijing Academy of Educational Sciences, accessed March 21, 2012. At the same time, Deng also encouraged more comparative education programs, as part of his “open-door policy.” In 1984, a comparative education program was set up for doctoral students at Beijing Normal University and East China Normal University, Bray and Qin, “Comparative Education in Greater China: Contexts, Characteristics, Contrasts and Contributions,” Comparative Education 37 (2001): 455 and by 1989 there were four main institutes boosting over 20 comparative education programs. Ibid. In addition, the Chinese Comparative Education Society (CCES) was formed in 1979, its goals being to “undertake educational research, and facilitate education reforms.” Ibid. Further advancing the drive of Chinese foreign study was the East China Normal University’s Journal of Foreign Education Studies, or better known in English as Global Education. Cheng Man Wai, “Comparative Education in Mainland China: Globalization and Localization” (Master’s diss., University of Hong Kong, 2003). This journal represented a growing trend in China in the late twentieth century of the “internationalization of education,” Ibid. where increasing numbers of Chinese students engaged in foreign studies or at least shared an interest in international studies (see Appendix E). Increased Chinese interest in foreign studies also created an opening for western culture to seep into China as well; starting with the allowance of western forms of art (ballet, western classical music, classics such as Hugo and Dumas) to more art schools, and then to the removal of many books off of the restricted list. J.V. Chey, “Chinese Cultural Policy—Liberalization?,” The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, No. 1 (Jan., 1979), 110-111, accessed February 2, 2012. China had followed suit with Deng Xiaoping’s intended goal to introduce China to more western education principles, and in turn, China was already on its way to “globalization” in just a decade of Deng’s leadership. Chinese society in the 1980s was full of new elements, and as Chinese interests in studying abroad grew, China saw a paralleled growth in higher education at home, beginning with the founding of the Chinese Higher Education Reform and Development Network in 1983. “Chinese Higher Education Reform and Development Network,” Baidu Baike, accessed March 21, 2012, http://baike.baidu.com/view/465790.htm Regarding higher education, Deng felt that “key universities are the heart of education, and therefore the heart of advanced research.” Wang, “Deng Xiaoping’s Philosophy on Higher Chinese Education….” (my translation) Under this belief, the CCP in 1984 and 1986 subsequently approved 33 institutions of higher education to construct research facilities, and furthermore approved 22 more schools in the following 4 years. Ibid. Over just two decades, the increase in enrollment in Chinese institutions of higher education has been monumental (Appendix D), reflecting a Deng-induced drive in the pursuit of higher and global education. Deng’s education reforms essentially “liberalized” Chinese thinking, and although politically China did not undergo much change, socially the Chinese people were “richer” Cheng Man Wai, “Comparative Education in Mainland China,” 28-57 and more diverse in thought than ever before, completely abandoned the blind party adoration fervor during Mao’s era. Another impact of Deng’s reforms was a shifting of values in Chinese society. Gone were the days of Mao’s pragmatism, where people were encouraged to learn for the purpose of gaining practical purposes to aid party leadership in China. A trend that has become apparent in the late twentieth century was that Chinese students desired more and more to pursue higher education rather than to enter the workforce directly after secondary education. Hung, Fan-Sing, and Yue-Ping Chung. “To Work or to Continue to Higher Education? The Choice of Senior Secondary Students in Shenzhen China,” Higher Education 39 (2000):456, accessed March 21, 2012. Deng’s China valued intellectuals above all else, and societal values shifted alongside Deng’s philosophy to value the elites, rather than the rural peasants. Mao’s “no elite” beliefs were no longer popular in China, and peasants, along with urban people, realized the need to get a better education in order to become the next pillars of society, and advance China’s ranking among the outside world. The Nine-Year Compulsory Education Law and shifting focus of Chinese education Although Deng’s reforms focused primarily on improving Chinese higher education, he also believed in the importance of primary education. China had always placed emphasis on the educating of its youth, and a famous saying goes, “人才培养体制改革要从幼儿教育开始.” Trans: “Reforms in the development of intellectuals must start from youth education.” Youth education reforms officially began in 1986, with the introduction of The 7th Five Year Plan, “The 7th Five Year Plan (1986-1990),” Chinese Government’s Official Web Portal, accessed March 15, 2012. the party’s attempt to “gradually popularize and implement the nine-year compulsory education scheme.” Ibid. The most direct effect of this law was the increase in school-age children’s net enrollment ratio in school. (Appendix F) Besides the increase in student enrollment in elementary schools, the compulsory education law also had an indirect effect of introducing more diversity in elementary school curriculums, added new courses beyond the pre-existing mathematics and reading classes. Wu Gang Ping, “The Significance of School Curriculum Reforms,” Loading…’s Blog, December 1, 2007, http://blog.zzedu.net.cn/user1/zxnyll/archives/2006/2808.html. (my translation) By the start of the twenty-first century, most urban elementary schools had at least an art or music class, a general science class, and an intensified writing class in addition to math and reading. Famous city elementary schools often had additional cram classes on the core subjects, Core subjects at the time being mathematics and reading, and in some cases, writing. Science was not yet considered a “core” class for elementary school. and a rare few included specialized science classes in their curriculum. Note: famous city schools have harder acceptance standards than other schools, and sometimes students even had to take an entrance exam or have proper connections to get into a famous city school. Source: Feng Siu Ju, interview by author. As education reforms showed more improvements (Appendix C), the Chinese government became more willing to allow the development of private schools and “people-run schools” in urban areas Mun C. Tsang, “School Choice in the People’s Republic of China,” (Teachers College Columbia University, 2001): 5, representing the growing importance of parental choice in education. Similarly, with China offering more choices for school, About 54,000 private schools in China by the end of 2000. Source: “China to Draft Law on Private Schools,” China Education and Research Network, accessed March 18, 2012. well-off Chinese parents can afford to, and often do, send their child to elite private schools (pre-college). Those schools have superior facilities than most urban schools, better student-teacher ratio, and higher standards for both teachers and students. Mun, 13-17 Thus, the forward education drive by parents initiates a new trend and focus in Chinese society, one centered on education. As people became increasingly aware of the importance of obtaining a “world class” education in China, parents were not hesitant to spend all of their savings on choosing a good school, Ibid.and in turn, education became a great part of the nation’s spending, creating a society aiming to always obtain the best education. The total money spent on education increased each year, having gone up from 5.48 trillion in 2002 to 6.21 trillion in 2003, an increased spending of 13.29 %. Societal Impacts of education on the new China As a result of more school choice, Before government laws passed in the early twenty-first century, students attended schools based on their geographical location. a rising problem in recent years is the growing gap between the rich and the poor as a result of education. As upper-class children receive better education than their rural counterparts, they secured themselves a higher position in China’s economy, and therefore drive out weaker competitors that lack prestigious schooling. This then becomes a vicious cycle in which rich people gain the upper hand in having elite schooling, which in turn promises financial success, so the next generation of rich people can obtain the same level of standing. This impact is evident of China’s emerging new values – education-based competition. The rural underdogs, forced to comply with this cycle due to their circumstances, have a much tougher time overcoming the elites and surviving in China’s competitive society. Conclusion Post-1949 China has gone through myriad reforms and changes. Under its leaders Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping, China experienced both prosperity and turbulence. While Mao had centralized Chinese thought in his own way, it was Deng who essentially modernized Chinese thinking with his “open-door policy,” introducing China to new ideas and foreign studies. Deng’s reforms greatly improved Chinese education, and continued to lower illiteracy rates in China each year (Appendix A. as evidence). At the same time, the reforms from 1980s onward had shifted the focus of Chinese society away from a Maoist ideal of “equal opportunity” towards a competitive society of parents trying to send their child to the best schools in order to receive a better education. Additional investigation of the Chinese government’s response to rising demands for an elite education, and of a possible correlation between the socioeconomic statuses of Chinese families in their child receiving a better education, would provide more information on the effects of recent education reforms on Chinese society. However, despite remaining ambiguous on the effect range of post-1949 education reforms, one trend is evident: along with the late twentieth century heightened awareness in China of the importance of education, the early years of the twenty-first century saw the development of more private and specialized schools, of the Chinese government yielding more to people’s demands in education, and ultimately the increased national spending in education each year. This education-based drive has become the hallmark of Chinese ideology in the twenty-first century, as the Chinese intellectual powerhouse continues to grow. References Primary: “The 7th Five Year Plan (1986-1990),” Chinese Government’s Official Web Portal, accessed March 15, 2012. http://www.gov.cn/english/2006-04/05/content_245695.htm [The 7th Five Year Plan planned to further improve the cultural life of all Chinese, and in the field of education, to gradually implement the nine-year compulsory education plan, and train 5 million professionals. This plan was successful in introducing the nine-year compulsory education system to China, which drastically improved Chinese primary education.] Deng Xiaoping, “Carry Out the Policy of Opening to the Outside World and Learn Advanced Science and Technology From Other Countries,” in vol.2 of Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, October 10, 1978. http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/dengxp/vol2/text/b1240.html [In this work, Deng acknowledged the slow development of China, and believed in opening China’s doors by sending students abroad and let them familiarize themselves with the world. Deng wished to achieve the Four Modernizations, with the first step being the introduction of advanced technology and equipment from the more advanced countries.] Deng Xiaoping, “Some Comments on Work in Science and Education,” in vol.2 of Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping (Beijing: Foreign Language Press,1984), PDF edition. [Deng critiqued Mao Zedong thought and contemplated Chinese education over the course of 17 years, but also believed that Mao went overboard in some of his documents and ideas. He clarified the intent behind Mao’s education goals and further defined the step in which China needed to take in order to transform into an intellectual country. Deng further took a stance on the important of scientific research in providing China with a good supply of trained people, which was the goal of the 7th Five Year Plan.] Feng Siu Ju. Interview by author. Telephone call. December 30, 2011. [In the interview, Feng Siu Ju, a Chinese woman in her late seventies told of her elementary and middle school experience in Haerbin, Heilongjiang province. Feng is a Western medicine practitioner and together with her husband, she also lectures at universities in Haerbin city. Feng’s recount of her elementary school curriculum coupled with her knowledge of primary and upper education curriculums proved to be helpful in this research.] Institute of Modern History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, The Compilation of Sun Yat-Sen (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1900), Vol.10, 24. [Sun Yat-Sen was important in implementing education reforms prior to Mao’s CCP. Sun believed in educating the peasants and having the government provide resources for learning so that the Chinese people can improve in skills and make the country more efficient. His ideology was important as a cornerstone of Mao’s education reforms.] Mao Zedong, 湖南农民运动考察报告, accessed March 14, 2012, http://www.agri-history.net/history/selecdoc/hunanpesant%27s%20m.htm. [my translation: An investigation of the Hunan Peasant Campaign] [Prior to becoming the leader of the CCP, Mao undertook numerous campaigns in several cities in order to organize peasant uprising movements. His investigation on Hunan outlined some fundamental points of his ideology and belief, and greatly expressed a dislike for intellectuals. Mao considered himself first and foremost a peasant, and this belief is what led him to practically destroy Chinese education during the Cultural Revolution in an attempt to rid of the country of elitism.] Secondary: “China to Draft Law on Private Schools,” China Education and Research Network, accessed March 18, 2012. http://www.edu.cn/depth_1405/20060323/t20060323_18797.shtml [For the sake of school development, China planned to draw law on private schools in the early twenty-first century. This law will give private schools the same privileges as government-run schools, and promote the increase in number of private schools as there is a lack of government-run schools.] Bray, Marks and Gui Qin, “Comparative Education in Greater China: Contexts, Characteristics, Contrasts and Contributions,” Comparative Education 37 (2001): 455 [This article assessed the growth of comparative education in China in the late twentieth century, especially with Deng Xiaoping’s open-door policy. The development of societies such as the Chinese Comparative Education Society (CCES) was significant as an indicator of Deng’s reforms in education, and the shifting of Chinese thought.] Chakrabarti, Sreemati . Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, "Women and Adult Literacy in China." Accessed March 8, 2012. http://ignca.nic.in/ks_41036.htm. [This source was focused on the improvements to female education in China under Mao’s leadership. There were not only statistics that supported the success of Mao’s earlier education reforms, but also excerpts from the national journal for women founded during that period which included some recounts of the night classes and other educational programs initiated by Mao.] Cheng Man Wai, “Comparative Education in Mainland China: Globalization and Localization” (Master’s diss., University of Hong Kong, 2003). [This study analyzed the development of comparative education in Mainland China as well as China’s path to globalization in the late twentieth century. The growing popularity of comparative education journals in China in the past few decades is significant as a representation of China’s growing interest in the outside world. Statistics from this study is included in the appendix.] Chey, J.V., “Chinese Cultural Policy—Liberalization?,” The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, No. 1 (Jan., 1979), 110-111, accessed February 2, 2012. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2159076. [This article explored the post-Cultural Revolution reactions of the Chinese people against the “gang of four.” More importantly, this article discussed the disintegration of Chinese culture during Mao’s era and the changes that China went through after Mao’s death. Chinese society was introduced to a greater number of Western elements during the years of Deng’s leadership, and this greatly changed Chinese society. Examples from the article of these “novel” Western elements aided the argument of the development of a new cultural identity in China during the late twentieth century.] “Chinese Higher Education Reform and Development Network,” Baidu Baike, accessed March 21, 2012, http://baike.baidu.com/view/465790.htm [The establishment of the Chinese Higher Education Reform and Development Network was especially important to the goals of Deng Xiaoping of his “three representation beliefs.” This network became an example of Deng thought – “expand the philosophy of higher education in China with the fostering of research analysis for the sake of improving China.”] Edmunds, Charles. "Modern Education in China." The Journal of International Relations. 10. no. 1 (1919): 62-64. [This article outlined the need for a new system of education in China, and discussed the formation of a new education system in 1905 (first “wave” of reforms) with the abolishment of the old system of literary examinations. This article was helpful in identifying the transition between Manchu education and the modern education established in the Republic of China, prior to Mao’s People’s Republic of China.] Hung, Fan-Sing, and Yue-Ping Chung. “To Work or to Continue to Higher Education? The Choice of Senior Secondary Students in Shenzhen China,” Higher Education 39 (2000):456, accessed March 21, 2012. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3447942?seq=2 [After significant data gathering, this study noted the dilemma faced by Chinese students in the late twentieth century of whether to continue pursuing higher education or to directly enter the work force. The data showed a greater percent of students choosing higher education over working, displaying the increasing education fervor in China.] Kobayashi, T. (1990) China, India, Japan and Korea, in Halls, W.D. (ed) ( i 992) Comparative Education. Contemporary Issues and Trends. London: J. Kingsley Publishers, pp.200-226 [This research cited the ancient Chinese education system as a model for several other Asian countries, such as Japan and Korea. The influence of Chinese education can be seen in the usage of Chinese characters (Kanji) in Japanese script. The position of the Chinese education system in ancient times provides a contrast to its deterioration in later years, especially during the Cultural Revolution.] Lan Yu and Hoi K. Suen, “Historical and Contemporary Exam-driven Education Fever in China,” KEDI Journal of Educational Policy (2005): 17-33 [This article makes a very detailed comparison of the ancient literary examination, Keju, with the modern college entrance examination, gaokao. This article was important in detailing the extent to which these examinations mattered to the Chinese people. Since reinstating the gaokao was a major accomplishment of Deng, the importance of the exam itself is relevant to the development of the current Chinese education system. Lieberthal, Kenneth. Covering China: From Revolution Through Reform (New York: Norton & Company, 1995), 129 [True to its title, this book focused on Mao’s revolution and Deng’s reforms. This book provided helpful information on Deng’s ideology and the steps he undertook to his open-door policy.] MacFarquhar, Roderick, and Michael Schoenhals. Mao's Last Revolution. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006. [Taken from this book was information regarding school situation during the Cultural Revolution. Students were taken out of school and urged to become Red Guards to serve Chairman Mao and the CCP, which in return showed the revolution was a dark period for Chinese education.] Mao Wen Jun, “Recent China (1911-1937) People’s Education Museum” (Master’s diss., Sichuan University,2002). [my translation] [This article discussed some improvements made to rural education in China prior to Mao’s era. These improvements showed that Chinese education grew as a whole, but rural education still lacked considerably compared to education in urban cities.] Mun C. Tsang, “School Choice in the People’s Republic of China,” (Teachers College Columbia University, 2001): 1-28 [This article described the growth in importance of private schools in China, and of the availability of school choice for parents. Implications from this article were drawn with relation to Chinese society.] Vogel, Ezra. Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China. Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2011. [This book detailed Deng Xiaoping’s social and economic policies and their impact on China. Among these policies, the most important one pertained to Deng’s plan to improve China by improving Chinese education. At the same time, Deng’s policies also changed Chinese society, transforming some of its values.] Wang Huai Yu, “Deng Xiaoping’s Philosophy on Higher Chinese Education and the Development of Major Universities in China,” Beijing Academy of Educational Sciences, accessed March 21, 2012. http://www.bjesr.cn/esrnet/site/bjjykyw/gdjy/XSYJ/0021de0011510b3a91f.ahtml [This article mentioned the aims of Deng in improving Chinese higher education, and used statistics to show some of the improvements to university education made during Deng’s era. This article was especially helpful with accessing the reforms in Chinese higher education.] Wu Gang Ping, “The Significance of School Curriculum Reforms,” Loading…’s Blog, December 1, 2007, http://blog.zzedu.net.cn/user1/zxnyll/archives/2006/2808.html. (my translation) [This post accessed the predominant type of thinking taught in Chinese primary and middle schools, and how reforms in school curriculum (such as the introduction of more varied classes) introduced more freedom of thought into the minds of Chinese youth, who would go on to reshape Chinese society.] Xinhua News, “1977 Deng Xiaoping regarding restoring the Gaokao.” Accessed March 20, 2012. http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2007-08/23/content_6587765.htm [This is a news article written in the late 1980s (last updated in 2007) that told of the historical event in Chinese history with Deng Xiaoping restoring the Gaokao, and the impacts of this on Chinese education.] Xinhua News, “Mao Zedong Theory.” Accessed March 15, 2012. http://news.xinhuanet.cm/ziliao/cont_2136758_2.htm [This is a news report of Maoism, and some of Mao’s ideology that he voiced out. Essentially, Mao is still pushing towards a very communist society, and that, not anything else, is the focus of his education reforms.] Yan Li Hao, “The Education Philosophy of Sun Yat-Sen.” The Revolutionary Committee of the Chinese Kuomintang, September 26, 2008. Accessed March 12, 2012. http://www.minge.gov.cn/txt/2008-09/26/content_2494597.htm (my translation) [This is a compilation of Sun Yat-Sen’s philosophy and some of the policies he implemented while being leader of the Republic of China. Actual sayings by Sun helped to better define his role in Chinese education reforms.] Zhao Wen Tian, “Qing Dynasty’s attitude towards Confucian education in Mongolia” Institute of Modern History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, accessed March 11, 2012. http://jds.cass.cn/Item/6301.aspx (my translation) [This article was useful in providing information on Chinese education near the end years of the Qing dynasty. The Qing dynasty both followed and changed the education system of the past dynasties. Central to this education was the Confucian principles, and official mandates by Qing emperors would prove this to be true. Knowing the pre-1949 state of education is helpful when analyzing the reforms.] Zhou Enlai, “The Four Modernizations presented by Zhou at the Conference on Scientific and Technological Work in Shanghai,.”People’s Daily, January, 1963. (my translation) [Zhou Enlai in this speech presented his “Four Modernizations” as a plan to improve China rapidly and efficiently. His modernizations were followed by Deng Xiaoping as the latter’s policies mirrors Zhou’s plan. Zhou’s plan provided the first framework for the current modern China.] Appendix A. Table 1: Illiterate population aged 15 and over by region (2005) Population aged 15 and over Illiterate population % to total aged 15 and over National Total 13,664,737 1,508,706 11.04 Beijing 182,650 7,152 3.92 Tianjin 120,572 5,793 4.80 Hebei 746,574 53,638 7.18 Shanxi 349,524 19,472 5.57 Inner Mongolia 262,000 29,476 11.25 Liaoning 479,167 22,839 4.77 Jilin 307,428 17,994 5.85 Heilongjiang 430,771 26,633 6.18 Shanghai 214,169 11,213 5.24 Jiangsu 835,732 83,702 10.02 Zhejiang 545,255 65,172 11.95 Anhui 623,028 119,875 19.24 Fujian 381,435 49,279 12.92 Jiangxi 427,446 45,038 10.54 Shandong 1,029,220 127,449 12.38 Henan 979,235 95,891 9.79 Hubei 613,088 74,114 12.09 Hunan 680,670 58,377 8.58 Guangdong 956,604 57,370 6.00 Guangxi 470,371 40,625 8.64 Hainan 83,637 8,162 9.76 Chongqing 293,816 34,244 11.65 Sichuan 849,493 141,104 16.61 Guizhou 353,816 75,750 21.41 Yunnan 446,987 89,713 20.07 Tibet 26,656 11,953 44.84 Shaanxi 396,108 40,903 10.33 Gansu 263,000 54,780 20.83 Qinghai 54,595 13,143 24.07 Ningxia 58,454 10,935 18.71 Xinjiang 203,235 16,919 8.32 Source: China Statistical Yearbook 2006, Chapter 4-13 B. Table 2: Percentage of Illiteracy by Age and Sex: China 1982 Age Group Females Males 15-19 14.7 4.2 20-24 23.3 5.7 25-29 36.1 9.6 30-34 40.3 13.2 35-39 43.4 14.2 40-44 57.3 22.4 45-49 74.5 32.3 50-54 85.2 40.5 55-59 89.7 47.5 60+ 95.4 60.9 Source: Census of China 1982. Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Almanac 1986, pp. 314-15. C. Graph 1. Literacy rate; adult female (% of females ages 15 and above) in China (1980-2003) Source: www.tradingeconomics.com D. Table 3. 1985-2002 Basic Statistics on Education 2005-01-19 Item 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 Number of Schools       Regular Institutions of Higher Education 1016 1075 1054 1041 1225 1396 Secondary Schools 104848 100777 95216 93629 95362 93968 # Specialized Secondary Schools 3557 3982 4049 3646 3260 2953 Regular Secondary Schools 93221 87631 81020 77268 80432 80067 Primary Schools 832309 766072 668685 553622 491273 456903 Number of Full-time Teachers (10 000 persons)       Regular Institutions of Higher Education 34.4 39.5 40.1 46.3 53.2 61.8 Secondary Schools 296.7 349.2 388.3 472.3 486.6 503.0 # Specialized Secondary Schools 17.4 23.4 25.7 5.3 4.6 3.8 Regular Secondary Schools 265.2 303.3 333.4 400.5 418.8 437.6 Primary Schools 537.7 558.2 566.4 586.0 579.8 577.9 New Student Enrollment (10 000 persons)       Regular Institutions of Higher Education 61.9 60.9 92.6 220.6 268.3 320.5 Secondary Schools 1789.8 1815.8 2354.1 3103.2 3179.4 3371.2 # Specialized Secondary Schools 66.8 73 138.1 132.6 127.7 155.3 Regular Secondary Schools 1606.9 1619.6 2025.9 2736.0 2815.9 2929.0 Primary Schools 2298.2 2064 2531.8 1946.5 1944.2 1952.8 Student Enrollment (10 000 persons)       Regular Institutions of Higher Education 170.3 206.3 290.6 556.1 719.1 903.4 Secondary Schools 5092.6 5105.4 6191.5 8518.5 8901.4 9415.2 # Specialized Secondary Schools 157.1 224.4 372.2 489.5 458.0 456.4 Regular Secondary Schools 4706 4586 5371 7368.9 7836.0 8287.9 Primary Schools 13370.2 12241.4 13195.2 13013.3 12543.5 12156.7 Graduates (10 000 persons)       Regular Institutions of Higher Education 31.6 61.4 80.5 95.0 103.6 133.7 Secondary Schools 1279.1 1497.5 1636.9 2302.3 2429.3 2601.3 # Specialized Secondary Schools 42.9 66.1 83.9 150.7 150.3 144.2 Regular Secondary Schools 1194.9 1342.1 1429 1908.6 2047.4 2263.6 Primary Schools 1999.9 1863.1 1961.5 2419.2 2396.9 2351.9 Source: www.stats.gov.cn (Chinese Education and Research Network) E. Table 4. Number of Global Education/Journal of Foreign Education Studies articles reviewed, 1996-2002 Year 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Total No.of articles 89 91 93 97 100 170 180 820 Source: Cheng Man Wai, “Comparative Education in Mainland China: Globalization and Localization” (Master’s diss., University of Hong Kong, 2003). F. Table 5. Net Enrolment Ratio of School-age Children in Primary Schools 单位：万人 Unit:in 10 Thousand 　 学龄儿童入学率 年份 Net Enrolment Ratio of School-age Children in various regions. Year 全国学龄儿童数 已入学学龄儿童数 入学率（％） 　 Total No. of School-age Children No. of School-age Children Enrolled Net Enrollment Ratio 1965 11603.2 9829.1 84.7 1980 12219.6 11478.2 93.0 1985 10362.3 9942.8 95.9 1990 9740.7 9529.7 97.8 1999 12991.4 12872.8 99.1 2000 12445.3 12333.9 99.1 2001 11766.4 11561.2 99.1 2002 11310.4 11150.0 98.6 2003 10908.3 10761.6 98.7 2004 10548.1 10437.1 98.9 2005 10207.0 10120.3 99.2 2006 10075.5 10001.5 99.3 2007 9947.9 9896.8 99.5 2008 9772.0 9727.1 99.5 *1991年以前的入学率是按7-11周岁统一计算的。从1991年起入学率是按各地不同入学年龄和学制分别计算的。 -Enrolment Ratio of school-age children before 1991 was calculated on the basis of primary school pupils aged 7-11 enrolled. Mary Chen Candidate 000251-027 Page 21 of 29