The History of the Peoples of the Eastern Desert edited by Hans Barnard and Kim Duistermaat Monograph 73 Cotsen Institute of Archaeology University of California, Los Angeles THE COTSEN INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY PRESS is the publishing unit of the Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA. The Cotsen Institute is a premier research organization dedicated to the creation, dissemination, and conservation of archaeological knowledge and heritage. It is home to both the Interdepartmental Archaeology Graduate Program and the UCLA/Getty Master’s Program in the Conservation of Archaeological and Ethnographic Materials. The Cotsen Institute provides a forum for innovative faculty research, graduate education, and public programs at UCLA in an effort to impact positively the academic, local and global communities. Established in 1973, the Cotsen Institute is at the forefront of archaeological research, education, conservation and publication and is an active contributor to interdisciplinary research at UCLA. The Cotsen Institute Press specializes in producing high-quality academic volumes in several different series, including Monographs, World Heritage and Monuments, Cotsen Advanced Seminars, and Ideas, Debates and Perspectives. The Press is committed to making the fruits of archaeological research accessible to professionals, scholars, students, and the general public. We are able to do this through the generosity of Lloyd E. Cotsen, longtime Institute volunteer and benefactor, who has provided an endowment that allows us to subsidize our publishing program and produce superb volumes at an affordable price. Publishing in nine different series, our award-winning archaeological publications receive critical acclaim in both the academic and popular communities. THE COTSEN INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY AT UCLA Charles Stanish, Director Gregory Areshian, Assistant Director Willeke Wendrich, Editorial Director Julie Nemer, Publications Manager EDITORIAL BOARD OF THE COTSEN INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY Willeke Wendrich Area Editor for Egypt, North, and East Africa Christopher Donnan Area Editor for South and Central America Jeanne E. Arnold Area Editor for North America Jeffrey P. Brantingham Area Editor for the Paleolithic and Environmental Archaeology Aaron Burke Area Editor for Southwestern Asia Lothar Von Falkenhausen Area Editor for East and South Asia and Archaeological Theory Sarah Morris Area Editor for the Classical World John Papadopoulos Area Editor for the Mediterranean Region ([2I¿FLR0HPEHUV &KDUOHV6WDQLVK*UHJRU\($UHVKLDQDQG-XOLH1HPHU ([WHUQDO0HPEHUV .XVLPED&KDSXUXNKD-R\FH0DUFXV&ROLQ5HQIUHZDQG-RKQ<HOOHQ This book is set in 10.5-point Times New Roman, with titles in 28-point Mittelschrift. (GLWHGE\%DUEDUD.RKO 7KHLPDJHRQWKHFRYHULVVKRZLQJDGURPHGDU\UDFHEHWZHHQULGHUVRIWKH%HMD.KDWPD\DKWULEHDVSDUWRIDUHOLJLRXVIHVWLYDO SKRWRJUDSKE\/XF\6NLQQHU6XDNLQ3URMHFW 2004). Such events are treasured celebrations of Bedouin life. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The history of the peoples of the Eastern Desert / edited by Hans Barnard and .LP'XLVWHUPDDW p. cm. Proceedings of a conference held Nov. 25-27, 2008 at the Netherlands-Flemish Institute in Cairo. (DVWHUQ'HVHUW (J\SW $QWLTXLWLHV&RQJUHVVHV'HVHUWSHRSOH(J\SW(DVWHUQ'HVHUW+LVWRU\&RQJUHVVHV'HVHUWSHRSOH(J\SW(DVWHUQ'HVHUW$QWLTXLWLHV-&RQJUHVVHV(DVWHUQ'HVHUW (J\SW $QWLTXLWLHV5RPDQ&RQJUHVVHV([FDYDWLRQV $UFKDHRORJ\ (J\SW(DVWHUQ'HVHUW&RQJUHVVHV,%DUQDUG+,,'XLVWHUPDDW .LP ,6%1 FORWK DT137.E38H57 2012 932.3--dc23 2012023427 Copyright © 2012 Regents of the University of California All rights reserved. Printed in the USA. Time line and word cloud created from Monica Hanna, Fatma Keshk and Sara Aboubakr, The Documentation of the Cultural Heritage of the Bedouin of South Sinai: A Pilot Study in Serabit al-Khadim. Word cloud by www.wordle. net, written by Jonathan Feinberg (IBM Research); the cloud shows the 25 words that occur most often in the text (typefont Sexsmith, all lower case), giving greater prominence to words that appear more frequently. CHAPTER 25 The Documentation of the Cultural Heritage of the Bedouin of South Sinai: A Pilot Study in Serabit al-Khadim MONICA H A NN A , FATM A K ESHK A ND SA R A A BOUBA K R ( 



, ‘HIGHLAND of the Slave’) is located in the southwest of the Sinai Peninsula. It comprises the remains RI D 0LGGOH DQG 1HZ .LQJGRP WXUTXRLVH PLQH intermittently active between the early 12th and the PLGGOH RI WKH WK '\QDVW\ ± %&(  DQG a temple dedicated to Hathor, goddess of the desert and foreign lands. The Documentation of the Cultural Heritage of the Bedouins of South Sinai project aims to VHWDPRGHOIRUFXOWXUDOUHVRXUFHPDQDJHPHQW &50  for the cultural heritage of South Sinai through the survey, documentation, preservation and management RI6HUDELWDO.KDGLPZLWKDQGIRUWKHORFDO%HGRXLQ This project is funded by the South Sinai Regional 'HYHORSPHQW 3URJUDP 665'3  DQG LV LPSOHPHQWHG by the Centre for Documentation of the Cultural and 1DWXUDO+HULWDJHRI(J\SW &8/71$7  The cultural heritage of the Sinai in general and South Sinai in particular have lacked thorough studies and sustainable development projects. The history of South Sinai is very different from the Nile Valley, and the area has rarely been studied comprehensively. No plans for CRM were carried out at the various sites. When studied in the past, research was carried out on the archaeology of the area, leaving behind the social S ERABIT AL-KHADIM 359 history of the inhabitants and their complex relation with archaeology and tourism. Our project aim is to study the entire cultural heritage of the region, represented in the tangible and intangible aspects of the region of Serabit DO.KDGLPIXOOGRFXPHQWDWLRQRIWKHWHPSOHDQGWKH FXUUHQW LQKDELWDQWV RI 6HUDELW DO.KDGLP DQG ¿QDOO\ putting forward CRM plans for the area, all carried with the purpose of providing a means of alternative economic solutions for the Bedouin in the area. In order to protect and safeguard the sites, CRM plans are being put forward with the help of the Bedouin and the Supreme &RXQFLORI$QWLTXLWLHV 6&$ 1 The project works on WKUHHIDFHWVFRPSOHWHDUFKDHRORJLFDOGRFXPHQWDWLRQRI the area, a social map of the inhabitants, and capacity building of the local population to enhance tourism, EHWWHUDFFRPPRGDWHWKHLUKHULWDJHDQGJHQHUDOO\ÀRXULVK in the area. These three facets are aimed at study of the area, including both its tangible and intangible heritage, improving the tourist experience and the Bedouin’s economic status, and preserving the cultural heritage of the region. We have chosen not to provide an exhaustive bibliography of the research here, partly because not all UHOHYDQWVRXUFHVDUHDYDLODEOHLQ(J\SWZHUHJUHWKDYLQJ to omit these from the current chapter. 1 6LQFH-DQXDU\WKH0LQLVWU\RI6WDWHIRU$QWLTXLWLHV 06$  360 T h e H i s to r y of the P e o p l e s of the E a s ter n D e s e r t The Archaeological Heritage of Serabit al-Khadim The geographic position of the Sinai Peninsula and LWV JHRORJLFDO IRUPDWLRQ GH¿QHG LWV UROH LQ (J\SW¶V foreign contacts, both commercial and military, since the dawn of Egyptian civilization. The Sinai consists RIDWULDQJXODUGHVHUWUHJLRQFRQQHFWLQJWZRVHDV WKH Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea) and two continents $IULFDDQG$VLD 7KLVVWUDWHJLFSRVLWLRQPDGHLWRQH of the major crossroads between northern Africa and VRXWKZHVW$VLD +DVVDQ DQGWKHLUKLQWHUODQGV The peninsula is abundantly rich in mineral formations in the central plateaus of al-Tih and Egma, as well as LQ WKH DUHD RI *HEHO 0XVD IXUWKHU VRXWK 0XPIRUG 2001). South Sinai has been a source of raw materials, mainly copper and turquoise, for millennia, while North Sinai acted as a conduit between the civilizations in WKH1LOH9DOOH\3DOHVWLQH-RUGDQDQG6\ULD 0XPIRUG  7KLVIDFWLVZHOODWWHVWHGGXULQJWKH0LGGOH .LQJGRP ± %&(  DQG WKH 1HZ .LQJGRP ± %&(  LQ WKH SUHVHUYHG DQFLHQW URXWHV JUDI¿WLDQGUHFRUGVRIH[SHGLWLRQV The earliest human activity in South Sinai is attested in a group of sites located in the southeastern Sinai, LQ:DGL DO4XGHLUDW ZKLFK LV D ORQJ YDOOH\ UXQQLQJ across the Sinai Peninsula from west to east. These sites, representing the oldest archaeological sites of 6RXWK6LQDLDUHGDWHGWRWKH3DOHROLWKLF3HULRG +DQQD 2012). There are Neolithic sites in South Sinai near Saint Catherine’s Monastery that have been dated WR WKH 3UH3RWWHU\ 1HROLWKLF$ 331$  DQG WKH 3UH 3RWWHU\1HROLWKLF% 331%+DVVDQ 6RPH/DWH Predynastic and Early Dynastic pottery, around 3050–  %&( ZDV IRXQG LQ 6RXWK 6LQDL DWWHVWLQJ WKH (J\SWLDQSUHVHQFHDWWKDWWLPH 0XPIRUG  )URPWKH2OG.LQJGRP ±%&( RQZDUGWKH Egyptian activity in South Sinai mainly targeted the exploitation of the mineral resources, in order to extract metals and precious stones for cosmetics and jewelry 9DOEHOOHDQG%RQQHW 7KLVLQWHUHVWLVFOHDULQ the name xtiw mfkAt that they attributed to the mining area of South Sinai, most probably starting as early DV WKH WK '\QDVW\ $EGHO5D]LT et al.   ZKLFK WUDQVODWHVDVµ7HUUDFHRI7XUTXRLVH¶ /RUHW 7KH Egyptian interest in the Sinai is also evident from the numerous routes that they developed in order to reach the Sinai. The archaeological evidence attests three main routes leading from the Nile Valley to the Sinai, especially during the period from the 18th Dynasty until WKH6DLWH3HULRG ±%&(0XPIRUG 2QH leads from the Nile Valley through Wadi Arabah, in the (DVWHUQ'HVHUWWRWKH5HG6HD0LGGOH.LQJGRPWH[WVDW Ain Sukhna, located on the Red Sea coast some 120 km from Cairo, show how this location acted as a point of maritime departure for the expeditions going to the Sinai WRPLQHWXUTXRLVHDQGFRSSHU $EGHO5D]LT et al.  A second route to the Red Sea, and on to northern and central Sinai, led though Wadi Tumaylat. The third route followed the Pelusiac Branch of the River Nile through WKH(DVWHUQ'HOWDWRUHDFK1RUWK6LQDL WKLVURXWHZDV known as the ‘Way of Horus’). Since the 19th century CE, the ancient mining sites of South Sinai were visited by travelers and archaeologists VXFKDV5LFFLLQ/HSVLXVLQ3DOPHULQ :HLOO LQ  3HWULH LQ  DQG %DUURLV LQ  Inscriptions of Sinai *DUGLQHUDQG3HHW LVVWLOO considered one of the main sources for the study the Ancient Egyptian mining in South Sinai because of the inscriptions left by the miners listed and translated here. During the second half of the 20th century CE, archaeologists like Valbelle, Chartier-Raymond, Mumford and Tallet carried out work at sites in the Sinai. The archaeological evidence of South Sinai shows how intense was the mining activity was during the Old .LQJGRP LQ:DGL 0DJKDUD 7DOOHW   DQG:DGL .KDULJ 0XPIRUG DQGGXULQJWKH1HZ.LQJGRP LQ:DGL0DJKDUD6HUDELWDO.KDGLP%LU1DVEDQG:DGL $EX*DGD 7DOOHW  'LVFRYHUHGE\6HHW]HQLQ &KDUWLHU5D\PRQG  :DGL0DJKDUD ƒ1 ƒ( LVORFDWHG just east of the Gulf of Suez, about 19 km from the FRDVW 0XPIRUGD 7KLVVLWHKDVWKXVIDUQRWEHHQ FRPSUHKHQVLYHO\VWXGLHGE\DUFKDHRORJLVWV &KDUWLHU Raymond 1988). Explored by Ancient Egyptian H[SHGLWLRQVPLQLQJIRUFRSSHUDQGWXUTXRLVH 0XPIRUG 2001), Wadi Maghara is especially important as it is the site that bears the oldest evidence of Egyptian activity in 6RXWK6LQDL 0XPIRUGD 2OG.LQJGRPLQVFULSWLRQV at Wadi Maghara, which date as early as the Third '\QDVW\ ±%&( FRPPHPRUDWHWKHZRUNRI mining expeditions starting from the reign of Pharaohs 6DQDNKW'MRVHUDQG6HNKHPNKHW Inscriptions of Sinai 9DOEHOOHDQG%RQQHW 2WKHULQVFULSWLRQVFLWH WKHQDPHVRIODWHU3KDUDRKVRIWKH2OG.LQJGRPVXFK DV 6QHIUX .KXIX 6DKXUH 1HXVHUUD 0HQNDXKRU DQG 'MHG.D5H,VHVLDWWHVWLQJWKHH[SORLWDWLRQRIWKHPLQHV T h e D o c u m e nt ati o n of the C u ltur al H e r i t a g e of the B e d ouin of S o u th S i n a i RI:DGL0DJKDUDEHWZHHQWKHWKDQGWK'\QDVWLHV 0XPIRUG D 7KH 2OG .LQJGRP LQVFULSWLRQV LQ Wadi Maghara mostly illustrate the pharaohs together ZLWKYDULRXVGHLWLHVVWULNLQJHQHPLHV *DUGQHUDQG3HHW  7KHVHLQVFULSWLRQVDOOGRQHLQbas-relief, can EHFDWHJRUL]HGDVWKUHHPDLQW\SHV *DUGQHUDQG3HHW  UR\DOLQVFULSWLRQVDFFRPSDQLHGE\VFHQHVRU ¿JXUHVUR\DOLQVFULSWLRQVZLWKRXWVFHQHVRU¿JXUHVDQG SULYDWHLQVFULSWLRQVZLWKRUZLWKRXWVFHQHVRU¿JXUHV LQFOXGLQJDOORWKHUXQRI¿FLDOUHFRUGV$OUHDG\LQ it was noted that modern exploitation of the mines in :DGL0DJKDUDFDXVHGWKHGHVWUXFWLRQRI2OG.LQJGRP LQVFULSWLRQVZLWKWKHQDPHVRI6QHIUX.KXIXDQG6DKXUH DPRQJRWKHUV 3HWULH  Mining activities in Wadi Maghara during the Middle .LQJGRPDUHZHOODWWHVWHGE\PDQ\LQVFULSWLRQVGDWLQJ mainly to the reigns of Pharaohs Amenemhat III and $PHQHPKDW ,9 ± %&(  ZKLFK WHVWLI\ WKH DUULYDORIWKHPLQLQJH[SHGLWLRQV7ZR+LHUDWLFJUDI¿WL DOVRIURP0LGGOH.LQJGRPZHUHIRXQGLQ:DGL0DJKDUD and a 12th Dynasty stele is located to the north of the site 0XPIRUGD $1HZ.LQJGRPLQVFULSWLRQGDWLQJWR WKH\HDURIWKHFRPPRQUHLJQRI3KDUDRKV+DWVKHSVXW and Thutmosis III, attests the use of the mines at the WLPH 7DOOHW $QRWKHU1HZ.LQJGRPLQVFULSWLRQ bearing the name of Ramses II, has been reported, but QRZFDQQRWEHFRQ¿UPHG 0XPIRUGD 1HDUWKH mining sectors of Wadi Maghara, there are some ancient settlement areas that were most probably used by the miners. These areas produced many of their daily tools, such as the tools they used for extracting the minerals, DVZHOODVSRWWHU\ 0XPIRUGD  7KH VLWH RI 6HUDELW DO.KDGLP ƒ1    ƒ(  LVORFDWHGLQWKHVRXWKZHVWRIWKH6LQDL3HQLQVXOD )LJXUH3LQFK9DOEHOOHDQG%RQQHW  DERXWNPQRUWKRI:DGL0DJKDUD :LONLQVRQ 239). It covers a surface of more than 20 km2 9DOEHOOH DQG%RQQHW DWDQHOHYDWLRQRIPDERYH VHDOHYHO 0XPIRUGE 6HUDELWDO.KDGLPLV FRQVLGHUHGWKHPRVWVLJQL¿FDQW$QFLHQW(J\SWLDQVLWH RI6RXWK6LQDL :LONLQVRQ DVLWSUHVHUYHV ample evidence of Ancient Egypt. It represents the largest site of exploitation of turquoise, copper and PDODFKLWHLQWKH6LQDL 9DOEHOOHDQG%RQQHW  6LQFHLWVUHGLVFRYHU\LQ&(E\1LHEXKU 0XPIRUG 1999b), the site has attracted the attention of many travelers and archaeologists. During the second half of the 20th century CE, several archaeological projects have 361 Figure 25.1. Map of the lower Nile Valley and the Sinai Peninsula. Adapted from Valbelle and Bonnet 1996. LQYHVWLJDWHGWKHVLWHRI6HUDELWDO.KDGLPIURPGLIIHUHQW SHUVSHFWLYHV7KHPRVWVLJQL¿FDQWZHUHDVWXG\RIWKH 7HPSOHRI+DWKRU 9DOEHOOH et al.9DOEHOOHDQG %RQQHW DQGDVWXG\RIWKHDQFLHQWPLQHV &KDUWLHU Raymond et al.   6LQFH  VRPH VHFWRUV RI 6HUDELWDO.KDGLPDQG5RGDOµ$LUDUHXQGHUUHQHZHG investigation by an expedition from the Institut Français G¶$UFKpRORJLH 2ULHQWDOH ,)$2  GLUHFWHG E\ 3LHUUH 7DOOHW 7DOOHW ,Q6HUDELWDO.KDGLP )LJXUH  evidence for all the elements of a scenario are present, WKH SODFH WKH PLQHV DQG WKH WHPSOH  WKH DFWRUV WKH PLQHUV WKHWLPH WKH2OG0LGGOHDQG1HZ.LQJGRPV  DQGWKHDFWLRQ H[WUDFWLQJWXUTXRLVH PDNLQJ6HUDELW DO.KDGLPDVLWHWKDWWHOOVLWVRZQVWRU\ 7KH JHRORJLFDO IRUPDWLRQV RI 6HUDELW DO.KDGLP PDLQO\ FRQVLVW RI EDVDOW DQG VDQGVWRQH 3HWULH  58), rich in metals and mineral deposits. These metals and minerals have been extracted intermittently by the $QFLHQW(J\SWLDQVIRUFHQWXULHV 9DOEHOOHDQG%RQQHW 362 T h e H i s to r y of the P e o p l e s of the E a s ter n D e s e r t Figure 25.2. Plan of Serabit al-Khadim and its environs. Adapted from Valbelle and Bonnet 1996.     PDMRU PLQLQJ VLWHV DUH QRZ NQRZQ LQ WKH DUHD &KDUWLHU5D\PRQG et al.    DPRQJ numerous smaller operations. These can be divided into two large groups, a northern group and a southern group. The latter is near the temple and rich in inscriptions OHIWE\(J\SWLDQH[SHGLWLRQV &KDUWLHU5D\PRQG et al.  7KHSUHVHQFHRI0LGGOH.LQJGRPH[SHGLWLRQV LQ6HUDELWDO.KDGLPLVFRPPHPRUDWHGE\QXPHURXV rock inscriptions at the mines and by the monuments dedicated to the goddess Hathor in the temple. Although WKHQDPHRI$PHQHPKDW,WKH¿UVW3KDUDRKRIWKHWK '\QDVW\LVWKHHDUOLHVWIRXQGLQ6HUDELWDO.KDGLPLW VHHPVWKDWFRQVWUXFWLRQDFWLYLWLHVDW6HUDELWDO.KDGLP VWDUWHG ZLWK KLV VRQ 3KDUDRK 6HQXVHUW , ± BCE). His name is recorded on two stelae outside the temple, attesting the work of two mining expeditions GXULQJKLVUHLJQ 9DOEHOOHDQG%RQQHW $URXQG HLJKW0LGGOH.LQJGRPLQVFULSWLRQVDWWKHPLQHVJLYH the dates of expeditions during the reigns of Pharaohs $PHQHPKDW,,DQG$PHQHPKDW,,, 9DOEHOOHDQG%RQQHW  0LQLQJDFWLYLW\GXULQJWKH1HZ.LQJGRPLV also well attested at many other sites in South Sinai, LQFOXGLQJ%LU1DVEDQG:DGL$ERX*KDGD 7DOOHW  ,Q 6HUDELW DO.KDGLP DURXQG  LQVFULSWLRQV DWWHVW WKH DFWLYLW\ RI QXPHURXV 1HZ .LQJGRP H[SHGLWLRQV between the reigns of Pharaohs Amenhotep I and Ramses 9, Inscriptions of Sinai  7DOOHW   ,Q WKH PLQLQJ VHFWRUV RI 6HUDELW DO.KDGLP QRW RQO\ WUDFHV of the exploitation of turquoise can be found, but also VHWWOHPHQWVHLWKHUQHDUWKHPLQHVRUDELWIDUWKHUD¿HOG &KDUWLHU5D\PRQG et al. LQDGGLWLRQWRDUHDV of mineral processing and minor cult zones. 7XUTXRLVHWKDWKDVEHHQPLQHGDW6HUDELWDO.KDGLPLV a type of hydrated phosphate aluminum with the general formula CuAl 324)4 2+ 8‡+22 /XFDV DQG +DUULV  ,WDSSHDUVDVDEOXHJUHHQPLQHUDOLQWKH ¿VVXUHVRIVDQGVWRQHLQWKHVKDSHRIYHLQVDQGQRGXOHV 6KDZ DQG 1LFKROVRQ   ,W ZDV XVHG IRU MHZHOU\ by Egyptians since the Neolithic Period onward and it is clear that one of its main sources was the region of 6RXWK6LQDL /XFDVDQG+DUULV 7KHQDPH xtiw mfkAt µ7HUUDFHRI7XUTXRLVH¶/RUHW*DUGQHU DQG3HHW$EGHO5D]LT et al. FDQEHUHDGLQ most of the texts on the mining expeditions to South Sinai. For example, Inscriptions of Sinai 17, left at Wadi Maghara by an expedition in the second year of WKHUHLJQRI3KDUDRK3HS\,, ±%&( UHDGV “Royal Mission which was sent with the god’s treasurer +HS\WRWKHWHUUDFHVRIWKHWXUTXRLVH´ *DUGQHUDQG3HHW   Hathor is an important Ancient Egyptian female ERYLQHGHLW\ 6KDZDQG1LFKROVRQ ZKLFKFXOW T h e D o c u m e nt ati o n of the C u ltur al H e r i t a g e of the B e d ouin of S o u th S i n a i H[LVWHGVLQFH3UHKLVWRU\ 9LVFKDN 6KHKDGVHYHUDO roles, including the goddess of joy, music and happiness, the goddess of the afterlife, and the goddess of foreign ODQGVDQGWKHLUJRRGV :LONLQVRQ 6KHZDV DOVRDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHGHVHUWDQGLWVSURGXFWV 6KDZ DQG1LFKROVRQ ,WLVVWLOOXQFOHDUKRZHYHU why the Egyptians chose Hathor to be worshipped in 6HUDELWDO.KDGLP$FRPPRQRSLQLRQSURSRVHVWKDWWKH reason lies in the relation between Hathor and the moon, as a moon cult existed in the Sinai before the Hathor FXOW *DUGQHUDQG3HHW $QRWKHULGHDVXJJHVWV that she was chosen because of her role as goddess of the desert and foreign lands, and their goods, as which she could supervise the exploitation of desert resources DQG PLQHUDOV :LONLQVRQ   7KHUHIRUH WKH association between Hathor and turquoise gave her the title nbt mfkAt /DG\RIWKH7XUTXRLVH0XPIRUG  and was the reason behind the existence of a temple for +DWKRUDW6HUDELWDO.KDGLP 7KH 7HPSOH RI +DWKRU DW 6HUDELW DO.KDGLP LV FRQVLGHUHGRQHRIWKHPRUHVLJQL¿FDQWWHPSOHVRI$QFLHQW (J\SW )LJXUH DQGLWUHSUHVHQWVWKHODUJHVWUHPDLQV RI$QFLHQW(J\SWLQWKH6LQDL %DLQHVDQG0DOHN 188). In addition, it is considered the oldest preserved H[DPSOHRIDSDUWLDOO\URFNFXW(J\SWLDQWHPSOH 3LQFK (VSLQHOWKLVYROXPH $QRWKHULPSRUWDQWIHDWXUH LV WKDW WKH VDQFWXDU\ RI +DWKRU DW 6HUDELW DO.KDGLP 363 represents the largest sanctuary left by a group of miners, ordinary workers, anywhere in Egypt. Parts of the temple GDWHWRWKH0LGGOH.LQJGRPDQGWRWKH1HZ.LQJGRP 9DOEHOOH et al. 1994). The earliest inscribed evidence DWWKHWHPSOHLVDEDVHRIDVWDWXHRIWKH¿UVWSKDUDRKRI WKHWK'\QDVW\$PHQHPKDW, 9DOEHOOH et al. 1994). The construction of the temple took place in three SKDVHV 3LQFK ²GXULQJWKHWK'\QDVW\WKHWK Dynasty and the Ramesside Period—along two parallel D[HV $XIUqUH et al. LQFOXGLQJD0LGGOH.LQJGRP D[LVDQGD1HZ.LQJGRPD[LV )LJXUH 7KHROGHVW 0LGGOH .LQJGRP D[LV UXQV VRXWKHDVW±QRUWKZHVW ,W contained many stelae on both sides of the main passage, most of them dating to the reigns of Pharaohs Senusert ,,,$PHQHPKDW ,,, DQG$PHQHPKDW ,97KH .LQJV¶ Chapel was built during the reigns of Amenemhat III and Amenemhat IV. It has the aspect of a portico with IRXU FROXPQV )LJXUH  ZLWK D SDUW FDUYHG LQWR the rocks. This axis was extended west in the New .LQJGRP )RXUWHHQ DGGLWLRQDO 1HZ .LQJGRP URRPV were constructed west of the court sometime between the reigns of Pharaohs Amenhotep III and Ramses VI. This court is placed in the center of the temple and JLYHVDFFHVVWRWKUHHGLIIHUHQWGLUHFWLRQVQRUWKVRXWK and southeast. From the north, it leads to a cistern used to store rain water essential for the temple’s rituals. To the southeast, there is a direct pathway to the speos of Figure 25.3. Three-dimensional reconstruction of the Temple of Hathor at Serabit al-Khadim. Drawing by Ibrahim al-Refai. 364 T h e H i s to r y of the P e o p l e s of the E a s ter n D e s e r t Hathor, through two rooms. From the south it opens into the room usually described as the ‘basin,’ which then leads to a small corridor opening into the three rooms NQRZQDVµWKH6RSGX5RRPV¶ $XIUqUH et al. 1997). The ¿UVWWZRURRPVJLYHDFFHVVWRDWKLUGZKLFKLVORFDWHG to the south of the Hathor sanctuary and is considered to be a sanctuary of Sopdu as they contain monuments dedicated to Sopdu, a solar deity usually associated ZLWKWKHGHVHUWDQGWKHIURQWLHUV 9DOEHOOHDQG%RQQHW  +LVQDPHDOVRDSSHDUVLQDQLQVFULSWLRQRI the year 42 of the reign of Pharaoh Amenemhat III in 0DJKDUD *DUGQHUDQG3HHW 7KHURRPVPXVW have existed since the reign of Pharaoh Amenemhat III *DUGQHUDQG3HHW DOWKRXJKWKH\ZLWQHVVHG alterations and additions over the following years and WKHLU¿QDODSSHDUDQFHGDWHVPRVWOLNHO\WRWKHMRLQWUHLJQ of Pharaohs Hatshepsut and Thutmosis III. Another interesting neighboring site of the temple LVWKHSDVVDJHRI5RGDOµ$LU )LJXUH $UDELFIRU µ9DOOH\RIWKH ZLOG 'RQNH\V¶7KLVLVRQHRIWKHEHVW SODFHVWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHODUJHUVLWHRI6HUDELWDO.KDGLP &KDUWLHU5D\PRQG et al. 1994). About 5 km east of :DGL1DVEWKHVLWHZDVGLVFRYHUHGLQ &KDUWLHU Raymond et al.0XPIRUG ,WLVFOHDUIURP WKH JUDI¿WL DQG LQVFULSWLRQV RI 5RG DOµ$LU WKDW WKLV site was one of the routes commonly used by mining H[SHGLWLRQVWRUHDFK6HUDELWDO.KDGLP%HFDXVHURFNV provide shade for a considerable portion of the day, LW ZDV XVHG DV D UHVWLQJ SRLQW RQ WKH ZD\ *DUGQHU DQG 3HHW   $W OHDVW  JUDI¿WL UHSUHVHQWLQJ numerous themes, but mostly boats, animals and people 0XPIRUGE DUHSUHVHUYHGPRVWRIWKHPGDWLQJ WRWKH0LGGOH.LQJGRP2WKHUJUDI¿WLDW5RGDOµ$LU LVPRVWOLNHO\GDWHGWRWKH1HZ.LQJGRP Inscriptions of Sinai ,  and 7DOOHW ,QVRPH QHZJUDI¿WLZHUHGLVFRYHUHGLQ5RGDOµ$LU 7DOOHW  1HDUWKHDUHDFRQWDLQLQJURFNLQVFULSWLRQVLVD VLWHLGHQWL¿HGDVDQDQFLHQWFDPSVLWH 0XPIRUG  The numerous scenes with boats at Rod al-‘Air may correspond to the ship remains found at the site of Ain Sukhna, if it is correct that the mining expeditions to 6HUDELWDO.KDGLPGHSDUWHGIURP$LQ6XNKQDDFURVVWKH 5HG6HD,QWKHRSLQLRQRIWKHDXWKRUVWKHJUDI¿WLDW5RG al-‘Air tells its own story through two main repeated PRWLIVWKHERDWVDQGWKHPLQLQJD[H,WVHHPVWKDWWKH ancient miner carving the message wanted to say, “I reached Serabit by boat in order to work in the mines.” The main focus in the archaeological heritage of Serabit DO.KDGLPLVWKH7HPSOHRI+DWKRU7KHPDLQVWDJHVRI EXLOGLQJDUHDWWHVWHGXQWLOWKH1HZ.LQJGRPDQGWKH organized exploitation of the mines stopped around the end of that period. Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions are a corpus of inscriptions in a Semitic script discovered about a hundred years ago DWPDQ\VLWHVLQ6RXWK6LQDL %ULTXHO&KDWRQQHW  0RVWRIWKHVHLQVFULSWLRQVDUHQHDU6HUDELWDO.KDGLP and Bir Nasb at the mines and on some statues found in WKH7HPSOHRI+DWKRU 0XPIRUG 7KH\DUH usually associated with the Second Intermediate Period ±%&(0XPIRUG 7KHVHLQVFULSWLRQV to which scholars and researchers have not yet attributed a precise origin, represent one of the earliest examples RI DQ DOSKDEHWLF 6HPLWLF VFULSW 9DOEHOOH DQG %RQQHW  7KHVFULSWFRPSULVHVWRFRQVRQDQWDOV DQGPDQ\SLFWRJUDSKLFVLJQV 0XPIRUGE 7KHVH have features similar to the Proto-Canaanite alphabet of DURXQG±%&( 0XPIRUG DQGDUHDWWKH VDPHWLPHFOHDUO\LQÀXHQFHGE\(J\SWLDQKLHURJO\SKV 9DOEHOOHDQG%RQQHW  The Bedouin of South Sinai As noted by Wickering in 1991, the body of literature on the Bedouin of South Sinai is not very extensive :LFNHULQJ RXWVLGHWKHDUHDRI6DLQW&DWKHULQH¶V Monastery, and this situation has not significantly changed since. In fact, research on the Bedouin of 6HUDELW DO.KDGLP LV YLUWXDOO\ QRQH[LVWHQW7KLV LV perhaps due to the presence of the impressive Ancient Egyptian remains in the area. The articles and books RQ 6HUDELW DO.KDGLP XVXDOO\ IRFXV RQ WKH WHPSOH with little or no reference to the Bedouin who have inhabited the area for hundreds of years. The Bedouin are often only mentioned as the workers who help with the H[SHGLWLRQ %HLW$ULHK ZKLOHRWKHUVKDYHIRFXVHG on the description of the ancient camps in relation to the KLVWRU\RIWKHDUHD 0XPIRUGDQG3DUFDN 7KXV we had to rely in our research on the accounts left by the archaeologists who worked in the area previously. In 1948, Henry Field, an eminent anthropologist, went through “great pains” to document the physical appearance, the names and the culture of the Bedouin, DVKHWRXUHG6RXWK6LQDL $OEULJKW)LHOG  He writes that they are dark of hair and eyes, “wiry and capable of great endurance on little food and water.” +LVH[SHGLWLRQLQFOXGHG6HUDELWDO.KDGLPLQSDUWLFXODU the area near Bir Nasb, and led to his book The Track T h e D o c u m e nt ati o n of the C u ltur al H e r i t a g e of the B e d ouin of S o u th S i n a i of Man  7KH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI &DOLIRUQLD$IULFDQ ([SHGLWLRQ LGHQWL¿HG WKH IROORZLQJ %HGRXLQ WULEHV UHVLGLQJLQWKH6LQDLWKH$OHLTDW$ZODG6DLG)HUD\LQ -HEHOL\D /DKHLZDW 0X]HLQD 1HNKODZLV 4DUDUVKH Sawalha, Tarabin and Tiyaha. More than 30 years later, Clinton Bailey tried to date the arrival of the tribes of the Sinai and the Negev with the help of the records of Saint Catherine’s Monastery and Bedouin oral tradition %DLOH\ $OWKRXJKWKLVRUDODFFRXQWSURYLGHVDQ entertaining outlook on Bedouin history, as told by the LQKDELWDQWV RI 6HUDELW DO.KDGHP LW UHTXLUHV IXUWKHU LQYHVWLJDWLRQRILWVDFFXUDF\+HFRQFOXGHGWKDW³¿YH tribes dominate this region—the Cawarmah, Awlad 6DLG DQG *DUDUVKDK MRLQWO\ NQRZQ DV WKH 6DZDOKDK [Sawalha]), and the Ulaygat and Muzaynah [Muzeina],” while “two smaller tribes, the Bani Wasil and Hamadhah, antedate them, as do the Jaballyah [Jebeliya].” He also VWDWHG¿YHPRUHGHWDLOHGSRLQWV7KHHDUOLHULQKDELWDQWV of the region, the Bani Wasil and Hamadhah, were intimidated by the Sawalhah and Nufaycat, respectively. The Sawalhah are so named because they migrated from the area of Salihiyah, on the eastern border of the Nile Delta. The Ulaygat, originally from the coast of the Gulf of Aqaba, now reside in the region of the Nufaycat. The Sawalhah and Ulaygat fought a war that established the “present tribal boundaries in southern Sinai” and the services that each tribe was to offer to Saint Catherine’s Monastery. The allies of the Ulaygat during that war were the Muzaynah tribesmen, “who were then newcomers from the Arabian tribe of Harb.” This history of South Sinai is concurrent with the composition of the current inhabitants of Serabit DO.KDGLPPRVWRIZKRPDUHRIWKH8OD\JDWWULEHZLWK some members of the Muzaynah. The tale of how these two tribes came to reside in the area is a popular one told by old and young alike. Hajj Radwan Abu Mohamed, RIWKH0X]D\QDKWULEHUHFDOOVWKHWDOHZLWKUHOLVK³7KH 8OD\JDWZHUH¿JKWLQJYLFLRXVZDUVZLWKRWKHUWULEHV [mainly] al-Sawalhah and Beni Said, trespassing on their land. Muzaynah [Bedouin] were moving from below [probably Dahab and Nuweiba] looking for a place to settle. al-Sawalhah tried to form a pact with the Muzaynah, but the latter refused and instead formed an alliance with the Ulaygat that allowed the latter to win the raging war and become kin ever since.” His wife GHVFULEHGWKHDOOLDQFHLQRQHVHQWHQFHWKHWZRWULEHV agreed that “the land is one and the daughter is one,” thus intermarrying and settling down together. 365 The Bedouin Image in Past and Present While the term ‘Bedouin’ often evokes an image of nomadic people who depend on livestock and wander WKHHDUWKIRUWKHLUOLYHOLKRRGDPRUHGLIIHUHQWGH¿QLWLRQ FRXOGQRWDSSO\WRWKH%HGRXLQRI6HUDELWDO.KDGLP These Bedouin have permanent homes built of brick, and livestock that they mostly use for their own consumption. They have long settled in the area and now embrace tourism as their main source of income. To highlight the difference between the image of the Bedouin of the past and that of the present, it is enough to state that it only takes about 45 minutes of off-road driving, on a relatively bumpy road to reach the highway where cafes, grocery shops and even barbers can be found. Some of these cafes are owned by the Bedouin themselves. This is the case with our host Bedouin, who are of the Barakat family, one of the wealthier families in Serabit DO.KDGLP7KH\FXUUHQWO\RZQDWRXULVWFDPS &DPS Barakat), where our team resides, run by the younger JHQHUDWLRQRIWKHIDPLO\ )LJXUH  In search for the meaning of the word Bedouin, 6XOD\PDQ.KDODIIDFLQJWKHVDPHGLVFUHSDQF\VWDWHG that the “social life of the Bedouin today is not one of simple and total transformation, but rather of an ongoing dialectic of continuity and change, interplay between WUDGLWLRQDQGPRGHUQLW\´ .KDODI +HDGGVWKDWWKH Bedouin are adjusting rapidly to their current “material and political” life, while at the same time adhering WR³DUDQJHRIWUDGLWLRQV´WKDWGH¿QHVWKHPDQGWKHLU “Bedouin-ness.” This term and its connotations became the focal point of later research that used the work of .KDODIWRGLVVHFWWKHLQKHUHQWPHDQLQJRI%HGRXLQQHVV Figure 25.4. Camp Barakat with Kedre, one of the young Bedouin who help around the camp. 366 T h e H i s to r y of the P e o p l e s of the E a s ter n D e s e r t &ROH &ROHFRQFOXGHGWKDWWKH%HGRXLQKDYHQRZ settled down, made steady homes and acquired national ID cards. Some are rich, others are poor, but all have been affected by international geopolitics, such as “oil in Arabia and Libya, Arab socialist policies in Syria and Egypt” and the various wars in the area. Nevertheless, %HGRXLQQHVVDVREVHUYHGLQ6HUDELWDO.KDGLPGRHV stem from the intricate traditions still upheld by the people despite exposure to modernity, tourism and national and international politics. For example, it is still shameful to appeal to a regular court of law. Despite the presence and accessibility of state courts, most use XU¿WULEDOFRXUWV :HVFKHQIHOGHUWKLVYROXPH LQVWHDG which are formed by the eldest of the tribe and witnessed by the families of the adversarial parties. All of these factors combined lead to today’s Bedouin, who wears ERWK D ÀRZLQJ UREH MDODE\\DK  DQG IDNH  5D\ %DQ sunglasses, maintaining the wiry build of his ancestors as described by Field. He is still limber with high endurance of the desert, distrustful of non-Bedouin, a perceptive businessperson whenever possible, and adherent to traditions of his own that are being challenged by today’s modern technology brought by cars, satellite dishes and mobile telephones. The nomadic Bedouin may have become extinct in the Sinai, but what has been created LV TXLWH LQWULJXLQJ DQG GH¿QLWHO\ ZRUWK\ RI D PRUH profound investigation. The Place and the Beginning 6HUDELWDO.KDGLPLVDERXWNPIURPWKHSRUWRI$EX =HQLPDSRUW&DPS%DUDNDWZKHUHRXUWHDPXVXDOO\ resides, is about 50 m across the road from the houses of the Barakat family and only a 5-minute drive from WKH7HPSOHRI+DWKRUDW6HUDELWDO.KDGLP0DQ\RI the Muzaynah men married into the Barakat family reside even closer to the temple. They represent the poorer members of the family. All nuclear families inhabit single-storey houses, built of bricks. These are usually congregated together according to family relations. Satellite dishes are sparsely scattered over the houses, which vary in size according to the wealth of the inhabitants. Both are indicative of the economic power and social status of the inhabitants. A wealthy household occupies three to four rooms, including a large reception hall. Kelims ZRYHQ FDUSHWV  DUH WKH standard furnishing, while lightweight mattresses serve DV FRXFKHV 6HUDELW DO.KDGLP LV JXDUGHG E\ WKHVH Bedouin, whose grandparents already performed the same task, in cooperation with inspectors of the Supreme Council of Antiquities. How the environment affects its inhabitants can be readily observed through the Bedouin compass-like ability to navigate through the similar looking sandy patches and mountains of the desert, and their perception of distance. The Bedouin sense of distance is quite different from that of urban dwellers, for they have a GLIIHUHQWFRJQLWLYHPHDVXUHPHQWRIGLVWDQFHVEHFDXVH of their dependence on walking rather than the use of vehicles, long distances for urban dwellers appear short to the people of the desert. One relatively young Bedouin once told us of his trip to school when he was younger while pointing to two identical-looking mountains saying “di farket ka‘ab,” which is an Arabic metaphor for ‘a short distance that can be easily walked.’ Our estimate of the indicated distance was 3 to 5 km. The Female Bedouin of Serabit al-Khadim wahda billah al-tania billah al-talata billah al-raba‘a billah al-khamesa billah al-satta billah al-saba‘a billah saba’a gamal mahmelat ghala kul haba te’ul wallah wa al-kalema al-nekuz nerodha billah wa al-aguz (...) 2QHLQWKHQDPHRI$OODK *RG Two in the name of Allah Three in the name of Allah Four in the name of Allah Five in the name of Allah Six in the name of Allah Seven in the name of Allah Seven dromedaries carrying seeds Each seed says Allah And the bad word We return it with Allah and the old   This is part of a rukia, a chant that helps protect one from the evil eye or envy. The local ‘doctor,’ as she is commonly referred to and who asked to remain anonymous, performs this chant regularly when patients seek her advice. She explains the reasons behind her DELOLW\WRKHDO³,WLV$OODKQRWPH´6KHOHDUQHGWKH craft from her mother at the age of 17 and in turn is teaching her daughters the secret ways of healing. The %HGRXLQZRPHQRI6HUDELWDO.KDGLPKDYHEHHQUDUHO\ mentioned by scholars. Shilling provides a perspective on the life of women, describing their domestic lives and SRVLWLRQVZLWKLQWKHWULEH 6KLOOLQJ 7ZRVFKRODUV have studied Bedouin women more thoroughly and have written extensively about the lives and cultures of WKHZRPHQRIWKLVXQLTXHSHRSOH $EX/XJKRG T h e D o c u m e nt ati o n of the C u ltur al H e r i t a g e of the B e d ouin of S o u th S i n a i Wickering 1991). Both could focus on the female side of the Bedouin community because their own gender allowed them to live among them. It is important to note, however, that their writings were affected by their feminist bias. Wickering explicitly states that she tried avoiding the stereotypical idea of Western feminism while documenting the life of the South Sinai Bedouin, but one cannot help but notice traces of her ideals in her work. As for Abu Lughod, she documented the domestic lives, lyric poetry, marriage and divorce, and the social status of the Bedouin women of the Awlad Ali tribe in the Western Desert.2 The women’s daily routine starts early, they wake up PRVWO\EHWZHHQDQGDPWRWHQGWRWKHLUKRXVHKROGV <RXQJDQGROGZRUNWRJHWKHUZLWKWKHVHQLRULW\RIWKH older women tangible in their mannerisms. The animals, mostly sheep and goats with the occasional cow,3 are let out of a makeshift barn to be fed along with the DYDLODEOHSRXOWU\GLVKHVDUHZDVKHGKRXVHVDUHVZHSW and tea is always on the stove, available for any passing guest. It is interesting to observe how the cattle seem to follow the directions of the women, indicating the bond between humans and animals stemming from their interdependence. One of the most important early morning activities is baking bread. The Bedouin make a special kind of bread, commonly known as farasheeh. 0DGHRIÀRXUZDWHUDQGDSLQFKRIVDOWRQDKRWGRPHRI VWHHOWKLVOLJKWZHLJKWPDOOHDEOHDQGKROH¿OOHGEUHDGLV quite tasty and used with almost every meal of the day. As the day goes by, the women may have time to sit for a while. As is the habit with all Bedouin, guests are always welcome. When home alone the women receive male guests on a wide porch built outside the house, furnished with haseerDFDUSHWPDGHRIWRXJK SODVWLF  ¿EHUVWRDFFRPPRGDWHWKHZHDWKHURIWKH6LQDL,WLV taboo for a woman to invite a male guest inside the house without the presence of her husband or son. Women DOVRGRQRWVLWZLWKVWUDQJHUVHVSHFLDOO\QRWZLWKPHQ they may accommodate tourists and take photos with them, but only under the supervision of their husbands. Prepubescent girls and married women are allowed to walk around in relative freedom, while girls, as soon as they reach puberty, are kept under close supervision of parents and brothers. They lose the ability to come and go freely until marriage. Children help around the house 7KH$ZODG$OLWULEHZDV$EX/XJKRG¶VFDVHVWXG\ $EX/XJKRG 1988). 3 Cows are imported from other regions for feasting purposes. 2 367 DQGJRWRVFKRROWKHUHLVDSULPDU\DQGDSUHSDUDWRU\ VFKRROLQ6HUDELWDO.KDGLP7KHER\VKDYHWRJRWR$EX Zeniema to attend secondary school, while few girls are allowed this privilege. There are, however, exceptions to every case. Saeydia, one of the daughters of Sheikh Barakat and the sister of Selim Barkat, is an impressive woman who is currently raising four children on her own. She used to guide tourists around the temple as a teenager with her father’s blessing, saying that “he never minded.” Traditionally, guides are male, and so Saeydia rubbed shoulders with men on the job. She is very intent on educating her boy and three girls. Marital conditions seem to have drastically changed over the last 30 years. Umm Saleem, the oldest woman in the family, whose face seems to be entrenched in time, talks about this. “Things have changed now. They marry for love. In my time, we did not see each other until the wedding day. I married Abu Saleem without knowing him. We did not talk to each other for a while. Then time passed, we had children together and al-hamdullah [praise be to Allah] life was good.” She talks of her daughter-in-law and how she married her son for love. ³$K<HVWKH\ORYHGHDFKRWKHU´VKHVDLGZKLOHJLJJOLQJ away the severe protests of her daughter-in-law. One can never tell exactly how old the women are, probably because of clean living, constant movement and limited pollution, all which help them retain their health and looks. Divorce has also become relatively easy in these SDUWV³<RXQJSHRSOHPDUU\IRUORYHQRZDGD\V´H[SODLQV Umm Ismail, “so if the woman tells her husband she no longer wants him, he divorces her.” However, that does not necessarily mean that all men adhere to this belief. She speaks of her daughter’s unfortunate marriage and how her ex-husband, after her new marriage, tried to take the children away from her out of jealousy. Men are still territorial regarding the women of their household, even after a divorce. The habit of taking more than one wife is declining. The married sons of Sheikh Barakat whom we have met have one wife each. There are several reasons, mainly economic, that no longer permit men to support more than one wife. Another reason is younger women’s UHIXVDOWRVKDUHDKXVEDQGXQOLNHWKHROGHUZRPHQWKH\ mostly married for love rather than a sense of duty. For WKRVHVWLOOIROORZLQJWKHROGZD\VWKH¿UVWZLIHKDVD very special status in the household. She is the matron of the family and subsequent wives must follow her lead. She usually possesses more power over the husband 368 T h e H i s to r y of the P e o p l e s of the E a s ter n D e s e r t and other wives can go to her for advice and favors. When asked about the problems of polygamy, Umm $KPHGVDLG³2IFRXUVHLWFDXVHVSUREOHPVDQG¿JKWV and women demand divorce. But if the man is good, things go smoothly.” She recalls the time that her own KXVEDQGWROGKHUKHZDQWHGWRWDNHDQRWKHUZLIH³+H WROGPHEHIRUHKHPDUULHGKHUVR,ZDV¿QHZLWKLWDQG even attended the wedding.” There seems to be a special relationship between the two wives who now live side by side in separate houses. 7KH%HGRXLQZRPHQRI6HUDELWDO.KDGLPDUHTXLWH able craftswomen. While they use standard Sinai designs, they infuse these designs with their own creativity. Nylon and wool are used for weaving. Along with beads for bracelets, key chains and necklaces, they use turquoise for rings and different ornaments. Turquoise is one of the VHFUHWVRIWKHSODFHWKH%HGRXLQQHYHUWDONDERXWKRZ WKH\¿QGLWRUZKHUHIRULWLVWKHLUOLYHOLKRRG7KHPHQ extract it from the ancient mines and the women sell it, both in rough form as well as after it has been polished and varnished. The Cultural Heritage and Development of Serabit al-Khadim The Shasu of the Ancient Egyptian sources were not usually considered inhabitants of Egypt because of WKHLU GLIIHUHQW ORRNV DFWLYLWLHV DQG DI¿OLDWLRQ ShAs in Ancient Egyptian meant ‘to wander,’ and probably UHÀHFWHGDVRFLDOVWDWXVUHODWHGWRWKHSDVWRUDOQRPDGLF way of life of the ancient dwellers of the area, rather than an ethnic group. They were associated with the Levant, Canaan and parts of Egypt, besides being famous for their herding activities. In a way, the Bedouin were marginalized in ancient times similarly to today. Since Antiquity up to the Byzantine Period, the Bedouin were sometimes under Byzantine rule, and sometimes under Nabatean rule, forming a threat to the monastic and ascetic communities in South Sinai. Afterwards the monks of Pharan and Raithou appealed to Emperor Justinian, which led to the foundation of 6DLQW &DWKHULQH¶V 0RQDVWHU\ LQ WKH WK FHQWXU\ &( During the Medieval Period, the Sinai witnessed wars DQGFRQVWUXFWLRQRIIRUWL¿FDWLRQVGXULQJWKHUHLJQVRI WKH6XOWDQV6DODKDO'LQ ±&( DQG6HOLP, ±&( /DWHUWKH6LQDLZDVDVWUDWHJLFDUHDIRU the French and English occupations of Egypt. Since the 1980s, the Bedouin of the Sinai have been marginalized as they were left to work meager jobs in the new tourist areas of the Sinai, while the major jobs in those areas were always given to immigrants from the Nile Valley. These economic projects were funded by the Egyptian JRYHUQPHQW XQGHU 3UHVLGHQW 0XEDUDN ±  EHQH¿WLQJDVPDOOJURXSRIEXVLQHVVPHQZKLOHPRVW of the Bedouin were left out to live on the scraps of this growing industry. At the beginning of the 21st century CE, the Bedouin are still left out of development projects and are usually portrayed as living in very basic communities, ignorant and mostly herding a few goats. They were also recently accused of working in drug WUDI¿FNLQJDVZHOODVKHOSLQJWHUURULVWJURXSV6LQFHWKH recent terrorist attacks on a few areas in South Sinai, the European Union has allocated a large fund for the development of the Bedouin of South Sinai. Outline of the Pilot Study The major economic possibilities of the area around 6HUDELWDO.KDGLPDUHPRVWO\UHODWHGWRDIHZGDULQJ tourists who come on safari trips—they are sold a few turquoise stones and the women’s crafts. These limited resources are not enough to maintain all households LQWKHFRPPXQLW\DQGPDQ\SHRSOHWU\WR¿QGMREVLQ Taba, Nuweiba or Sharm al-Sheikh. Unfortunately, the existing national and international development models have not given enough attention to cultural heritage as a means of inducing economic development, as they underestimate the impact that cultural heritage can have RQWKHGHYHORSPHQWSURFHVV :RUOG%DQN 7KH 6HUDELWDO.KDGLPDUHD¶VIXWXUHHFRQRPLFSURVSHFWVDUH directly related to its cultural heritage assets, which, when used in a proper way, will help create alternative developmental means for inhabitants. Development based on cultural heritage does not use culture as a commodity nor as a static academic resource, but rather is treated in a multidisciplinary method that includes the tangible and the intangible through investing in cultural VHOISUHVHUYDWLRQ :RUOG%DQN &XUUHQWO\WKH cultural heritage of the area is threatened by neglect and the lack of educational facilities at the site, increasing the risk of vandalism and theft. If the archaeological site can be visited ‘in moderation’ and in a way that interacts positively with the daily life of the local inhabitants, the site will be protected by the local community. In order to realize a future in which the temple generates income for the local inhabitants and in return they preserve and protect it, a few interventions are being carried out. These include capacity building and education, T h e D o c u m e nt ati o n of the C u ltur al H e r i t a g e of the B e d ouin of S o u th S i n a i DGHTXDWHVLJQDJHSXEOLFLW\DQGPDUNHWLQJDQG¿QDOO\ construction of a visitor’s center to exhibit the tangible and intangible heritage of the area. The capacity building and education are designed to cater to three segments of the Bedouin population in the area. Men between 18 and 40 years of age attend a ¿UVWPRGXOHLQRUGHUWREHFRPHJXLGHVE\OHDUQLQJDOO the historical, natural and geological information about 6HUDELW DO.KDGLP DORQJ ZLWK RWKHU LPSRUWDQW VLWHV nearby, such as Bir Nasb, Jebel Mukkabar and many others. A second module is aimed at helping inspectors of WKH6XSUHPH&RXQFLORI$QWLTXLWLHV 6&$ E\UHSRUWLQJ any threat or preservation problems pertaining to the site, via detection of human or natural hazards and assessing their severity. The second segment, aimed at women and their training, is provided with the help of 6KHLNKD 6DOLPD 6KHLNKD 6DOLPD LV WKH ¿UVW %HGRXLQ who promoted the role of women in South Sinai when she turned the crafts of a few women into a commodity of international quality that is now exported around the world. Sheikha Salima’s FanSina organization FRPSULVLQJ DURXQG  %HGRXLQ ZRPHQ  KDV VKRSV in Cairo and a few European capitals. She is involved LQ WHDFKLQJ WKH ZRPHQ RI 6HUDELW DO.KDGLP KRZ WR improve their products. The women’s products are also being marketed, branding the products with the logo of Hathor to distinguish them from other products of WKH6LQDL )LJXUH 7KHWKLUGVHJPHQWFRPSULVHV children who attend workshops to improve their historical knowledge and to learn about the cultural and natural KHULWDJHRIWKHDUHD )LJXUH 7KLVLVGRQHWKURXJK sessions of drawing, acting and other activities, all using themes of the area to enrich their knowledge and plant the seeds to someday become guides themselves. The CRM plan also includes marketing of the area, such as informing tourism companies and hotels in the DUHDDQGSURYLGLQJWKHPZLWKÀ\HUVDQGEURFKXUHV$ map with geo-referenced information of the area was created to serve as a guide so that visitors can better understand the area and make their way through more easily. A guidebook for the region and its intangible heritage is currently being prepared to provide balanced information.4 Public lectures and exhibitions are being SODQQHG LQ &DLUR LQ WKH ¿QDO SKDVH RI WKH SURMHFW WR encourage more Egyptian tourists to visit the site. 7KHZHEVLWHKWWSZZZEHLWKDWKRURUJDOVRSURYLGHVLQIRUPDWLRQ on the area, including summaries of ongoing research, and has an interactive map to aid visitors coming to the site. 4 369 Figure 25.5. Umm Mukhtar displaying the intricate handiwork of Bedouin women. Figure 25.6. A group of eager young Bedouin children on their way to an educational session. $ KHULWDJH FHQWHU FDOOHG %HLW +DWKRU +RXVH RI Hathor) has been designed to host two exhibitions on the tangible and the intangible. Vernacular architecture was chosen for this center, and the building will be FRQVWUXFWHGXVLQJORFDOO\DYDLODEOHPDWHULDOVWRUHÀHFW the environment and cultural and historical context of South Sinai. Many of the ideas for this project were 370 T h e H i s to r y of the P e o p l e s of the E a s ter n D e s e r t taken from homes in the region. Beit Hathor is intended to provide tourists with necessary information and a site for selling Boudoin crafts, and, most importantly, to serve as a heritage center for the Bedouin themselves. All possible ecological measures are being taken as far DV¿QDQFLDOUHVRXUFHVSHUPLWIRUZDVWHPDQDJHPHQWDQG clean energy for the heritage center. In addition, a small OLEUDU\RISXEOLFDWLRQVRQ6HUDELWDO.KDGLPWKDWZLOO double as a training room is being set up to encourage further capacity building among the local inhabitants. The Bedouin of the area were consulted on where they wanted Beit Hathor to be built, what it should comprise and what it should look like. They proposed the training room and provided information on the training they wanted. In this way the training they want could be created and they showed a genuine interest once it had started. The broader aim of the project is to develop Serabit DO.KDGLPLQDZD\WKDWEHQH¿WVWKH6HUDELWLVVRWKDW they will sustainably develop and safeguard the site. Consulting with the community under investigation should not be a lopsided dialogue between the people carrying out the study and the locals giving their consent to do the work, but rather brainstorming on the design DQGGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHDFWLRQVLQYROYHG *UHHU et al. 2002). This dynamic interaction between both parties incorporates a range of strategies intended to involve the Bedouin in investigations and interpretation of the DQFLHQWKLVWRU\RI6HUDELWDO.KDGLPWRIDFLOLWDWHWDNLQJ FRQWURORIWKHLUIXWXUHEDVHGRQWKHSDVW 0RVHU et al. 2002). The Egyptians have been excluded from Western VFKRODUVKLS IRU D ORQJ WLPH :HQGULFK $EGHO 4DGUWKLVYROXPH DQGZKHQWKH\WRRNFRQWURORIWKHLU antiquities and museums, local communities were not involved in any of the processes. Only recently has involvement of the local population in the study and preservation of their history become a priority, such as LQ4XVHLUDO4DGLPDQG%HUHQLNH 0RVHU et al. $EGHO4DGU WKLV YROXPH 7KH DWWLWXGH WRZDUGV WKH study of history and archaeology has also mostly been focused on tangible items, leaving behind the vernacular heritage of the people who are part of the social history RIWKHSODFHEHLQJVWXGLHG +DVVDQ et al. ,Q our project, the Bedouin never thought to be subjects XSRQ ZKRP UHVHDUFK ZDV FDUULHG RXW 0RVHU et al. 2002), but rather partners whose intangible heritage was as important as the temple and the ancient remains being investigated. The expected outcome of this project’s intervention ZLOO KDYH PXOWLSOH LQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\ HIIHFWV7KH ¿UVW two run in parallel directions. They comprise an attempt to reduce the poverty level of the inhabitants through increasing the number of tourists in the area and creating new jobs based on new economic activities. This is supported by a large proportion of skilled Bedouin men, women and children. The men will have more knowledge of the area and more skills in guiding and other incomegeneration activities. Women will be able to produce PRUHKDQGLFUDIWVZLWKEHWWHUTXDOLW\FRQWURODQG¿QH ¿QLVKLQJ VHOOLQJ HLWKHU GLUHFWO\ RU WKURXJK D WKLUG party distributor. Children will be better educated and increase their knowledge of the value of the tangible and intangible heritage of their presence in the area. Third, thorough documentation of the current setting of the Bedouin is being carried out for future systematic social mapping and re-evaluating the area’s needs. Fourth, a locally managed heritage center will be created to cater to the touristic cultural experience in South Sinai. This will provide the Bedouin with a sense of ownership of their local heritage and social history. References Abdel-Raziq, M., G. Castel and P. Tallet 2006 Ayn Sokhna et la Mer Rouge, Egypte, Afrique et Orient 41: 3-6. 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Bonnet 1996 Le Sanctuaire d’Hathor, Maîtresse de la Turquoise a Sérabit el-Khadim, Paris, Picar. Valbelle, D., C. Bonnet and F. Le Saout 1994 Le temple de la Déesse Hathor, maîtresse de la turquoise à Sérabit el-Khadim: Reprise de l’étude archéologique et épigraphique, Cahiers de Recherches de l'Institut de Papyrologie et d'Égyptologie de Lille 16: 1529. Vischak, D. 2001 “Hathor,” in D. Redford (ed.), The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt: Volume 2, Cairo, American University in Cairo Press: pp. 82-85. Wendrich, W.Z. 2010 “From practical knowledge to empowered communication: Field schools of the Supreme Council of Antiquities,” in R. Boytner, L. Schwarz-Dodd and B.J. Parker (eds.), Controlling the Past, Owning the Future: The Political Uses of Archaeology in the Middle East, Tucson, University of Arizona Press: pp. 178-195. Wickering, D. 1991 Life among the Bedouin Women of South Sinai, Cairo, American University in Cairo Press. Wilkinson, R. 2003 The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt, London, Thames and Hudson. 2005 The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt, Cairo, American University in Cairo Press. World Bank 2001 Cultural Heritage and Development: A Framework for Action in the Middle East and North Africa, Washington DC, World Bank Publications. [ņ\ COTSEN INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY PRESS MONOGRAPHS Contributions in Field Research and Current Issues in Archaeological Method and Theory Monograph 74 Rock Ar t at Little Lake: An Ancient Cr ossr oads in the Califor nia Deser t, Jo Anne Van Tilburg, Gordon E. Hull, and John C. Bretney Monograph 73 The Histor y of the Peoples of the Easter n Deser t, Hans Barnard and Kim Duistermaat (eds.) Monograph 71 Cr ucible of Pueblos: The Ear ly Pueblo Per iod in the Nor ther n Southwest, Richard H. Wilshusen, Gregson Schachner, and James R. Allison (eds.) Monograph 70 Chotuna and Chor nancap: Excavating an Ancient Per uvian Legend, Christopher B. Donnan Monograph 69 An Investigation into Ear ly Deser t Pastor alism: Excavations at the Camel Site, Negev, Steven A. Rosen Monograph 68 The Chanka: Ar chaeological Resear ch in Andahuaylas (Apur imac), Per u, Brian S. Bauer, Lucas C. Kellett, and Miriam Aráoz Silva Monograph 67 Inca Rituals and Sacr ed Mountains: A Study of the Wor ld’s Highest Ar chaeological Sites, Johan Reinhard and Maria Costanza Ceruti Monograph 66 Gallinazo: An Ear ly Cultur al Tr adition on the Per uvian Nor th Coast, Jean-François Millaire with Magali Morlion Monograph 65 Settlement and Subsistence in Ear ly For mative Soconusco, Richard G. Lesure (ed.) Monograph 64 The South Amer ican Camelids, Duccio Bonavia Monograph 63 Andean Civilization: A Tr ibute to Michael E. Moseley, Joyce Marcus and Patrick Ryan Williams (eds.) Monograph 62 Excavations at Cer r o Azul, Per u: The Ar chitectur e and Potter y, Joyce Marcus Monograph 61 Chavín: Ar t, Ar chitectur e and Cultur e, William J Conklin and Jeffrey Quilter (eds.) Monograph 61 Chavín: Ar t, Ar chitectur e, and Cultur e, William J Conklin and Jeffrey Quilter (eds.) Monograph 60 Rethinking Mycenaean Palaces II: Revised and Expanded Second Edition, Michael L. Galaty and William A. Parkinson (eds.) Monograph 59 Moche Tombs at Dos Cabezas, Christopher B. Donnan Monograph 58 Moche Fineline Painting Fr om San José de Mor o, Donna McClelland, Donald McClelland, and Christopher B. Donnan Monograph 57 Kasapata and the Ar chaic Per iod of the Cuzco Valley, Brian S. Bauer (ed.) Monograph 56 Ber enike 1999/ 2000, Steven E. Sidebotham and Willeke Wendrich (eds.) Monograph 55 Roman Footpr ints at Berenike: Ar chaeobotanical Evidence of Subsistence and Tr ade in the Easter n Deser t of Egypt, René T. J. Cappers Monograph 54 Advances in Titicaca Basin Ar chaeology 1, Charles Stanish, Amanda B. Cohen, and Mark S. Aldenderfer Monograph 53 Us and Them: Ar chaeology and Ethnicity in the Andes, Richard Martin Reycraft Monograph 52 Ar chaeological Resear ch on the Islands of the Sun and Moon, Lake Titicaca, Bolivia: Final Results fr om the Pr oyecto Tiksi Kjar ka, Charles Stanish and Brian S. Bauer (eds.) Monograph 51 Maya Zooar chaeology: New Directions in Theor y and Method, Kitty F. Emery (ed.) Monograph 50 Settlement Ar chaeology and Political Economy at Tr es Zapotes, Ver acr uz, Mexico, Christopher A. Pool (ed.) Monograph 49 Per spectives on Ancient Maya Rur al Complexity, Gyles I annone and Samuel V. Connell (eds.) Monograph 48 Yeki bud, yeki nabud: Essays on the Ar chaeology of Ir an in Honor of William M. Sumner , Naomi F. Miller and Kamyar Abdi (eds.) Monograph 47 Ar chaeology in the Bor der lands: Investigation in Caucasia and Beyond, Adam T. Smith and Karen S. Rubinson (eds.) 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Monograph 24 Pots and Potter s: Cur r ent Appr oaches in Cer amic Ar chaeology, Prudence Rice Monograph 23 Pictogr aphs and Petr oglyphs of the Oregon Countr y, Par t 2, J. Malcolm Loring and Louise Loring Monograph 22 The Ar chaeology of Two Nor ther n Califor nia Sites, Delmer E. Sanburg, F. K. Mulligan, Joseph Chartkoff, and Kerry Chartkoff Monograph 21 Pictogr aphs and Petr oglyphs of the Oregon Countr y, Par t 1, J. Malcolm Loring and Louise Loring Monograph 20 Messages fr om the Past: Studies in Califor nia Rock Ar t, Clement W. Meighan (ed.) Monograph 19 Prehistor ic Indian Rock Ar t: Issues and Concer ns, JoAnne Van Tilburg and Clement W. Meighan (eds.) Monograph 18 Studies in Cypr iote Ar chaeology, Jane C. 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Wells (eds.) COTSEN INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY PRESS COTSEN ADVANCED SEMINAR SERIES Books in this series present the published results of the Cotsen Advanced Seminars, cross-disciplinary conferences periodically sponsored by the Cotsen Institute Volume 5 Volume 4 Volume 3 Volume 2 Volume 1 The Construction of Value in the Ancient World, edited by John K. Papadopoulos and Gary Urton Archaeology of Mobility: Nomads in the Old and New World, edited by Hans Barnard and Willeke Wendrich The Archaeology of Ritual, edited by Evangelos Kyriakidis Agricultural Strategies, edited by Joyce Marcus and Charles Stanish Theory and Practice in Mediterranean Archaeology: Old World and New World Perspectives, edited by John K. Papadopoulos and Richard M. Leventhal