Ancient Iran: Cosmology, Mythology, History

Ancient Iran: Cosmology, Mythology, History By Iraj Bashiri Included in this preview: • Copyright Page • Table of Contents • Excerpt of Chapter 1 For additional information on adopting this book for your class, please contact us at 800.200.3908 x501 or via e-mail at info@cognella.com By Iraj Bashiri University of Minnesota—Twin Cities Bassim Hamadeh, Publisher Michael Simpson, Vice President of Acquisitions Christopher Foster, Vice President of Marketing Jessica Knott, Managing Editor Stephen Milano, Creative Director Kevin Fahey, Cognella Marketing Program Manager Becky Smith, Acquisitions Editor Sarah Wheeler, Project Editor Erin Escobar, Licensing Associate Copyright © 2012 by University Readers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information retrieval system without the written permission of University Readers, Inc. First published in the United States of America in 2012 by University Readers, Inc. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. 15 14 13 12 11 12345 Printed in the United States of America ISBN: 978-1-60927-521-1 Table of Contents Introduction 1 The Cosmic Age 3 The Mythic Age 13 he Story of Siyavosh he Story of Kaykhosrau Zoroaster: he Prophet of Ancient Iran Zoroastrian Cosmology Zoroastrianism: Principles and Beliefs The Historic Age he Medes he Achaemenids he Invasion of Alexander the Great he Seleucids he Parthians he Sassanids Zoroastrian Cosmology Again 15 24 43 47 48 55 64 67 108 112 119 123 126 Appendix 161 Selected Bibliography 169 Index 173 Introduction T he ancient history of a people is a record of their collective identity; it promotes their cause among their neighboring nations and determines their stance in relation to other nations. Traditionally, it is expected of the leaders who occupy the seats of power previously held by prominent rulers, in the case of Iran, the seats of Cyrus II the Great and Darius I the Great, to safeguard their legacy and enhance awareness about their deeds and accomplishments. hat is why Sassanid rulers, Ardashir I and Shapur I in particular, set themselves the task to revive the glory of the empire of the Achaemenids and glorify the traditions of Cyrus, Darius, and Xerxes. Contemporary Iranian leadership, however, has adopted an unfortunate stance. Rather than encouraging scholars to study ancient Iran, it has chosen to formally discourage them. he recent decree issued by Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, the Supreme Leader of Iran, is the case in point. He has decreed that scholars should divert their attention away from research and study of ancient Iran and concentrate their efforts exclusively on the study of Islamic Iran. What Khamenei, and those who implement his will, do not take into consideration is the fact that the study of Iranian cosmology and mythology, so essential for gaining knowledge about the dynamics of Twelver Shi’ism, is inseparably tied to the study of ancient Iranian history. In the absence of governmental support for the study of ancient Iranian culture, therefore, it is incumbent upon all those with an interest in the development of contemporary world civilizations to support and promote research and instruction about ancient Iranian history and culture. he present volume is a fairly comprehensive study of ancient Iranian history in the context of Iranian cosmology and mythology. It is an attempt to present a continuous line of rulership in Iranian lands for which the concept of the farr has served as the guiding light. Ahura Mazda issued the farr originally to Gayomart, the first man and first king of Iran. he section on cosmology concentrates on Ahura Mazda and the Ahuric Order that emanates from him. On the one hand, it charts the development of Zoroastrianism from Mazdaism, and, on the other hand, it describes the bond between Iran’s mythical hero-saints and real world kings like Cyrus the Great and Darius I. Introduction | 1 he section on mythology, focusing on the deeds of hero-saints like Siyavosh and Kaykhosrau, describes how the rulership of the hero-saints promoted the farr, and how their contributions culminated in ushering in the unique creed of Zoroaster, a creed based on the triad: good thoughts, good words, and good deeds. he subtext for the study of this part of the volume is the Shahname (book of kings) of Firdowsi, which is centered on the concept of the farr, the fulcrum of Iranian rulership from ancient times to the present time. he section on history is divided into three parts. Part one is a study of life on the Iranian plateau from early times to the rise of Cyrus II the Great and the formation of the Achaemenid Empire. he prominent place in this part is given to the Empire of the Medes. Part two deals with the Achaemenid Empire, especially the impact that ancient Egypt could have had on the newly born Persian Empire. Here, the lifework of Darius I the Great is examined in detail. he fall of the Empire to Alexander III the Great and the rule of the Seleucids complete this part. he third part deals with the rule of the Parthians and the Sassanids, with special emphasis placed on the rulers of the latter dynasty. he advent of the prophet Mani and the reforms of Mazdak are highlighted. A summary of the accomplishments and shortcomings of the major dynasties concludes the study of each dynasty. Synopses of two books by Xenophon, Cyropedia and Anabasis, are placed in the Appendix. hese books, usually mentioned in relation to Cyrus the Great and Cyrus the Younger, respectively, are rarely highlighted in the literature about these two figures. he full text of three documents discussed in the volume, the “Cyrus Cylinder,” “he Rise of Ardashir,” and the “Invention of Chess and Backgammon,” are also in the Appendix. In addition, major concepts and points of interest included in the volume appear as sidebars throughout the text. Finally, the information in the volume comes from three sources previously published by this author through the Academy of Sciences of Tajikistan: From the Hymns of Zarathushtra to the Songs of Borbad (2003), he Impact of Egypt on Ancient Iran (2007), and Turk and Tur in Firdowsi’s Shahname (2009). he reader is encouraged to consult those sources for additional information. Iraj Bashiri September 2011 Minneapolis 2 | Ancient Iran: Cosmology, Mythology, History The Cosmic Age T he ancient Iranians had a much less concrete, albeit more definite, view of their cosmos than either their mythic hero-saints, who believed in Lord Mazda, or their historic inheritors, who followed Ahura Mazda and other gods. To the Mazdian mind, existence was the result of a series of generative cosmic thought cycles that began in a void. Within these cycles, thought (Manah), a creation of Mazda, is qualified by truth (Arta) and, through devotion (Armaiti), is transformed into expression (Khshathra Vairya). Khshathra Vairya is the zenith of the achievement of Manah, as Manah strives for perfection (Haurvatat) and eventual immortality (Ameretat).1 he temporal distance, temporal in the abstract sense, between the emergence of Manah and Ameretat, is a 12,000-year cosmic conflict divisible into four equal 3,000-year periods.2 During this period, a battle is waged between Vohu (good) and Aka (evil). In phases, the battle moves from the elevated cosmic level to the mythic realm. When the hero-saints in the mythic realm see it as appropriate, they move the battle to the historic age. he history of the world and, necessarily, of Iran, falls within the confines of this time period and this conflict. Of the four 3,000-year periods,3 the first 3,000 years is the duration of a Void into which Manah blossoms and confronts a choice between Vohu and Aka. In the battle that occurs within the Void, Vohu is victorious and chooses Arta (right, truth) as its guiding light towards immortality. Aka, defeated, withdraws and falls into a swoon. During the second phase, Vohu Manah, through the intermediacy of Asha Vahishta and Spenta Armaiti, builds 1 For the creation of the Spentas, see Bundahishn I, 23–28; for the assignment of kingdoms to the Spentas, see Zaehner, 1956, p. 23. 2 For the great Cosmic Year that lasts 12,000 years, see Zaehner, 1956, pp. 29–33; see also Bundahishn I, 17–18. 3 Some of these years are cosmic, some mythic, and some real. herefore, neither the number of years, nor their duration, or the equality of the four parts should be taken literally. The Cosmic Age | 3 Khshathra Vairya, an ideal kingdom ruled by truth, piety, and harmony.4 During the third phase, Aka finds its way into Khshathra Vairya and contaminates its serenity. Except for Gayomart, whose seed miraculously survives, Khshathra Vairya is turned into a kingdom with polluted waters, defiled earth, poisoned plants, and dead animals. Worse yet, evil, the cause of the desolation, is trapped in the devastated world.5 If Aka had stayed away from Khshathra Vairya, everything would have progressed beautifully and Vohu Manah’s Khshathra Vairya would have achieved Haurvatat (perfection). But everything did not proceed as planned. In the fourth and last phase, the truth that existed in the thoughts, words, and deeds of Gayomart was transferred to a mythic world populated by mythic beings like Kayumars, the first king, and the first man. In time, mythical hero-saints turned the affairs of state to historic figures like truth-worshiping Darius I the Great. It became the task of these mortal beings to not only restore the creator’s Khshathra Vairya to its original form, but also to move it along through Haurvatat to Ameretat (immortality). Manah and the Great Spentas he world of Manah is a thought or Mazdian6 world that issues from a Void susceptible to thought, expression, and action, respectively. Manah blossoms into the Void as the result of a primordial thought seed. A particular vibrancy distinguishes it from the Void. he same thought seed also brings about Aka. We know the twin as Aka (bad, evil) and Vohu (good, benevolent). Both Vohu Manah and Aka Manah seek immortality, but only one has the potential to achieve it. Vohu Manah Even though the conflict between Vohu Manah, the personification of good intention,7 and Aka Manah lasted for a long time, eventually it ended in favor of Vohu Manah.8 Aka Manah was forced to retreat into the depths of the Void. Not much was heard from him for the rest of this initial 3,000-year period. Taking this opportunity, Vohu Manah, in reality thought incarnate, charted a creation plan that would culminate in the achievement of Khshathra Vairya or Holy Dominion, a 4 5 For a discussion of the creation of the Amesha Spentas, see Bundahishn II, 9; III, 2, 4; XXX, 23. Cf., Bundahishn VIII, 1–2; IX, 1–5; X, 1–4; a more detailed account is found in Zad Sparam, V–XI; see also Zaehner, 1956, p. 46. 6 he words Mazda and Mazdian are derived from the Indo-European mns- (mnah in Iranian). Both refer to thought and mind. Mazdian cosmology is a cosmology of what can be materialized through thought. In this cosmology, therefore, things are thought into existence. 7 Bundahishn I, 23, 25; VII, 3; XXX, 29; see also Boyce, 1975, p. 204. 8 For a discussion of Aka Manah, see Dhalla, pp. 91–92. 4 | Ancient Iran: Cosmology, Mythology, History firm first step for the realization of Ameretat. His projected kingdom had the potential of depriving Aka Manah from having any role at all in the cosmos. he importance of Vohu Manah to the Mazdian cosmos and, consequently, to the existence of the world as we know it, cannot be over-emphasized. Every good action begins with a good word, and every good word is preceded by a good thought. Since Vohu Manah expected his Khshathra Vairya to serve as the model of good action, action that would lead to perfection and immortality, he had no option but to safeguard the path of good through to expression and, from there, to action. Summarizing the role of the Mazdian Vohu Manah, therefore, it can be said that Vohu Manah is the seed of good reason and grasp. Without Vohu Manah’s knowledge, no word is expressed and no action is taken. If they did happen, they would be the words and deeds of Aka Manah.9 Asha Vahishta he kingdom that Vohu Manah projects is populated by thought beings who, by nature, are susceptible to influence by good as well as evil. Aka Manah is in retreat at the present, but it is not kept away forever. For this reason, Vohu Manah devises a system that is protected from evil. In other words, he imbues the system with Asha Vahishta, an aspect of him that evil cannot penetrate. Creation of Asha Vahishta is undertaken expressly to protect Vohu Manah’s future truthful thought beings from the Lie (drug).10 he creation of Asha Vahishta, the guardian of the creation of fire, as we shall see, is Vohu Manah’s most fundamental step toward the realization of his projected kingdom.11 Without order in his universe, the Lie would promote chaos and extinguish any hope for the achievement of Haurvatat, the prerequisite for the achievement of Ameretat.12 Spenta Armaiti Are the goodness that comes from Vohu Manah and the order and truth that are contributed by Asha Vahishta sufficient for the future prosperity of the beings who would populate Vohu Manah’s Khshathra Vairya? Would they become pious and benevolent by dint of being created? Definitely not. Goodness and Truth without a catalyst to relate one to the other are two isolated, barren cosmic functions. Asha Vahishta, therefore, thought Spenta Armaiti, 9 For aspects of Vohu Manah: grace, relation to paradise, and relation to cattle, see Dhalla, pp. 41–46; for his guardianship of fire and work, see Dhalla, pp. 164–165. 10 For Prophet Zoroaster’s view of Asha Vahshta, see Dhalla, pp. 46–55; for his defense against disease and relation to fire, see Dhalla, pp. 169–170. For a discussion of drug, see Dhalla, pp. 92–94. 11 Bundahishn I, 26; XXXI, 38; see also Boyce, 1975, p. 204. 12 For Asha in the sense of order in the universe, see Settegest, p. 62. See also the Egyptian concept of ma’at described further below. The Cosmic Age | 5 guardian of creation of earth, into existence in order to fill this very vacuum. Spenta Armaiti inspires devotion and obedience and sustains good thought and truth,13 which are ushered in by Asha Vahishta until the desired Khshathra Vairya is achieved.14 Khshathra Vairya In order for the kingdom of the good mind represented by “desirable dominion” to be permanently separated from the world of the dormant Aka Manah, a metallic barrier (sky) was formed between the two kingdoms. From the substance of this dome, the sky, over the kingdom of good, water was created. Water subsequently brought forth land that brought forth plants. Plants in time gave rise to animals. At the end, Gayomart, the agent who would move the kingdom to Haurvatat, came into existence.15 Khshathra Vairya, guardian of the sky, did not allow a place for Aka the Lie.16 As the exact opposite of Vohu Manah, who created, Aka Manah was bent on destruction.17 In fact, the moment he recovered from his initial setback and saw a Khshathra Vairya destined for perfection, he broke through the sky and entered Khshathra Vairya. here he polluted the water, defiled the earth, poisoned the plants, and killed the first animal, the sacred white bull. He also killed Gayomart, the cosmic man.18 When he felt his destruction was total, Aka decided to leave Khshathra Vairya, but he could not find his way out. Asha Vahishta held him back. his was the Truth that permeated Khshathra Vairya and that Vohu Manah had created as a last defense against the Lie. With his fate sealed, Aka Manah became a prisoner in Khshathra Vairya. Aka Manah’s intrusion into Khshathra Vairya changed the whole scheme of things. he blissful world that Vohu Manah had intended was no longer attainable, not as long as it included an unbridled Aka Manah. To curb the excesses of Aka Manah, the creator created the khvarnah to, on the one hand, serve as a shield against evil, and, on the other hand, bestow legitimacy upon Mazda’s deputy, Gayomart, and subsequent mythical and historical rulers.19 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Bundahishn XV; see also Boyce, 1975, p. 204. For Prophet Zoroaster’s view of Spenta Armaiti, see Dhalla, pp. 58–61; see also Dhalla, p. 171 for Spenta Armaiti as earth. Nanavutty, 1999, pp. 63–67. Bundahishn I, 26; XXVII, 24; XXX, 19, 29; see also Boyce, 1975, p. 204. For the destructive aspect of Aka Manah, see Bundahishn XXVIII, 1–47; on the legions of Aka Manah, see Dhalla, pp. 257–277. For a detailed discussion of creation, see Zaehner, 1975, pp. 249–258. For Prophet Zoroaster’s view of Khshathra Vairya, see Dhalla, pp. 55–58. 6 | Ancient Iran: Cosmology, Mythology, History Gayomart Gayomart appears first as a cosmic creation of Mazda in Khshathra Vairya. After Aka Manah kills him, his seed travels to the sun, where it is nurtured. From there, it is taken to the moon, where it is purified. Ultimately, the seed is deposited in the physical, material world, where it grows in the form of a rhubarb plant with two stems attached at the base. One stem is Mashiya, the man; the other is Mashiyana, the woman. We know nothing about the marriage of Mashiya and Mashiyana other than that there were children, sweet children. he children were so sweet that the parents could not prevent themselves from devouring them. he Creator necessarily took sweetness out of children.1 he mythical Kayumars and the hero-saints that populate Iranian mythology are the descendants of Mashiya and Mashiyana.2 1 2 For a detailed discussion of man, his role, and his allotted fate, see Zaehner, 1975, pp. 265–283. See Bundahishn XV, 1–31. Haurvatat and Ameretat he conflict between Aka Manah and Vohu Manah begins in the Void. It is disrupted while Vohu Manah is building his Khshathra Vairya. A new battle begins within the new kingdom between the creatures of Vohu Manah and the legions that Aka Manah brings forth. Whichever side totally destroys the other side achieves Haurvatat, i.e., wholeness and health.20 he reward for this perfection is the achievement of Ameretat, long life that resides in the plant kingdom. No wonder she is referred to as the Guardian of plant creation.21 Cosmic Khvarnah or Farr (see also, Mythic Farr and Historic Farr) During cosmic times, one of the major creations was the creation of the khvarnah, variously translated as “glory, charisma, and symbol of legitimacy.” In spite of these definitions, scholars attest to the difficulty of finding an appropriate definition for it. he reason is that khvarnah (or farr) has a different manifestation depending on the world and the levels at which it is being discussed. In the cosmic world, khvarnah appears as a cosmic force, or forces, that binds the universe together. In the mythic world, it appears as the blessing of a deity, or deities, that organizes aspects of life. In the historic world, it appears in various degrees in the creatures of Ahura Mazda. A meaningful understanding of the khvarnah, therefore, would be one that takes the worlds and the levels of the concept into consideration.1 1 20 21 For a discussion of the kingly glory, khvarnah, and those who possessed it, see Zamyad Yasht, XIX, 10–79. Bundahishn I, 1–28; XXX, 29; see also Boyce, 1975, p. 204. Bundahishn I, 26; IX, 2; XXX, 29; see also Boyce, 1975, p. 204; for further discussion of Haurvatat and Ameretat, see Dhalla, pp. 191–192. The Cosmic Age | 7 The Yazatas Another name for the Yazatas is the “Adorable Ones.” In importance, they are next to the Amesha Spentas. he Yazatas are abstractions of ideas, virtues, and concepts. Some Yazatas are Indo-European in origin. Some are Aryan concepts later retained by Zoroaster. he majority of the Yazatas, however, are Iranian. he Yazatas, which number in the hundreds of thousands, may be grouped into three categories: Indo-European Yazatas, Indo-Iranian Yazatas, and Iranian Yazatas.22 Ahura Mazda Spentas Yazatas wisdom rectitude victory joy charity wisdom peace Iranian Yazatas (minor deities) male female terrestrial sun truth celestial celestial moon rectitude terrestrial wind ire water earth Fravashis The faithful Configuration of Iranian Yazatas The Indo-European Yazatas hese Yazatas personify the elements of the cosmos. Atar (fire), Apam-Napat (water), AredviSura-Anahita (water), and Vayu (wind) are some of the most ancient Yazatas worshiped by the Indo-Europeans. Anahita seems to have eclipsed the Indo-European Apam-Napat. The Indo-Iranian Yazatas he Indo-Iranian Yazatas are: Mithra, Airyaman, Haoma, Verethragna, Parendi, Rata, and Nairyosanha. The Iranian Yazatas he Iranian Yazatas are: Hvarekhshaeta, Maongahah, Tishtrya, Sraosha, and Rashnu, as well as Daena, Chisti, Erethe, Rasanstat, Akhshti, Vanghuhi, Arshtat, Asman, Zam, Manthra Spenta, and Raocha. 22 For a comprehensive study of the Yazatas, see Dhalla, pp. 173–231. 8 | Ancient Iran: Cosmology, Mythology, History The Function of the Yazatas he main task of the Yazatas is to assist the devout according to their function in relation to the Spentas and the people on the earth plane. In this regard, the Iranian Yazatas are divided into two subgroups: Celestial Yazatas (abstract, invisible) and Terrestrial Yazatas (concrete, visible).23 In working with Mazdian cosmology, it is important to emphasize that the world of Manah, from its inception in the Void to its materialization in Khshathra Vairya and its final struggle for perfection and immortality, is a thought world. It is a cosmic prototype for the mythic and historic worlds to come. The Fravashis he Fravashis are the souls of the faithful. At any given time, there are as many Fravashis in the world as there are faithful individuals.24 Mazdian Cosmology Mazda Manah (Spenta Mainyu) Amesha Spentas Vohu Manah, Asha Vahishta, Spenta Armaiti, Khshathra Vairya, Haurvatat, Ameretat Yazatas Celestial Yazatas Divine Wisdom: Daena, Chisti, Sraosha Rectitude: Mithra, Rashnu, Arshtat, Erethe, Rasanstat Victory and Contracts: Verethragna Genius of Joy: Raman Genius of Charity: Rata Angel of Peace: Akhshti Terrestrial Yazatas Light: Hvarekhshaeta (sun), Maongahah (moon) Fire: Atar Water: Aredvi-Sura-Anahita, Apam-Napat Earth: Zam Fravashis or souls of individual faithful he Faithful 23 More information on the nature and function of the Amesha Spentas and the Yazatas will be provided further below in the context of the Sassanid revival of the faith. 24 For a discussion of Fravashis and their relation to sentient beings of good nature, as well as family and clan, see Dhalla, pp. 233–243. The Cosmic Age | 9 Uninhabited h Pechenegs ir Sa Qi z De il Qu se m rt m az ar w Kh i Casp ar az Kh an S ea Sa ri Am Alburz ul Rayy Bukhara Marv Amul Tus Nishapur Sepahan lan Khutta Taliqan reh Ze Sistan ake Nimruz L The army of Siyavosh The Hamavan expedition The Kasseh Rud expedition The army of Gudarz and Kaykhosrau Battle scenes Pam Hin C h i n a Tarim ka Kashmir nd Khotan Tibet Kabulistan Zabulistan Ya r irs d Sepid Kuh n ista h Ku han khs a Bad ush uK Balkh Fariyab Pahlav Ma Samarqand Tirmidh Herat C ha Chaqaniyan Zamm Sarakhs Zarafshan an av m Ha ijan rba Aze az an da ra n an hin in h C Issy Kul Kh rriyun al Guiza lu kh Ferghana Chach Sughd st gil Tukhs Qa r De a Q se um rt hi Chi hgord ke La ral A De iz Taraz Kath M h s Riv er Ghuz k Indu b qla Tog huz ghu z Siyavos K Map of Military Expeditions in the Shahname 10 | Ancient Iran: Cosmology, Mythology, History Lake ash h Balk Bust Qandahar Makran India S e a 1 – Kayumars Siyamak 2 – Hushang 3 – Tahmuras Shahrnavaz= 5 – Zahhak = Arnavaz 4 – Jamshid Abtin Barmayun Katayun 6 – Fereydun Salm Tur Iraj 7 – Manuchihr 8 – Nowzar Tus Gustaham Tahmasp 9 – Zav 10 – Garshasp 11 – Kayqubad Kaypishin 12 – Kayka'us Kayaurand 14 – Kayluhrasp Siyavosh 13 – Kaykhosrau 15 – Kaygushtasp (appearance of Zoroaster) 16 – Bahman Table of Legendary Kings The Cosmic Age | 11