Opening the Eyes of Faith: Constructing Tradition in a SixteenthCentury Catalogue of Tibetan Religious Poetry1
Stefan Larsson (Stockholm University)
and Andrew Quintman (Yale University)
Introduction
G
Tsang smyon Heruka (1452–1507), the so-called Madman of
gTsang, is best known for his novelistic accounts of early
bKa’ brgyud founders Mar pa (1012?–1097?) and Mi la ras pa
(ca. 1040–1123). His efforts to compile, edit, print, and disseminate
the narratives and religious poetry of those early figures underscored
the central role that spiritual songs of realization (mgur) played in the
expression and transmission of Buddhism across the Tibetan cultural
world. gTsang smyon Heruka is himself credited with composing a
significant corpus of spiritual verse, which has been compiled in a
volume of his own collected songs (mgur ’bum).2 He maintained his
interest in literary activities through the latter part of his life. At one
point, gTsang smyon returned to Chu bar in Southern Tibet, one of
Mi la ras pa’s favored retreats and site of the yogin’s cremation,
where he is said to have “brought many disciples to spiritual maturi-
1
2
The authors would like to thank Khenpo Choying Dorjee (Dzongsar Institute),
Janet Gyatso, Roger Jackson, Dan Martin, Jann Ronis, and Kurtis Schaeffer for
their assistance and comments on early drafts of this essay. Stefan Larsson would
like to acknowledge the grants he received from The Lars Hierta Memorial
Foundation, The Swedish Research Council (projects 2009-7077 and 2013-1421),
and Margot and Rune Johansson’s Foundation.
gTsang smyon Heruka, gTsang pa he ru ka’i mgur ’bum. His songs are also preserved in two of the three extant biographies that gTsang smyon’s disciples composed after his passing, i.e. rGod tshang ras pa, Nyi ma’i snying po; and lHa btsun
rin chen rnam rgyal, Dad pa’i spu slong g.yo ba. The songs of gTsang smyon have
not yet been studied carefully. Ilze Maruta Stearns has translated, transcribed,
and edited two songs in her master’s thesis (Stearns 1985, 12, 19–20, 97–124, 130–
39). Franz-Karl Ehrhard (2010, 155–57) reproduced and studied the colophon of
gTsang smyon’s mgur ’bum. Stefan Larsson has written briefly about the song collection and translated some sections of the songs in his study of the madman’s
life (Larsson 2012, 42–44, 159ff.). Larsson is currently involved in a research project focusing on gTsang smyon’s mgur ’bum and other related texts (Swedish Research Council, project 2013-1421).
Stefan Larsson & Andrew Quintman, “Opening the Eyes of Faith: Constructing Tradition in a
Sixteenth-Century Catalogue of Tibetan Religious Poetry”, Revue d’Etudes Tibétaines, no. 32,
Avril 2015, pp. 87-151.
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ty through granting empowerments and instructions.”3 During this
period he also composed several texts related to the aural transmissions (snyan brgyud) lineages of esoteric instruction originating with
the early bKa’ brgyud masters, as well as works on the tantric cycle
of Hevajra. Included among gTsang smyon’s writings at this time is a
catalogue of spiritual songs, the text under consideration here. The
composition is not a collection of verses (mgur ’bum) per se. Rather it
is a catalogue (dkar chags)4 of songs, reflecting on the origin, forms,
functions, and qualities of the wider mgur tradition. The work was
completed in 1503 and wood blocks produced for a printed edition
five years later. Only a single copy of the xylographic print is known
to exist, preserved in the Sammlung Waddell of the Berlin State Library.5
gTsang smyon Heruka’s text, entitled Opening the Eyes of Faith, has
so far received little attention. It is missing from Gene Smith’s seminal 1969 study of gTsang smyon Heruka’s life and works.6 Kurtis
Schaeffer likewise makes no mention of it in his recent overview of
the printing projects of gTsang smyon and his disciples. 7 Several
scholars have briefly noted the work in passing, but to date, the text
has not been the subject of a detailed study.8
The catalogue offers a rare and relatively early reflection on the
scope of the Tibetan mgur tradition by an author who helped make
the genre famous in Tibet. This tradition is usually traced back, in
part, to the early bKa’ brgyud figures Mar pa and Mi la ras pa, and
the Indian siddhas before them.9 In turn, the practice of singing mgur
is frequently understood as a primary signifier of the “oral transmission” of esoteric instructions between teacher and disciple from
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
rGod tshang ras pa, Nyi ma’i snying po, 207. dbang dang gdams pas gdul bya mang po
smin par mdzad/. References refer to the Western pagination. Although no date is
given in the biography, since rGod tshang ras pa’s rnam thar of gTsang smyon is
chronologically structured, this seems to have taken place around 1503.
The term dkar chags is alternately spelled kar chag and dkar chag.
The manuscript, i.e. “Waddell 120 h” was recently made available in the Digital
Library of the Berlin State Library for free viewing and downloading:
http://digital.staatsbibliothek-berlin.de/dms/.
Smith 1969. Republished in Smith 2001.
Schaeffer 2011.
The text is outlined briefly in Schuh (1981, 126–27). Ehrhard (2010, 157–58) noted
the text’s title and colophon data in his examination of the writings of gTsang
smyon’s biographer rGod tshang ras pa. Short references to it are also found in
Larsson (2012, 251) and Sernesi (2011, 186). Larsson presented a preliminary survey of the text at the International Association for Tibetan Studies Seminar in
Ulaanbaatar, 2013. Quintman presented the text at the “Tibetan Translation and
Transmission Conference,” Boulder, CO, October 2014.
On the tradition of Indian tantric songs, see for example, Guenther 1969; Jackson
2004; Kapstein 2006; Kværne 1977; Templeman 1994.
Opening the Eyes of Faith
89
which the name bKa’ brgyud is said to have derived. As compiler
and early printer of their lives and songs, gTsang smyon Heruka thus
stands as a central figure in the history of Buddhist songs in Tibet.
Given his centrality in the development and popularization of the
genre, gTsang smyon’s thoughts about mgur are particularly significant. Despite its brevity, the madman’s catalogue bears closer scrutiny, not only because it brings to light reflections on Tibetan verse
forms that have languished in relative obscurity, although that is one
reason. Perhaps more importantly, Opening the Eyes of Faith makes
transparent some programmatic ways in which gTsang smyon employed the song tradition to construct a distinctive religious identity.
And as with his better-known literary achievements, that identity
was fashioned around the ideal of the ascetic yogin and his spontaneous expressions of spiritual awakening in song.10
The text is more than a simple list of song titles. It presents an indigenous Tibetan view of what mgur are and how they function. It
details the suitable forms such verses can take, their necessary elements, potential flaws, and beneficial effects. It gives advice about
how one should vocalize songs, to whom, and for what reasons. The
catalogue reveals a picture of the mgur tradition that supports the
stories Tibetans frequently tell about their esoteric traditions while
also calling some of those stories into question. The text is thus interesting precisely because it helps complicate our understanding of
mgur in a number of ways.
First, Opening the Eyes of Faith foregrounds the fact that mgur originated as a performative tradition. This follows the normative view
that such verses are “songs of realization” and were expressed
through the meditative experiences of great masters from the past. It
then sets forth the ritual contexts in which those songs should be
sung, together with the mental attitudes required of both performer
and audience. Yet the text also reveals how mgur may function in
non-performative ways. The catalogue lists only song titles and not
the songs themselves. Individual titles included in the catalogue
therefore seem to function as placeholders for the songs, and the instructions they transmit, while still demonstrating a valid transmission from teacher to student. The song titles here record the tradition’s lineage extending from early Indian origins (both the tantric
and historical buddhas) down to the author in sixteenth-century Tibet. Moreover, many individuals represented in the catalogue’s lineage were themselves the subject of biographical writing produced by
10
Cf. Quintman 2014; Smith 2001, 61.
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gTsang smyon and his followers. In this way, the text further reflects
the mechanisms through which a religious community worked to
record its lineage of the past and project it forward into the future.
The catalogue also echoes the traditional description of mgur as
spontaneous expressions of an awakened mind, the “unstructured
experience” of great yogins. In this view, such verses stand in contrast to the more scholastic prose of academic treatises as well as the
more classical poetic forms based on Indian systems of kāvya. Here
again, the text also contests that view. gTsang smyon underscores
how songs require careful composition, expression, timing, etc. in
order to be effective. A proper verse should “maintain songs of previous masters,” “uphold authentic dharma,” “bring forth the nectarlike oral instructions,” and “cause the attainment of perfect Buddhahood.” Likewise, their performance is a highly ritualized practice,
one that requires a certain degree of care and training. Verses should
be preceded by appropriate expressions of devotion and framed
within a proper narrative context. The body of the song is to be “elevated and majestic,” its subject “clear and unadorned,” with a tone
that is charming and a melody complete.
In light of these broad observations, this essay will offer a preliminary analysis and translation of gTsang smyon Heruka’s little known
song catalogue. We begin with a history of the text’s production, the
individuals involved in its printing, and the wider literary context
into which such a text might fit. We then briefly survey the catalogue’s contents to highlight its principal features and functions. We
conclude by reflecting on the traditional views about mgur in theory
represented in this text (that they are based on meditative experience,
that they are a spontaneous form of oral performance) while foregrounding some of the seemingly contradictory observations about
them in practice (that they are often, perhaps predominantly, transmitted in literary form, that they conform to a strictly regulated
framework). This short text, we contend, illustrates how spiritual
poetry, and mgur in particular, can function in different registers depending on the context: original composition, biography, collected
songs, catalogue, and subsequent performance as part of a living tradition, while serving both doctrinal and programmatic purposes.
gTsang smyon has made use of each of these registers in order to
constitute his view of the bKa’ brgyud tradition.
In the notes, we have referenced the sources for many of the catalogue’s best-known songs, such as those found in the Mi la corpus or
Mar pa biography, which themselves are primarily known through
the work of gTsang smyon Heruka. We have not, however, made an
exhaustive attempt to identify or annotate all of the songs mentioned
in the text. Further research will no doubt provide a clearer picture of
Opening the Eyes of Faith
91
gTsang smyon Heruka’s sources for this work. Appendix 1 provides
a critical transcription of the Tibetan text. Appendix 2 presents a
schematic illustration of the lineage masters recorded in Opening the
Eyes of Faith, together with the number of songs attributed to each.
Appendix 3 illustrates gTsang smyon’s personal transmission lineage.11
History of the Text
The full title of this work is A Catalogue of Songs Dispelling the Darkness of Ignorance and Opening the Eyes of Faith (mGur gyi dkar chags ma
rig mun sel dad pa’i mig ’byed). The catalogue is relatively short, spanning just nine folios, and concludes with the following colophon:
This preliminary catalogue proclaiming the dharma that brings
about well-being now and in the future is unstructured experience
written down by the yogin who wanders in charnel grounds, King
of Blood Drinkers, in the middle autumn month of the WaterFemale-Pig year.12
Although gTsang smyon Heruka’s name does not appear, the epithet
“the Yogin who wanders in charnel grounds, King of Blood Drinkers” is one of the madman’s best-known monikers, found in the Lives
of both Mar pa and Mi la ras pa. The date of its composition, a WaterFemale-Pig year, corresponds to 1503, which agrees with information
found in the madman’s own biography written by rGod tshang ras
pa (1482–1559) shortly after his death.13 It is therefore beyond reasonable doubt that gTsang smyon was the text’s author.
The printing colophon provides further information about the
text’s creation:
E ma ho.
This catalogue of songs, a lamp dispelling darkness,
Was printed by Kun tu bzang mo,
After she thought to benefit the Buddha’s teachings and beings.
sTod pa ’phel le of sMan khab wrote it down,
11
12
13
Publication constraints did not allow for the reproduction of chart graphics in the
appendices. Appendix 2 and Appendix 3 can be downloaded here:
http://andrewquintman.com/openingeyes/.
gTsang smyon Heruka, mGur gyi dkar chags, 9a. See the Tibetan text in Appendix
1.
rGod tshang ras pa, Nyi ma’i snying po, 207.
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Sangs rgyal grogs mched of Zur tsho carved the blocks,
and Lo paṇ ’Jam dpal chos lha performed the editing.14
Although these lines do not record a precise location or date for the
text’s production, they do offer a few clues about when and where it
was eventually printed. Several of the names recorded here are
known from other works by gTsang smyon Heruka. Kun tu bzang
mo (1464–1549), who directed the printing project, can be identified
as the madman’s female disciple and partner.15 She is also credited
with arranging and sponsoring the block prints for at least two other
literary works connected with gTsang smyon Heruka’s life and teachings: (1) his earliest biography written by dNgos grub dpal ’bar
(1456–1527); and (2) his collected songs. ’Jam dpal chos lha can be
identified as another of gTsang smyon Heruka’s disciples who collaborated with Kun tu bzang mo as editor on those two projects. The
scribe sTod pa ’phel le and carver Sangs rgyal grogs mched likewise
took on identical roles in the production of those two works.16 This
was, it seems, a well seasoned literary team.
A comparison of the physical features of these three works—
biography, collected songs, and catalogue—provides corroborative
evidence that they were products of a single publishing atelier. The
title pages of all three works exhibit strikingly similar floral treatments (see Figure 1). The design and layout of the following pages
likewise closely resemble one another. Although the catalogue lacks
the illustrations found in opening folio side of the biography and
14
15
16
gTsang smyon Heruka, mGur gyi dkar chags, 9a.
The dPal brtsegs Institute has discovered a 73 folios manuscript rnam thar of Kun
tu bzang mo, written by her disciple mKhan rab dbang phyug in 1551. Its full title is Dus gsum rgyal ba ma lus pa bskyed pa’i yum chen kun tu bzang mo’i rnam par
thar pa zab don gter mdzod mthong ba don ldan. This text is the subject of ongoing
study. Porong Dawa of the dPal brtsegs Institute and Hildegard Diemberger recently presented some of their findings at the conference Printing as an Agent of
Change in Tibet and Beyond (Cambridge University, November 2013). See Dawa
and Diemberger in press; Diemberger in press; see also Diemberger 2014. Kurtis
Schaeffer presented a survey of Kun tu bzang mo’s life based on this text (“An Introduction to the Life of Kuntu Zangmo (1464–1549) and some Remarks on Researching the History of Buddhist Women in the Himalayas,” paper presented at
the Third Himalayan Studies Conference, Yale University, March 15, 2014). rGod
tshang ras pa includes a brief summary of Kun tu bzang mo’s life in his biography of gTsang smyon (rGod tshang ras pa, Nyi ma’i snying po, 1969, 140–42).
This short life story has been studied by Larsson, in press.
Cf. Ehrhard 2010, 154–58. For the original colophons, see, dNgos grub dpal ’bar,
Dad pa’i seng ge, 30b–31a; gTsang smyon Heruka, gTsang pa he ru ka’i mgur ’bum,
27a–28a. The scribe came from sMan khab and the carver from Zur tsho, regions
located not far from the printing location of bSam gtan gling, as will be discussed
below. For more on these texts, the place of printing, and the people who made
them, see Larsson in press.
Opening the Eyes of Faith
93
songs, each first full text folio is circumscribed by a set of double lines
with a box in the left and right margins, while the pages thereafter all
have seven lines of text per folio and are flanked by two vertical lines
on both sides of the text (see Figures 2.1 – 2.3).17
Franz-Karl Ehrhard has recently suggested that both gTsang
smyon’s biography and song collection were printed 1508 at bSam
gtan gling, a monastery situated near the sacred mountain of rTsib ri
in La stod Lho.18 Together with Mi la ras pa’s own biography and
collected songs, they may have formed a four-part set.19 The printed
edition of gTsang smyon’s catalogue Opening the Eyes of Faith was
thus likely also produced in 1508 at bSam gtan gling. Indeed, rGod
tshang ras pa describes exactly the kind of scene in which such activity could have taken place: shortly after the madman’s passing, a
group of his close disciples including Kun tu bzang mo gathered to
compile and print gTsang smyon’s life story and song collection, materials they imagined as forming a textual support for gTsang
smyon’s enlightened speech (gsung gi rten).20
Opening the Eyes of Faith concludes with a two-folio catalogue of
gTsang smyon’s own collected songs entitled Illuminating Sunlight
Catalogue (dKar chags nyi ’od snang ba), appended directly after the
printing colophon. This work was compiled by rGod tshang ras pa
and this in turn suggests his involvement with the creation of Opening the Eyes of Faith.21
17
18
19
20
21
To this trio of block prints may be added a forth. Marta Sernesi has discovered
that the same editor, scribe, and carver also participated in the production of
gTsang smyon’s famous biography of Mar pa, a work printed just a few years
earlier, in 1505 (Sernesi 2011, 185–87). She notes the clear similarities between the
original print of Mar pa’s biography and the prints of gTsang smyon’s rnam thar
and mgur ’bum “in terms of page layout (mise en page) and ductus, confirming that
they issued from the same workshop” (Sernesi 2011, 187). Sernesi further notes
(2011, 187n17) that the print of Mar pa’s rnam thar is marked with the marginal
letter ka, which could indicate an “intended continuity” between this and the later prints, which are marked with letters ga (dNgos grub dpal ’bar, Dad pa’i seng
ge) and nga (gTsang smyon, gTsang pa he ru ka’i mgur ’bum). Opening the Eyes of
Faith bears no such marginal notations.
Ehrhard 2010, 154–58. For more on bSam gtan gling, see Larsson in press;
Wangdu and Diemberger 1996, 51–54. In the colophon to his biography of
gTsang smyon, dNgos grub dpal ’bar records that he composed the text in 1508
in the monastery of bSam gtan gling at rGyal gyi śrī ri in La stod lho (dNgos grub
dpal ’bar, Dad pa’i seng ge, 30b).
Ehrhard 2010, 154. As noted, Mar pa’s rnam thar could also have been included in
such a set (see note 16).
rGod tshang ras pa, Nyi ma’i snying po, 282.
rGod tshang ras pa, dKar chags nyi ’od snang ba, 10b. This brief colophon concludes by identifying rGod tshang ras pa as its compiler: rdo rje’i mgur chings dkar
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We can thus conclude that Opening the Eyes of Faith was written by
gTsang smyon Heruka in Chu bar in 1503 and then likely printed in
1508. gTsang smyon’s female companion Kun tu bzang mo sponsored the project, with several other disciples acting as editor, scribe,
and carver, all of whom had been involved with producing xylographic editions of their guru’s biography and collected songs. The
text was likely printed at bSam gtan gling in La stod Lho, with further input from gTsang smyon Heruka’s close disciple rGod tshang
ras pa. Finally, Opening the Eyes of Faith was itself probably issued
and circulated together with gTsang smyon’s biography and songs,
possibly as a kind of appendix to them.
Precedents and Parallels for Opening the Eyes of Faith
Before turning to the catalogue, it will be helpful to first situate it
within the broader Tibetan tradition of commentary on songs. Even
with the profusion of mgur in Tibet, recorded in the biographies and
collected songs of innumerable masters, commentary on the traditions of song and vocal performance themselves seems to have been
relatively rare. It was, however, not entirely lacking, and we find
some evidence for possible influences on gTsang smyon’s exposition.
In his youth, he was educated in a Sa skya monastic environment and
thus may have been familiar with Sa skya Paṇḍita’s famous Treatise
on Music (Rol mo’i bstan bcos).22 Sa paṇ’s Treatise was the earliest extended theoretical treatment of the Tibetan Buddhist musical tradition, with sections covering vocal music (dbyangs), composition (tshig
sbyor), and melody and words (dbyangs dang tshig). All three of the
madman’s biographies agree that gTsang smyon studied for at least
three years in the Gur pa monastic department of dPal ’khor chos sde
Monastery in rGyal rtse, which was affiliated with the Sa skya tradition. During this period he studied tantric texts and he also learned to
perform tantric rituals and dances. One source explicitly mentions
that he studied dbyangs in the monastery.23
The performance of songs is also addressed in one of the oldest extant encyclopedias of traditional Buddhist knowledge in Tibet, a fifteenth- or early sixteenth-century compendium written by gTsang
smyon Heruka’s contemporary Don dam smra ba’i seng ge (ca. 15th
22
23
chags ni/ nyi ’od snang ba zhe bya ’di/ nyi ma’i rjes ’brang dkar chogs kyi/ dkar phran
rgod tshang ras pas sbyar/. Cf. Ehrhard 2010, 158.
Kun dga’ rgyal mtshan, Rol mo bstan chos. See Canzio 1979; Egyed 2000; Ellingson
1979. A seventeenth-century Tibetan commentary also exists, written by Kun
dga’ bsod nams (1597–1660). Kun dga’ bsod nams, Rol mo’i bstan bcos kyi ’grel ba.
rGod tshang ras pa, Nyi ma’i snying po, 27. Cf. Larsson 2011; 2012, 97–103.
Opening the Eyes of Faith
95
century). Comprehensive works such as this often took as their primary subject the five main branches of classical Buddhist learning in
the Indo-Tibetan world, the so-called five major cultural sciences (rig
gnas lnga). Music (rol mo) and songs (often glu) were included within
the category of “construction” or “arts and crafts” (bzo rig). Although
little is known about the author, his work Treasury of Explanation, a
Wish-fulfilling Jewel (bShad mdzod yid bzhin nor bu) includes a brief discussion about the forms and performance of song.24 The relevant section is contained in the Treasury’s thirteenth chapter on “Oral Advice
on Lasting Happiness,” which sets forth an abbreviated typology of
songs (mostly designated by the term glu), the six modes of singing
them, their four essential points, four results, and sixteen functions.25
There is no evidence of a direct connection between gTsang smyon’s
Catalogue and Don dam smra ba’i seng ge’s Treasury. And the latter
says little about the tradition of songs of realization itself: the term
mgur glu appears only in passing as one type of song. But as products
of the same cultural moment in Tibet, these two works perhaps point
to an increasing awareness of and interest in the forms and functions
of songs. While it is unclear how widely Don dam smra ba’i seng ge’s
Treasury circulated, bshad mdzod texts such as this, unlike Sa paṇ’s
more scholarly Treatise, seem to have been composed for the benefit
of a more general audience including pious lay readers, kings, and
princes, who might one day become patrons.26 This fits well with
what we know about gTsang smyon’s wish to disseminate the mgur
traditions of Mar pa and Mi la ras pa to as broad an audience as possible.27
Only a few autonomous song catalogues similar in form to Opening the Eyes of Faith are currently known, although other examples
likely exist. The acclaimed rNying ma master Klong chen pa (1308–
24
25
26
27
Don dam smra ba’i seng ge, bShad mdzod yid bzhin nor bu. Cf. Smith 2001, 209–24.
Don dam smra ba’i seng ge, bShad mdzod yid bzhin nor bu, 522–27.
Smith 2001, 210.
On gTsang smyon’s intention to distribute the Mi la ras pa corpus to a broad
audience, see Quintman 2014, 128ff. The better-known nineteenth-century compendium Treasury of Knowledge (Shes bya kun khyab mdzod) by ’Jam mgon sKong
sprul Blo gros mtha’ yas (1813–1899) includes extended discussions of both the
“supreme” and “common” vocal arts (ngag bzo mchog, ngag bzo phal). The former
covers topics such as the dynamics and modes of chanting (gdangs), melodic contour (nga ro), ceremonial contexts, etc. The “common vocal arts” includes singing
that might take place during cultural festivals and public gatherings (’Jam mgon
sKong sprul, Shes bya kun khyab mdzod, 2: 295ff; Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Thayé
2012, 303–10). It is interesting to note, however, that sKong sprul does not mention the performance of glu and mgur in this context. The subsequent chapter on
poetics focuses largely on classical forms of kāvya.
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1364) produced a Catalogue of Vajra Songs (rDo rje glu’i dkar chag),
which, although brief, is alternately referred to as the Great Catalogue
(dKar chag chen mo) in the colophon. Klong chen pa describes the importance of rdo rje’i mgur as effectively encapsulating the entirety of
the Buddhist tradition from the time of Śākyamuni down to fourteenth-century Tibet. He emphasizes the vajra songs (rdo rje’i glu) and
mgur sung by masters after visiting the great sacred sites of the rNying ma tradition. From among the entire mgur tradition, he singles
out Mar pa, Mi la ras pa, sGam po pa (1079–1153), Gling ras pa (1128–
1188), rDza ri ras pa Shes rab dpal (ca. 12th century), and the great
rNying ma adept Me long rdo rje (1243–1303). These masters, he
writes, “reached the level of ‘Reality Exhausted’ and then sang songs
(mgur) about realizing their own aims.”28 The text concludes with a
brief list of Klong chen pa’s own songs.
An unpublished work on poetry attributed to the seventeenthcentury bKa’ brgyud scholar and polymath Karma chags med (1613–
1678) contains a brief section, itself in verse, presenting an “analysis
of dohā and vajra songs” (do ha rdo rje’i glu’i rnam par dbye pa).29 Once
again, we find an effort to establish the various Buddhist song traditions (glu, glu dbyangs, dohā, mgur) as encompassing the entire field of
experience of the Buddhist path, from the historical Buddha Śākyamuni, to the great Indian siddhas, to the bKa’ brgyud founders in Tibet and their transmission of mahāmudrā instructions. Karma chags
med writes:
All of the bKa’ brgyud lamas,
In each of their meditation sites across the land of Tibet,
Put their realization into song,
Which became the central pillar of the Practice Lineage teachings.
This is known as the “collected songs of the bKa’ brgyud.”30
As with gTsang smyon before him, the author reiterates that the tradition of songs of realization, and especially the collected songs (mgur
’bum) of its great masters, became a defining feature (“the central
pillar”) of the lineage. It is not difficult to imagine that in writing
those lines, Karma chags med had gTsang smyon’s literary corpus in
mind.
28
29
30
Klong chen pa, rDo rje glu’i dkar chag, 362. chos nyid zad sar ’khyol bas rang don rtogs
pa’i mgur bzhengs pa.
Karma chags med, rDo rje glu’i rnam dbye. The complete section title is Do ha rdo
rje’i glu’i rnam par dbye pa sha mang gi sul zhes bya ba’i glu.
Karma chags med, rDo rje glu’i rnam dbye, 2b. gnas bod yul sgrub gnas so so tu/ dpal
bka’ [b]rgyud bla ma thams cad kyis/ rang rang gi rtogs pa glu tu blangs/ de sgrub
[b]rgyud bstan pa’i srog zhing yin/ mtshan bka’ [b]rgyud mgur ’bum zhes su grags/.
Opening the Eyes of Faith
97
The closest known parallel to gTsang smyon’s catalogue, albeit
one that circulated later, may be the brief text entitled Comforting the
Minds of the Fortunate (sKal bzang yid kyi ngal gso), an independent
work traditionally included as an introduction to the famous collection of bKa’ brgyud verses An Ocean of bKa’ brgyud Songs (bKa’ brgyud
mgur mtsho) compiled by the Eighth Karmapa, Mi bskyod rdo rje
(1507–1554).31 This is not designated a catalogue (dkar chags) per se,
but rather serves as a practical introduction for the liturgical performance of the collection of songs that follows. Although its instructions are more explicit than those found in gTsang smyon’s catalogue, there are close parallels between the two. The outline presented in Comforting the Minds of the Fortunate clearly follows gTsang
smyon’s own general framework; at times it seems to gloss the latter’s opaque terminology.32 It is therefore possible that its author not
only knew of gTsang smyon’s presentation of mgur from nearly half a
century earlier, he may have drawn upon it directly.
Survey of Opening the Eyes of Faith
Opening the Eyes of Faith begins with a traditional expression of homage to the lama and prayer of aspiration. gTsang smyon Heruka then
introduces several of the text’s central themes: the Tibetan tradition
of spiritual songs is rooted in the ascetic practices of Indian Buddhism, it developed primarily through the transmission and performance of tantra, and it reflects the inner experiences of yogic practitioners. The narrative here describes how great adepts renounced the
world, became realized through esoteric yogic techniques, and then
expressed their realization in song. In gTsang smyon’s telling, great
siddhas of the past
… gave up clothes, food, and renown, and became the sons of
mist and clouds. Wearing empty and secluded caves as their
crowns, they cut the cord of happiness and abundance as aims
of this life. They continuously remembered the difficulty of obtaining freedoms and advantages. For pillows they used mind31
32
sKal bzang yid kyi ngal gso. Cf. Nālandā Translation Committee 1989, 6–12. The
complete title of this text is An Explanation, Outline, and Liturgical Procedures of the
Ocean of bKa’ brgyud Songs, Comforting the Minds of the Fortunate (bKa’ brgyud mgur
mtsho’i go don khog dbubs spyi chings rnam par bshad pa skal bzang yid kyi ngal so). In
the block print edition prepared at Rumtek Monastery, it is appended to the end
of the main text.
See note 80 in the translation.
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fulness of the uncertainty of the time death; for clothes they
wore awareness of the infallibility of cause and effect; for mats
they laid out mindfulness of saṃsāra’s shortcomings. Then,
modelling themselves upon the downward descent of a river
and the upward blaze of a lamp, they practiced the two stages
of yoga continuously, day and night, without interruption. This
resulted in the actualization of unmistaken experience and realization, which they then expressed in vajra songs.33
This account largely reflects mainstream views about mgur in Tibet. It
also supports gTsang smyon’s stated purpose for writing the text that
follows: the traditional Buddhist motivation of inspiring disciples,
exhorting the wealthy to accumulate merit, and encouraging individuals to practice the path to liberation and omniscience.34 But the
story here also highlights gTsang smyon Heruka’s long standing
agenda to valorize the ascetic ideal, much as he did through his writings on the archetype of yogic virtuosity Mi la ras pa.
gTsang smyon next defines his terminology: “When the enlightened intentions of the victors and one’s own wishes are versified, set
to music, and then expressed, such is called glu or dbyangs. When it
expresses the greatness [of realization] it is called mgur.”35 The distinctions between glu and mgur, and the blurred lines of those distinctions, have been discussed at length elsewhere.36 In gTsang smyon’s
view, however, mgur may be distinguished from glu not so much by
means of its formal properties—although they are clearly prescribed
in the text that follows—as by its referent. Songs designated mgur
address what is to be praised, literally “expressing the greatness” (che
brjod), which in this case may be understood as the experience and
realization of great adepts. This idea is encapsulated in one of the
divisions of mgur Tibetan critic Don grub rgyal (1953–1985) defines as
“songs about the way in which experience and realization arise from
having meditated on the guru’s instructions.”37 Nevertheless, gTsang
smyon repeatedly designates songs of experience and realization not
33
34
35
36
37
gTsang smyon Heruka, mGur gyi dkar chags, 1b.
Curiously, gTsang smyon declares that he will “put into song the enlightened
intentions of the victors of the three times” even though the text is written almost
entirely in prose.
gTsang smyon Heruka, mGur gyi dkar chags, 1b.
For the growing literature on the poetic forms of glu and mgur, see for example
Braitstein 2014; Don grub rgyal 1997; Ellingson 1979; Gamble 2014; Jackson 1996;
Pema Bum 1994; Sørensen 1990; and Sujata 2005, 2008. Gamble (2014, 4ff.) notes
that discussions among contemporary Tibetan critics about the glu/mgur distinction tend to focus less on genre divisions than on levels of honorific register and
discourse. This also seems evident in gTsang smyon Heruka’s definition here.
Don grub rgyal 1997, 489. bla ma’i gtams ngag bsgom nas nyams rtogs ’khrungs tshul
gyi mgur/.
Opening the Eyes of Faith
99
as glu or mgur but as dbyangs, a term more commonly used to refer to
a song’s specific melody or performative context. It is clear, however,
that in this text at least, gTsang smyon deploys the term dbyangs to
refer both to the mgur tradition in general as well as to individual
songs.
Having introduced the subject matter of the text, gTsang smyon
cites selections from several authoritative Indian scriptures, such as
Aspiration of Noble Exalted Conduct (Bhadracarīpraṇidhānarāja, bZang
spyod smon lam), The Litany of Names of Mañjuśrī (Manjuśrīnāmasaṃgīti, ’Jam dpal mtshan brjod), and The Two Segments (brTag gnyis) of
the Hevajra Tantra, where it is written that songs constitute an important method of Buddhist practice. He also quotes from the Sūtra of
Ratnaketu (Mahāsannipātaratnaketudhāraṇī sūtra, ’Dus pa chen po rin po
che tog gi gzungs kyi mdo) as evidence that mgur are not a Tibetan invention, but are firmly rooted in the early Buddhism of India, where
even the Buddha’s own disciples advocated the performance of song.
gTsang smyon next turns to the performance of mgur, presenting
instructions first for the listener and then the singer of spiritual
songs. The audience must abandon the so-called “four ruins” that
might impede the proper reception of a song. He designates three
capacities of audience members. There are those of highest capacity
who focus on the song’s inner meaning of the Buddhist ground, fruition, and view; and those of intermediate capacity who listen to the
lyrics intent on practicing meditation. These he contrasts with listeners of inferior capacity who simply “stare at the mouth of the singer,
slack-jawed and tongue drooping” while concentrating on the changing notes of the singer’s voice.
He also provides guidance for how the singer should act. He
should perform the songs “without giving in to childish displays of
vocal ability, meaningless vulgarities, or desire for temporary pleasures.” Instead, gTsang smyon presents a long list of ways to properly
employ mgur, a list that includes the variety of appropriate listeners
and the content suitable for each of them. Here, he writes in the first
person, suggesting that he serves as a model for others in his tradition including, perhaps, his own disciples:
To the previous lamas I sing songs of praise and pleasing offering. To kings I sing songs about the laws that establish their
subjects in the ten virtues. To the common folk I sing songs
about the wish for contentment. To the Lords, the Great
Teachers, I sing songs about the Buddha’s teaching, namely
sūtras, tantras and śāstras that are informed by scripture, reasoning, and pith instructions. To great meditators I sing songs
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about experiencing tranquility and insight. To realized yogins
I sing songs about manifesting the view, meditation, conduct,
and fruition…. To doctors I sing songs about preparing medicinal wisdom nectar that dispels the degenerative disease of the
five poisons. To merchants I sing songs about the greater profit of exchanging the sins of success in this life for the roots of
virtue in the future…. To the old and frail I sing songs escorting them to the deathbed of their fixations…. To local villagers, including wealthy and faithful male and female lay followers, I sing songs that accord with the oral instructions of
previous lineage holders, about the difficulty of obtaining
freedoms and endowments; death and impermanence; the
truth of karma, cause and effect; saṃsāra’s shortcomings; and
the benefits of liberation.38
mGur might be sung to gurus of the lineage and great teachers, meditators and yogins, kings and ordinary villagers alike, about all aspects of the Buddhist path, from the most profound philosophical
insights and meditative experience, to the simple aspiration to practice virtue, to the foundational “four thoughts” that turn the mind
toward dharma.
Performed in a proper context to an appropriate audience, mgur
should effect certain changes in the minds of listeners, in which “the
light of compassion radiates out and the blessings of the lineage enter
into each of the different forms of song, which then easily take root in
everyone’s mind.” 39 As a result, “hypocrites have their faults exposed,” “the mournful are filled with laughter,” “the sinful feel regret,” and “the hateful pacify their cruelty.” 40 When performed
properly, the songs are utterly transformational, possessing six qualities to “turn the minds of even those lacking predispositions for virtue to the authentic dharma.”41
The text next describes the proper form mgur should take. A song
should begin in a mood that is elegant and majestic, “like the upper
body of a lion.” The middle is “magnificent and firm like a golden
vajra,” with clear, unadorned subject matter and charming tone, sung
with a powerful voice. At its conclusion, the song should be long and
gentle, “like the tail of a tiger.”42 In more prosaic terms, a mgur
38
39
40
41
42
gTsang smyon Heruka, mGur gyi dkar chags, 2b–3a.
gTsang smyon Heruka, mGur gyi dkar chags, 3a.
gTsang smyon Heruka, mGur gyi dkar chags, 3a.
gTsang smyon Heruka, mGur gyi dkar chags, 3b.
gTsang smyon Heruka, mGur gyi dkar chags, 3b. While the meaning of these descriptions remains opaque, it is not difficult to imagine the tension between a lion’s body—majestic, firm, ready to spring— and it’s tail, long, gentle, and soft if
you dare to pet it. These images seem to reflect an image of mgur as graceful and
Opening the Eyes of Faith
101
should possess three basic elements: (1) an opening expression of
supplication and praise described as the song’s “opening support”
(mgo ’dren); (2) a middle framework consisting of “stories and their
rationale” that contain the song’s principal scope and themes; and (3)
concluding prayers of auspiciousness and aspiration. gTsang smyon
devotes the remainder of the catalogue to explaining the first two
points, the opening supplication and then the body of the songs
themselves.
Following the traditional bKa’ brgyud refrain, the lama and previous masters of the lineage serve as the primary sources of blessing
and realization. “Among the recitations of yogins,” gTsang smyon
reminds the reader, “nothing is more effective than supplications to
the lama.”43 To underscore the supplication’s importance as a form of
preliminary practice, the text cites a wide range of tantric literature
describing the lama’s central role as well as a variety of supplicatory
practices that employ the devotee’s body, speech, and mind.
It is, however, the section on the framework of mgur that forms the
heart of gTsang smyon’s catalogue. Here the text presents a record of
Buddhist masters, beginning with the tantric buddha Vajradhara and
Buddha Śākyamuni, continuing with the Indian adepts Saraha,
Tilopa, and Nāropa, and then their spiritual descendents in Tibet,
including Mar pa the Translator and his disciple Mi la ras pa. The list
continues with members of the bKa’ brgyud tradition down to
gTsang smyon Heruka’s own teacher Sha ra ba Sangs rgyas seng ge
(1427–1470). As expected in a catalogue of this kind, no actual songs
are recorded. Rather, in each case, the text presents brief descriptive
titles of songs attributed to individual masters. Occasionally it includes short contextual narratives describing where and when the
song was composed or for whom it was sung. The format is not unlike another of gTsang smyon’s literary works: the eleventh chapter
of The Life of Milarepa, in which the yogin’s various activities of taming demons and meeting disciples are surveyed in cursory fashion,
forming a summary replacement for the extended accounts recorded
in the Collected Songs.44 The lists of songs included in the catalogue
are valued not for any expository function, but for their documentation of a yogic lineage stemming from the tantric and historical buddhas, to the Indian siddhas, and extending through the bKa’ brgyud
lineage down to the author himself. In this context, the songs’ con-
43
44
aesthetically pleasing, even as they remain potent and affecting. Thanks to Janet
Gyatso for her suggestions here.
gTsang smyon Heruka, mGur gyi dkar chags, 3b.
See Quintman 2014, 140.
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tent, to which is ascribed various forms of liberative power, is less
important than their marking the authentic transmission of yogic
experience from teacher to student. It is also noteworthy that many
individuals included in the catalogue’s lineage were themselves the
subjects of biographical literature produced by gTsang smyon and
his followers. The text thus documents the songs of masters within
the author’s tradition. But it also, if somewhat indirectly, references
an entire corpus of biographical literature the madman inspired.45
gTsang smyon begins with a record of the purported origin of Tibetan mgur: Vajradhara’s teaching of the four classes of tantra in
verse form. He next turns to the historical buddha Śākyamuni, noting
briefly that the traditional twelvefold division of “excellent speech”
ascribed to him (dvādaśāṅgapravacana, gsung rab yan lag bcu gnyis) includes the branch of mixed prose and verse (geya, dbyangs bsnyad).
Next appears the great Indian siddha Saraha, with a reference to his
famous Dohā Trilogy.46 The text continues with the Indian forefathers
of the bKa’ brgyud tradition Tilopa and Nāropa, with mention of the
former’s famed verses of the Mahāmudrā Upadeśa informally known
as the “Ganges Mahāmudrā.”47 The songs attributed to these three
masters constitute one of the most important and authoritative
sources for bKa’ brgyud mahāmudrā in Tibet.
gTsang smyon follows the traditional lineage from Nāropa to the
early Tibetan bKa’ brgyud founders, beginning with translator Mar
pa Chos kyi blo gros.48 Mar pa was of course instrumental in transmitting the mgur tradition and helping to domesticate its performance within a uniquely Tibetan idiom. The text refers to ten of his
songs, including his famous interpretation of Mi la ras pa’s “dream of
the four pillars.” It is not surprising, however, that gTsang smyon
Heruka devotes greatest attention to the subject of his own singular
literary achievement, the acclaimed yogin Mi la ras pa.49 Summarizing the yogin’s life here, gTsang smyon reemphasizes the traditional
view of mgur as the expression of deep realization in which “the melodious voice of his experience, the lion of no-self, has the power to
45
46
47
48
49
References to this literature are included in the discussion that follows.
gTsang smyon’s disciple lHa btsun Rin chen rnam rgyal compiled texts related to
Sa ra ha’s dohās (Schaeffer 2011, 468).
gTsang smyon’s disciple dBang phyug rgyal mtshan compiled Tilopa’s and
Nāropa’s rnam thar (Schaeffer 2011, 469; Smith 2001, 77–78). lHa btsun Rin chen
rnam rgyal compiled Tilopa’s rnam mgur and Nāropa’s rnam thar (Schaeffer 2011,
469; Smith 2001, 76).
gTsang smyon compiled and printed Mar pa’s rnam thar in 1505.
On gTsang smyon’s production of Mi la ras pa’s rnam thar and mgur ’bum in 1488,
see Quintman 2014. lHa btsun rin chen rnam rgyal later printed a well-known
collection of miscellaneous songs not included in gTsang smyon’s collections to
complement the work of his teacher (Schaeffer 2011, 470–71; Smith 2001, 76–77).
Opening the Eyes of Faith
103
suppress all the animals of inferior views.”50 The text mentions more
than fifteen individual songs and song cycles, the latter of which constitute entire chapters of mgur and their associated narratives from
Mi la ras pa’s Collected Songs. The list broadly follows the framework
gTsang smyon employed there, beginning with the yogin’s subjugation and conversion of non-human spirits, followed by his training of
human disciples, and then the final instructions he gave shortly before his death and cremation. He concludes with the assertion that
even greater than these were the songs Mi la ras pa sang (presumably
after his earthly passing) to gods and ḍākinīs each in their own individual realms.
The catalogue continues with songs of Mi la ras pa’s principal disciples Ras chung pa rDo rje grags (1084–1161)51 and sGam po pa bSod
nams rin chen (1079–1153)52 before turning to the latter’s pupil Phag
mo gru pa rDo rje rgyal po (1110–1170),53 the great bKa’ brgyud hierarch whose followers established many of the school’s sub-branches
including the ’Brug pa bKa’ brgyud represented here. The text records a teacher-student lineage that runs from Phag mo gru pa as follows: gLing chen ras pa Padma rdo rje (1128–1188);54 gTsang pa rgya
ras Ye shes rdo rje (1161–1211),55 founder of the ’Brug pa bKa’ brgyud
and recognized as the first rGyal dbang ’Brug pa incarnation; rGod
tshang pa mGon po rdo rje (1189–1258), founder of the sTod ’Brug
subsect;56 Yang dgon Chos kyi rgyal po (1213–1258);57 sPyan snga Rin
chen ldan (b. 1202); Zur phug pa Rin chen dpal bzang (b. 1263); ’Ba’
ra ba rGyal mtshan dpal bzang po (1310–1391); Nam mkha’ [seng
ge];58 and Byang sems bSod nams don grub (14th century).59 Of the
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
gTsang smyon Heruka, mGur gyi dkar chags, 6a.
gTsang smyon’s disciples rGod tshang ras pa and lHa btsun Rin chen rnam rgyal
compiled rnam thars of him (Roberts 2007, Schaeffer 2011, 471; Smith 2001, 77–78).
rGod tshang ras pa printed a short text on sGam po pa called Shes bya ma
(Schaeffer 2011, 471).
lHa btsun Rin chen rnam rgyal printed his rnam thar (Schaeffer 2011, 472; Smith
2001, 77).
lHa btsun Rin chen rnam rgyal printed his rnam mgur (Schaeffer 2011, 472; Smith
2001, 76).
lHa btsun Rin chen rnam rgyal printed his mgur ’bum rgyas pa; Sangs rgyas dar
po printed his rnam thar (Schaeffer 2011, 472).
gTsang smyon’s disciples lHa btsun Rin chen rnam rgyal and Sangs rgyas dar po
both printed rnam thars of him (Schaeffer 2011, 472; Smith 2001, 75, 78).
gTsang smyon’s disciple ’Jam dpal chos lha composed his rnam thar (Schaeffer
2011, 473; Smith 2001, 78).
He is listed in gTsang smyon’s Authoritative Commentary (gZhung ’brel) under the
name Nam mkha’ seng ge (gTsang smyon Heruka, gZhung ’brel, 114).
TBRC lists a master named bSod nams don grub (P1478) who was a disciple of
Nam mkha' seng ge.
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two latter figures, gTsang smyon simply notes that they “sang songs
that enhanced practice.”60 The last name in the list is gTsang smyon’s
own root guru, Sha ra ba Sangs rgyas seng ge, about whom the author writes, “This renowned supreme holy being sang songs about
how to practice the ground, path, fruition, view, meditation, and
conduct.”61
The list of teachers recorded here represents two separate but parallel lineages. First, the figures belong to the ’Ba’ ra transmission lineage of the Upper ’Brug (sTod ’Brug) branch of the ’Brug pa bKa’
brgyud school.62 But the individuals also belong to one of the aural
transmission lineages that gTsang smyon received from Sha ra ba
and is recorded in one of gTsang smyon’s largest works, the Authoritative Commentary (gZhung ’grel).63 Aural transmission lines descended from Mi la ras pa’s three disciples Ras chung pa, sGam po pa, and
Ngan rdzong Byang chub rgyal mtshan (b. late eleventh century).
While gTsang smyon is most commonly associated with the Ras
chung aural transmissions, the lineage preserved here stems from
sGam po pa.
gTsang smyon Heruka’s religious affiliations were complex, as
were those of his guru Sha ra ba.64 (See Appendix 3.) The madman
was an ardent supporter of the bKa’ brgyud tradition, and much of
his literary work sought to reimagine its core identity by reemphasizing the centrality of asceticism and yogic practice. gTsang smyon also
directed much of his attention to the preservation and revival of specific esoteric doctrines, that is, the bKa’ brgyud aural transmission
lineages. And while he has often been identified as a supporter of the
aural transmissions of Ras chung pa (Ras chung snyan brgyud), in
this context he clearly represents the lineage extending back to sGam
po pa (Dwags po snyan brgyud). This seems in line with statements
found in the biographical literature of gTsang smyon and Sha ra ba,
where, when asked about their religious affiliations, both masters are
recorded as saying that they followed the Dwags po bKa’ brgyud
60
61
62
63
64
gTsang smyon Heruka, mGur gyi dkar chags, 7a. Little is known about these two
masters. Schaeffer notes that figures from the late-thirteenth to the mid-fifteenth
centuries are not represented among the block print texts that gTsang smyon’s
tradition produced. The biographical narratives resume with Sha ra ba, gTsang
smyon, and his disciples (Schaeffer 2011, 459–60).
gTsang smyon Heruka, mGur gyi dkar chags, 7a. rGod tshang ras pa’s disciple
’Byams pa phun tshogs (1503–1581) printed Sha ra ba’s rnam thar (Ehrhard 2012,
162n12; Schaeffer 2011, 473).
Cf. Smith 2001, 46–48.
gTsang smyon Heruka, gZhung ’brel, 114. Cf. ’Jam mgon kong sprul blo gros
mtha’ yas, gDams ngag mdzod, vol. Nya, 40–41.
Cf. Larsson 2011; Larsson 2012, 29–30.
Opening the Eyes of Faith
105
tradition.65 Similarly, while Opening the Eyes of Faith mentions eight of
Ras chung pa’s songs, it does not refer to any other master of Ras
chung’s transmission lineage. The catalogue of songs here seem to
reflect the ambiguous and often fluid religious affiliations maintained
by gTsang smyon and his immediate followers.
Having outlined the mgur tradition embodied by his own traditions, gTsang smyon makes a cursory mention of traditions of mgur
outside mainstream bKa’ brgyud circles, although these appear as
something of an afterthought. Here he includes songs purportedly
sung by Guru Rinpoche on his meeting with Khri srong lde’u btsan,
as well as songs attributed to rDza Ye shes dar po (d.u.); Ma cig labs
sgron (1055–1149), acclaimed founder of the Tibetan tradition of Severance (gcod); the popular female Tibetan folk hero and revenant (’das
log) sNang sa ’Od ’bum,66 and Ri bo sgang pa.67
At the end of the catalogue’s middle section, gTsang smyon indicates that songs are not sufficient on their own but require further
context about their composition. For this reason, a song should also
make clear who originally composed and performed it, where it was
sung, and for what reasons.68 Once again, he uses examples from Mi
la ras pa’s Collected Songs to illustrate his point. He concludes by noting briefly that the performer should carefully consider how many
songs to include on a given occasion.
The last section of the catalogue’s outline briefly addresses the
prayers of aspiration and auspiciousness that should be performed at
the song’s conclusion. As a model, gTsang smyon presents the following text:
Lamas and Three Jewels, I offer the songs.
Assembled vīras and ḍākinīs, enjoy the sounds.
Four armed protector Mahākāla, dispel hindering conditions.
Sole mother Remati, protect us like a mother her son.
Noble lady Tshe ring ma, follow us like the body and its
smell.
Fortunate ones gathered here, rejoice.
For those of good auspice gathered from here and there with
devotion:
May there be auspiciousness of lamas and yidams.
65
66
67
68
lHa btsun rin chen rnam rgyal, Dad pa’i spu slong g.yo ba, 125; Zla ba rgyal mtshan, Sha ra rab ’byams pa’i rnam thar, 471.
Schaeffer 2004, 59–61.
Cf. Roerich 1988 [1949], 504.
gTsang smyon Heruka, mGur gyi dkar chags, 8a.
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May there be auspiciousness of vīras and ḍākinīs.
May there be auspiciousness of dharma protectors and
guardians.
May there be auspiciousness of thinking to cherish others
more than oneself.
May there be auspiciousness of giving up sin and practicing
virtue.
May there be auspiciousness of bringing thought and action
in line with dharma.
May unchanging auspiciousness remain firm.69
With the main body of the catalogue complete, gTsang smyon concludes with a short but suggestive reflection on the value of mgur and
how wandering yogins like himself and his followers might employ
Buddhist songs of experience in a practical way. The songs, he says,
are
provisions when wandering in charnel grounds and holy places, necessities when roaming savage lands and mountain retreats, offerings when meeting lamas, gifts when encountering dharma brothers, offering articles when visiting temples and stūpas, goods when
traveling around the countryside, ferry-fees when crossing rivers,
offering gifts for requests to kings, an axe for chipping away [alms
from] the wealthy and a file for scraping away [alms from] the
poor.70
In this view, mgur serve as far more than just spontaneous records of
awakened experience attained by great masters of the past. Rather,
they retain a material relevance in the world that lies beyond their
purported soteriological value. For the yogin with few material possessions, mgur function as primary transactional objects of great practical value. Songs, even those deemed to be “songs of spiritual awakening,” thus become a form of religious capital. They may be given as
gifts to lamas and fellow practitioners, they may serve as fees for ferry-men when crossing rivers, they may be presented as tribute to
kings, they may be used to garner offerings from the rich and the
poor alike. They may even be exploited to save one’s own skin in the
event of attack by bandits.
If this image of mgur seems at odds with the orthodox view of
their role in Tibetan religious life, it is not an unfamiliar one. The various registers in which spiritual songs may function are exemplified
in the life story and song collection of gTsang smyon’s famous role
model, Mi la ras pa. The Mi la ras pa corpus illustrates a wide variety
69
70
gTsang smyon Heruka, mGur gyi dkar chags, 8a–b.
gTsang smyon Heruka, mGur gyi dkar chags, 8b.
Opening the Eyes of Faith
107
of contexts for the composition and performance of mgur. On some
occasions, songs serve largely to transmit key doctrinal ideas and
insights. But we also find examples of mgur used in the transactional
manner outlined in the catalogue: Mi la repeatedly sings to defend
himself from attack by bandits, he offers verses to the King of Bhaktapur, and he receives food and drink in return for his poetry, enabling him to continue his ascetic practice. In composing his catalogue
of mgur, gTsang smyon seems to have had in mind precisely these
kinds of stories, nearly all of which he had a hand in editing.
gTsang smyon encourages the catalogue’s readers, likely his own
circle of disciples, to adopt these modes of performance. He explicitly
claims that even when used as objects of exchange, songs will serve
as an “aid for faith” to promulgate the bKa’ brgyud tradition. If the
singer of mgur, gTsang smyon says,
is a yogin of the three sacred snow mountains, the outskirts of bustling towns, the middle reaches of slate and snow mountains, along
the foothills of mist-shrouded woods, assembly halls where vīras
and ḍākinīs gather, the dwellings of noble sages, [such places are]
the central mast of the great ship of the bKa’ brgyud teachings, the
cornerstone of the mansion of the Practice Lineage teaching, a great
sacred site where meditation naturally increases.71
gTsang smyon here is speaking directly to those yogins who wander
among “the three sacred snow mountains,” undoubtedly a reference
to the great pilgrimage mountains of Ti se (Kailash), La phyi, and Tsa
ri, each of which had become an important bKa’ brgyud retreat site
by the late fifteenth century. As a result, gTsang smyon specifies his
intended readership: a small group of bKa’ brgyud yogins, likely his
own followers, emulating the lifestyle of Mi la ras pa and thus
gTsang smyon himself, practicing meditation in remote locations and
singing songs of realization. Such places form “the central mast of the
great ship of the bKa’ brgyud teachings, the cornerstone of the mansion of the Practice Lineage.” Although perhaps few in number,
gTsang smyon understood these individuals as essential to the traditions he had worked so hard to preserve and transmit.
71
gTsang smyon Heruka, mGur gyi dkar chags, 8b.
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Conclusions
In his study of the Tibetan genre of dkar chags, “tables of contents” or
“catalogues,” Dan Martin writes that such works “are among the
most challenging, intriguing and fascinating documents for the historian of Tibetan culture, society, religion, [and] politics.” But, he continues, “they are not being used very much by researchers, perhaps
in part because they are still considered ‘just boring lists’.”72 As we
have suggested, gTsang smyon Heruka’s Opening the Eyes of Faith is
more than a simple outline or collection of “boring lists.” As a catalogue of songs (mgur gyi dkar chags) Opening the Eyes of Faith indeed
records lists of individual verses. But in this brief text, gTsang smyon
also provides a window into how Tibetan “songs of experience” were
composed, performed, remembered, and circulated, in order to serve
both the loftiest ideals of the Buddhist tradition and the mundane
requirements of wandering yogins. Martin adds that dkar chags can
describe “the construction and/or content of items which the Tibetan
Buddhist traditions consider holy and capable of bestowing blessings.”73 Opening the Eyes of Faith does indeed illustrate how mgur are
to be “constructed.” It also nicely illustrates how gTsang smyon
Heruka positioned the tradition of mgur to define his vision of what
the bKa’ brgyud was in the past and should be for future generations.
As we have seen, the catalogue brings gTsang smyon’s institutional identity into view largely through the representation of lineage. On one level, the catalogue traces the contours of the mgur tradition from its Indian origins up to the time of writing. It does so largely through the documentation of one particular line of bKa’ brgyud
masters from Mar pa and Mi la ras pa through gTsang smyon’s own
guru Sha ra ba. While most of these masters are central figures in the
’Brug pa bKa’ brgyud tradition, the lineage affiliation of the last figures in the line, including Sha ra ba and gTsang smyon He ru ka himself, remains uncertain. It is clear, however, that the catalogue records
one of several aural transmission lineages, the Dwags po snyan brgyud,
that lies at the heart of the bKa’ brgyud esoteric doctrine and of
gTsang smyon’s religious community. On another level, the catalogue seems to document the larger program of lineage building activities to which gTsang smyon and his disciples were deeply committed. These activities included the compiling and printing of biographies and song collections of early bKa’ brgyud masters, many of
which are explicitly or implicitly represented in the catalogue. As a
dkar chags, a “catalogue” or “list,” Opening the Eyes of Faith records a
72
73
Martin 1996, 501.
Martin 1996, 504.
Opening the Eyes of Faith
109
collection of verses attributed to great masters of the past. But it also
serves as a kind of logbook for many of gTsang smyon’s broader projects.
The text also exemplifies how mgur functioned in many registers.
In some contexts, such verses are understood to be spontaneous and
revelatory articulations of religious experience, expressions of an
awakened mind that are unmediated by ordinary cognitive processes. Yet for the catalogue’s readers, the recitation of mgur is a highly
constrained verbal performance requiring a good deal of forethought
and expert knowledge. Like other forms of esoteric Buddhist activity,
the singing of tantric songs was a deeply ritualized and formalized
endeavor. The catalogue suggests that mgur are primarily a vehicle
for the transmission of esoteric Buddhist knowledge. They are to be
valued for their liberative efficacy because they encapsulate the most
profound insights of Buddhist meditators. Yet the text also demonstrates that mgur are equally important for negotiating the daily activities of a wandering yogin, in the model of Mi la ras pa or even
gTsang smyon himself. Songs could be used by ascetics, who kept
few possessions of their own, as a kind of religious capital, suitable
for exchange among teachers and disciples, royal patrons, even ferrymen and bandits. In the end, gTsang smyon suggests that these various registers are not separate. The value of mgur “in the world” derives specifically from the fact that they express the Buddha’s deepest
insights about the nature of reality.
Opening the Eyes of Faith never achieved the widespread fame realized by gTsang smyon’s writings about Mi la ras pa and Mar pa. This
was, perhaps, by design, since the catalogue seems to have been written as a kind of practical guide for a smaller audience of disciples and
followers, those yogins who “wander among the three sacred mountain retreats” of Southern Tibet. There is evidence, however, that it
did attract some interest by followers in the lineage. We have already
noted that there are close parallels between Opening the Eyes of Faith
and Comforting the Minds of the Fortunate (sKal bzang yid kyi ngal so), a
relatively short text that was included as an introduction to the famous collection of bKa’ brgyud verses, An Ocean of bKa’ brgyud Songs
(bKa’ brgyud mgur mtsho), compiled in the mid-sixteenth century. It is
also noteworthy that nearly the entire text was copied and glossed
within the collected songs of the eighteenth-century ’Brug pa bKa’
brgyud lama Ngag dbang tshe ring (1717–1794).74 Born in Ladakh
several centuries after gTsang smyon’s passing, he founded rDzong
74
Ngag dbang tshe ring, rNam thar gsung skor, vol 2, 13ff.
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khul Monastery in Zangs dkar, far from the Tibetan region where the
madman’s followers carried out their printing activities. But like
gTsang smyon, Ngag dbang tshe ring spent long periods in retreat
and took an active interest in the composition and transmission of
mgur, activities that earned him the title Lord of Yogins (rnal ’byor
dbang po), much like gTsang smyon and Mi la ras pa before him. It is
unclear how Opening the Eyes of Faith came to be included in Ngag
dbang tshe ring’s works.75 Nevertheless, its presence there attests to
the enduring power of gTsang smyon’s advice about mgur for subsequent members of the lineage. And it provides evidence that the catalogue indeed served gTsang smyon’s larger program for establishing
new models for yogic and ascetic practice, models that would continue to inspire generations to come.
Figure 1
Title page of gTsang smyon Heruka’s biography by dNgos grub dpal ’bar
(TBRC W2CZ6647)
Title page of gTsang smyon Heruka’s collected songs (TBRC W4CZ1248)
Title page of gTsang smyon Heruka’s Opening the Eyes of Faith (Waddell 120 h)
75
Tsering 1979, 3. The two volume collection of Ngag dbang tshe ring’s works
appear to have been edited in 1827 by his disciple Tshul khrims ’byung gnas a.k.a
bZhad pa rdo rje. In his preface to the collection, Gene Smith writes, “During the
passage of years, various folia have been removed and sections have disappeared. It is possible that some of the sections intact have little to do with Ngag
dbang tshe ring” (Ngag dbang tshe ring, rNam thar gsung skor, preface).
Opening the Eyes of Faith
Figures 2.1-2.3
Figure 2.1
Opening folios, gTsang smyon Heruka’s biography by dNgos grub dpal ’bar
(TBRC W2CZ6647)
Figure 2.2
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Opening folios, gTsang smyon Heruka’s collected songs (TBRC W4CZ1248)
Figure 2.3
Opening folios gTsang smyon Heruka’s Opening the Eyes of Faith (Waddell 120 h)
!
Opening the Eyes of Faith
113
English Translation of A Catalogue of Songs Dispelling the
Darkness of Ignorance and Opening the Eyes of Faith
Namo guru.
The nature of mind is primordially dharmakāya. Its luminosity is allpervading and spontaneously accomplished as mahāmudrā. May I
attain buddhahood that manifests distinctly, vividly, quietly, and
brilliantly, and then benefit the teachings and beings.
The victors and siddhas of the past undertook hardships in order to
directly realize the nature of mind. They eagerly undertook hardships, bore the burden of their path, took a low position, wore ragged
clothes, and decorated their minds with ornaments. They gave up
clothes, food, and renown and became children of mist and clouds.
Wearing empty and secluded caves as their crowns, they severed the
cords of hope for happiness and abundance as aims of this life. They
continuously remembered the difficulty of obtaining freedoms and
advantages. For pillows they used mindfulness of the uncertainty of
the time death, for clothes they wore awareness of the infallibility of
cause and effect, for mats they laid out mindfulness of saṃsāra’s
shortcomings. Then, using the examples of the downward descent of
a river and the upward blaze of a lamp, they practiced the two stages
of yoga continuously, day and night, without interruption. This resulted in the actualization of unmistaken experience and realization,
which they then expressed in vajra songs. The experience and realization that arose in the minds of previous buddhas and mahāsiddhas
were expressed as vajra songs.
At present, in order to make these songs serve as the contributory
cause for inspiring my fortunate and faithful disciples, as an exhortation for the wealthy to accumulate merit, and as an encouragement
for the fortunate to accomplish liberation and omniscience, I will put
into song the enlightened intentions of the victors of the three times.
In Indian languages, the songs are called gīti (gi rti) and in Tibetan,
glu or dbyangs. [2a] Furthermore, when the enlightened intentions of
the victors and one’s own wishes are versified, set to music, and then
expressed, such is called glu or dbyangs. When it expresses the greatness [of realization] it is called mgur.
If you want to apply this to the enlightened thoughts of the previous victors, it says in the [Aspiration Prayer for] Excellent Conduct
(Bhadracaryāpraṇidhānarāja, bZang po spyod pa’i smon lam gyi rgyal po),
“I praise all the sugatas and clearly proclaim the highest qualities of
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all the victors with the sounds of an ocean of songs in their various
forms.”76 As it says, songs express all the qualities of the victors and
likewise express their enlightened intention. Furthermore, it says in
The Litany of Names of Mañjuśrī (Mañjuśrīnāmasaṁgīti, ’Jam dpal mtshan
brjod), “Countless ecstatic great Vajradharas, holders of Secret Mantra, extolled those songs sung.”77 In accordance with this, the King of
Tantras, The Two Segments (brTag gnyis) says, “Dance! And also sing
songs! Songs are perfectly pure mantras and dance, the very act of
meditation. Therefore the yogin always, always, sings songs and
dances.”78
Moreover, the Buddha Gathering Sūtra of Ratnaketu (Mahāsannipātaratnaketudhāraṇī sūtra, ’Dus pa chen po rin po che tog gi gzungs kyi mdo)
says,
Once the four heart-sons śrāvaka-arhats, noble Śāriputra and the
rest, were staying to collect alms at the four respective gates,
the eastern and so forth, of the great city Rājagṛha. Several emanations of māra appeared to each one of the Noble Ones. They
ridiculed and laughed at them, saying: “Ascetic, sing a song!
Ascetic, do a dance!” In response, the Noble Ones said,
“Friends, let us sing like it has never been done before in the
world! Let us dance like it never has been done before in the
world!”79
Thus, they defeated all [the emanations of māra] by means of dharma
songs and established them on the path of ripening and liberation. I,
the yogin, will likewise sing a song in accord with them.
You fortunate ones present here should also abandon the “four ruins” (sad bzhi) of the listener, and listen. As for the four ruins of the
listener: [2b]
Drunken stammer ruins the song.
Mixing with [the noise of] dogs and children ruins the song.
Mixing up listening and not listening ruins the song.
Engaging with the wares of merchants ruins the song.
Having eliminated these activities, those of superior capacity listen to
the meaning of the ground, fruition, and view, while those of intermediate capacity, who are involved in practicing meditation and
76
77
78
79
Peking Kangyur 716, Vol. 11, 268a2–271b4.
Peking Kangyur 2, Vol. 1, 1b1–15b7.
Hevajra Tantra, Chapter 6, verse 13. Sanskrit: mantra[vi]śuddhyā sthitā gītā nartanā
bhāvanā smṛtā// tasmād gītañ ca nāṭyañ ca kuryād yogī sadā sadā// (Snellgrove 1959,
part 2, 20).
Peking Kangyur 806, Vol. 32, 201b3-300b3.
Opening the Eyes of Faith
115
conduct of the path, listen to the prosody of the lyrics. Those of inferior capacity stare at the mouth of the singer, slack-jawed and tongue
drooping, they listen to the changing notes of the lyrics. You should
listen in the manner of both superior and medium capacities.
Furthermore, without giving in to childish displays of vocal ability, meaningless vulgarities, or desire for temporary pleasures, I, a
singer of songs, sing these songs to those assembled here to exhort
them to virtue and as an aid for their faith.
To the previous lamas I sing songs of praise and pleasing offering.
To kings I sing songs about the laws that establish their subjects in
the ten virtues. To the common folk I sing songs about the wish for
contentment. To the Lords, the Great Teachers, I sing songs about the
Buddha’s teaching, namely sūtras, tantras and śāstras that are informed by scripture, reasoning, and pith instructions. To great meditators I sing songs about experiencing tranquility and insight. To realized yogins I sing songs about manifesting the view, meditation,
conduct, and fruition. To mantra practitioners I sing songs about
wrathful mantras of no-self and emptiness that liberate the enemy of
self-grasping into dharmadhātu. To Bon pos I sing songs about summoning [true] richness, namely realizing that conceptual thoughts of
wrong views are dharmakāya. To doctors I sing songs about preparing
medicinal wisdom nectar that dispels the degenerative disease of the
five poisons. To merchants I sing songs about the greater profit of
exchanging the sins of success in this life for the roots of virtue in the
future. To young men I sing songs about conquering enemies, the
afflictions, by wearing the armor of compassion and wielding the
weapon of wisdom. [3a] To swaggering boys and girls who have forgotten the dharma about the excellent body of the precious lama, I
sing songs about the melodiousness of the teachings and songs of the
holy dharma, the great value of the seven noble riches,80 and the joy
and happiness embodied by the city of liberation. To the old and frail
I sing songs escorting them to the deathbed of their fixations. To immature beings I sing songs about playing in the world of childish
perceptions as if they were dreams and illusions. To local villagers,
including wealthy and faithful male and female lay followers, I sing
songs that accord with the oral instructions of previous lineage holders, about the difficulty of obtaining freedoms and endowments;
death and impermanence; the truth of karma, cause and result;
saṃsāra’s shortcomings; and the benefits of liberation.
80
I.e., faith, discipline, generosity, learning, decorum, modesty, and knowledge.
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In this way, having turned the perfectly pure oral instructions of
former masters into songs—as is said, “although only one thing is
taught it is understood in a variety of ways”—the light of compassion
radiates out and the blessing of the lineage enter into each of the different forms of song, which then easily take root in everyone’s mind.
The signs that their perceptions are transformed are the following.
Hypocrites have their faults exposed. Those with deranged minds
feel ashamed. Men and women full of pride are panicked. Those who
dislike companions feel dejected. The wailing of widows abates. Foolish women declare their physical faults. Foolish men are shaken up.
Children stop playing around. The mournful are filled with laughter.
The misery of the suffering is driven away. The sinful feel regret.
Those who are twisted by permanence control their minds. The miserly become munificent. Those craving sense pleasures overcome
their grasping. The hateful pacify their cruelty. Ignorant people gain
mindfulness. The sophistries of logicians are destroyed. Those who
explain the scriptures incorporate experience of their meaning. The
melancholic breath a sigh of relief. Renunciates are moved to tears.
The faithful run away to practice dharma. The steadfast give rise to
exertion. Those with karmic connection attain siddhi. [3b]
These songs, which turn the minds of even those lacking predisposition for virtue to the authentic dharma, should be sung so that
the six dimensions of songs are brought about:
maintaining, they maintain the songs of previous masters;
upholding, they uphold the authentic dharma;
bringing forth, they bring forth the nectar-like oral instructions;
benefitting, they benefit the minds of all;
liberating, they liberate from saṃsāra;
attaining, they cause attainment of perfect buddhahood.
First, when the song begins with the opening support (mgo ’dren), it
should be elevated and majestic. In the middle, the words that express its subject matter should be clear and unadorned; the metaphors and their meaning should be well matched and easy to understand; the tone should be charming and the melody complete; and
the voice should be powerful and magnificent. When the song concludes it should be gentle with an easy end. Moreover, the beginning
of the song is elevated and majestic like the upper body of a lion. Its
middle part is magnificent and firm like a golden vajra. The end of
the song is long with an easy end, like the tail of a tiger.
First, supplications and praises form the song’s opening support
(1). In the middle, stories and their rationale form the song’s liturgical
Opening the Eyes of Faith
117
framework (2.1), an outline together with introductions are how the
songs are put together (2.2), and time markers together with sections
keep it to the proper length (2.3). Prayers of auspiciousness and aspiration form the song’s conclusion (3).81
1. Supplications and Praises Form the Songs’ Opening Support
Among the recitations of yogins, nothing is more effective than supplications to the lama. This can be illustrated with the following examples from everyday life: If the sun doesn’t rise in the east, the glaciers of the Ha bo [Mountains]82 in the west won’t melt. If the winds
don’t blow from the north, the sandalwood forests in the south won’t
sway. If the walls of the upper irrigation canals don’t collapse, muddy water won’t flow in the lower canals. [4a] If clay isn’t heated, the
lac won’t stick. If the child doesn’t cry, the mother won’t hold it. If
just three things are said, father and son can’t communicate. If just
three steps are taken, the upper and lower valley can’t be distinguished. If hard work isn’t done, delicious food won’t be enjoyed.
Now I’ll connect the meaning of these examples with the victors’
enlightened mind, which will explain the reason for including supplications. If the two accumulations aren’t gathered, the two obscurations won’t be purified. If the three poisons aren’t given up, the three
bodies won’t be obtained. If you don’t engage the three gates in virtue, you won’t be liberated from saṃsāra’s three realms. If you don’t
meditate, you won’t realize the essence of mind. If you don’t endure
hardship, good qualities won’t arise. If you don’t offer supplications,
you won’t receive blessings.
Furthermore, the venerable Mar pa said:
Whoever supplicates will receive blessings.
81
82
Compare this with the outline in the sKal bzang yid kyi ngal so that introduces the
bKa’ brgyud mgur mtsho: First, the songs are preceded by supplications, offerings,
and praises. Secondly, the main body, which is the songs, is accompanied by stories describing the occasion for the song. The clarification of the songs is accomplished by reading the verses attentively. In accordance with the time and situation, the songs may be put together in various ways. Finally, the liturgy is drawn
to an end with a gaṇacakra and with verses of auspiciousness and aspiration
[Nālandā Translation Committee 1989, 11] (dang po gsol ’debs mchod bstod dang bcas
nas mgur gyi sna ’dren/ bar du lo rgyus ’byung khung dang bcas nas mgur gyi khog
dbubs/ tshig bcad ’bru snon dang bcas nas mgur gyi gsal btab/ dus tshod gnas skabs dang
bstun nas mgur gyi mtsham sbyar/ mthar tshogs ’khor bkra shis smon lam dang bcas nas
mgur gyi cho ga bsdu dgos/ [sKal bzang yid kyi ngal so, 332]).
A mountain range in Nyang stod.
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Whoever benefits others will please the victors.
Whoever accumulates merit will attain happiness.
Whoever meditates will realize the fundamental nature.
Whoever recites the essential will gain ability and power.
Whoever protects samaya will accomplish his wishes.
Whoever manifests sacred outlook will attain awakening.
Therefore, supplication is very important.
Moreover, there are four ways of performing supplication: Giving
up unwholesome actions and carrying out virtue with one’s body is
the body supplication. Similarly, giving up unwholesome actions and
carrying out virtue with one’s speech is the speech supplication. Giving up unwholesome actions and carrying out virtue with one’s mind
is the mind supplication. In this way, the roots of virtue of the three
gates all become supplications.
The fourth is to perform supplication with the three gates combined simultaneously. [This fourth category is divided] into three:
extended supplication, supplication in the way of a jewel, and intense
supplication. [4b]
Extended supplication is to pray with a tune to the entire lineage,
from the blessed one, the great Vajradhara, down to one’s root guru.
Supplication in the way of a jewel is to dissolve into one’s root
guru all the objects of refuge that are worthy of offerings such as the
lineages, chosen deities, and the three jewels. Then pray that all
needs and desires of this life and the next are granted.
Intense supplication is when a faithful and diligent person, who is
terrified of saṃsāra and the lower realms, wants to attain the supreme accomplishment of mahāmudrā in this very life. In a secluded
cave he expresses physical devotion with palms folded together and
eyes full of tears. Within that state, convinced that his root guru is the
primordial essence and unification of all the objects of refuge worthy
of offerings and with his mind full of devotion and intense longing
uninterrupted by other thoughts, he cries out the name of his root
guru with a strong and rapid voice. Then he prays for his desired
aim, namely liberation from the suffering of saṃsāra and the three
lower realms, and the quick attainment of awakening.
Moreover, supplicating the lama becomes supplicating all the objects of refuge worthy of offerings. The Cakrasaṃvara Saṃvarodaya
Tantra (bDe mchog sdom ’byung gi rgyud) says, “The lama is the Buddha, the lama is the dharma. Likewise the lama is the saṅgha. The
lama is the creator of all. To the lamas I bow down.”
The Saṃvarodaya also says, “Completely abandon all offerings except for perfect offerings to the lama. By pleasing him, supreme allknowing wisdom is attained. How could merit not be made if one
offers to the master of unsurpassed deeds, the highest Vajrasattva?”
Opening the Eyes of Faith
119
The Litany of Names of Mañjuśrī says, “An object for homage, worthy of offerings and praise; continually worthy of veneration, [5a]
worthy of respect and the highest acclaim, worthy of salutation: such
is the highest lama.”83 The Bright Lamp Wisdom Tantra (Ye shes gsal
sgron gyi rgyud) says,
The merit of having recollected the lama is greater
than having meditated for hundred thousand aeons
on the body of a deity with the major and minor marks.
Meditate on the lama, not the deity.
The Great Array of Ati Tantra (A ti bkod pa chen po’i rgyud) says,84
Whoever meditates upon the kind lama,
appearing through the secret mantra,
upon his head, in his heart,
or in the palm of his hands,
such a person holds
the good qualities of a thousand buddhas.
The Ḍākinīs Suppressing with Splendor Tantra (mKha’ ’gro ma zil gyis
gnon pa’i rgyud) says, “The exalted merit of anointing sesame oil on a
single pore of the vajra master is greater than making offerings to as
many buddhas and bodhisattvas as there are grains of sand in the
Ganges.”
In accordance with those statements, the lama is the highest and
most excellent being embodying all those who are praiseworthy.
2. 1. Stories and their Rationale for the Songs’
Liturgical Framework
First, the sovereign lord of all the victors, the great saṃbhogakāya Vajradhara, taught scriptures of the four classes of tantra, the Net of
Magical Manifestation (sGyu ’phrul dra ba, Māyājālamahātantrarājanāma)
and other versified tantras, in song (mgur).
Vajradhara’s emanation, the victor Śākyamuni, taught the twelve
divisions of scripture, such as the sūtras and including the division of
teachings in mixed prose and verse, in song.
83
84
Cf. Davidson 1981, 37, verse 152.
We read a ti sha bkod pa’i rgyud as a mis-citation of the A ti bkod pa chen po. Thanks
to Dan Martin for this suggestion.
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Furthermore, the glorious Saraha, emanation of the victors and
forefather of all the siddhas, sang many songs about the intrinsic reality, such as the Dohā Trilogy (Do ha bskor gsum).
Te lo Shes rab bzang po, who is inseparable from Cakrasaṃvara,
taught the vajra songs that are the root of the aural transmissions. As
their ancillaries he taught in song the eight inconceivable pith instructions to eight named yogins, each in their respective abode,85
inconceivable spontaneous songs to Nāropa on the banks of the Ganges River, and the natural state of dharmatā.86 [5b]
Tilopa’s heart-son, the learned and disciplined supreme being
who attained accomplishment, the glorious Nāro Paṇ chen, taught
about practicing the four empowerments and a summary of the six
dharmas as vajra songs.87
Nāropa’s supreme heart-son, the translator Mar pa Lotsāwa, dispelled the darkness of ignorance in Tibet with the sun and moonlight
of his compassion and knowledge of multiple languages. He then
illuminated and spread the teachings of the Buddha’s essence like the
sun shining on mountain snows. He sang an inconceivable number of
songs including an offering of realization to the lama, a long song in
the drone of a tamboura;88 the song of sparkling dew drops that
clears away the drowsiness of meditative equipoise;89 the iron hook
of mind-awareness that gathers wild and scattered discursive
thoughts;90 the wail of the ḍākinīs91 that clears away sadness and the
long whistling song of the dharma protectors;92 the view like a large
garuḍa stretching out its wings: a grand dohā vajra song (do ha rdo rje
mgur chen) that ascertains the natural state;93 and the song of hardships endured for the sake of dharma that cultivates perseverance in
dharma.94
Furthermore, he sang songs in accordance with the needs in various situations, such as the song of urgent command to his son;95 the
song of the benediction of auspiciousness;96 the song of the father,
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
Cf. Mar pa Chos kyi Blo gros 1995, 46–56.
Cf. Brunnhölzl 2007, 93–117; Tiso and Torricelli 1991.
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mar pa’i rnam thar, 92–94; Nālandā 1986, 95–97.
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mar pa’i rnam thar, 34–36; Nālandā 1986, 34–36.
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mar pa’i rnam thar, 116–18; Nālandā 1986, 123–25.
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mar pa’i rnam thar, 132–34; Nālandā 1986, 142–45.
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mar pa’i rnam thar, 132–34; Nālandā 1986, 142–45.
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mar pa’i rnam thar, 104–6; Nālandā 1986, 108–111.
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mar pa’i rnam thar, 43–46; Nālandā 1986, 43–48.
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mar pa’i rnam thar, 132–34; Nālandā 1986, 142–45.
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mar pa’i rnam thar, 67–69; Nālandā 1986, 68–69.
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mar pa’i rnam thar, 68–69; Nālandā 1986, 69–70.
Opening the Eyes of Faith
121
mother, and son;97 and the song interpreting the signs of the four pillars in the dream.98
[Mi la ras pa] became Mar pa’s principal disciple, renowned
throughout the snowy land of Tibet. He had opened the channels of
the throat enjoyment cakra, so an ocean of vajra songs issued forth.
He had naturally liberated the knots of the central channel, so the
cycle of the dualistic mind was expelled from the start. Because he
examined the inner awareness-mind, all manifest outer appearances
dawned as scripture.99 The example of his intense effort in practicing
meditation day and night without interruption impelled others to
progress on the path. Through his exceptional devotion to the previous lineage masters, he received transmission of the lineage blessings. Having attained mastery over his mind and inner energies, he
clearly displayed various miracles such as soaring in the sky like a
bird. [6a] Like an unbridled white lion, he roamed the expanse of
snow mountains, unbounded and limitless as the sky. The melodious
voice of his experiences, the roaring of the lion of no self, had the
power to suppress all the animals of inferior views. Nowadays, the
name Mi la ras pa is famous throughout world, like the sun and
moon. This superior being sang the following songs.
In the early part of his life he offered his realization to the lama in
the song of the seven branches.100 Then he sang the song of the prophetic dream of the four pillars 101 and the song of going up to
gTsang.102 Missing his father and mother in his homeland, he sang an
inconceivable number of songs, the song of the fervent pledge to
practice, and so forth.103
In the middle part of his life, about his accepting non-human spirits as his followers,104 he sang many songs to the gods, ḍākinīs, and
spirits, such as the cycle on accepting as a follower the king of obstacles, Vināyaka, and the six recollections of the lama;105 the cycle on La
phyi chu bzang;106 the cycle on the demoness of Ling ba brag;107 the
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mar pa’i rnam thar, 154–59; Nālandā 1986, 165–71.
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mar pa’i rnam thar, 172–75; Nālandā 1986, 185–88.
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mi la’i rnam mgur, 3–7; Quintman 2010, 4–8.
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mi la’i rnam mgur, 100–101; Quintman 2010, 88–89.
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mi la’i rnam mgur, 109–10; Quintman 2010, 95–96.
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mi la’i rnam mgur, 125; Quintman 2010, 111.
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mi la’i rnam mgur, 133–35; Quintman 2010, 119–20.
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mi la’i rnam mgur, 196–269; Chang 1989, 1–94.
This is the first of the song cycles in the Mi la’i mgur ’bum. Cf. gTsang smyon
Heruka, Mi la’i rnam mgur, 197–203; Chang 1989, 1–10.
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mi la’i rnam mgur, 203–14; Chang 1989, 11–22.
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mi la’i rnam mgur, 228–42; Chang 1989, 38–57.
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cycle on La se dgon pa; the cycle on the goddess of bSe and the local
spirit of Rag ma;108 the cycles on the king of Gro thang109 and the blue
pigeon;110 the cycle on Yol mo gangs ra;111 and the cycle on the five
sisters of long life.112
As for what he taught in order to accept human disciples as his
followers, he sang songs in the extensive cycles on how he met each
of the male and female adepts who were his heart disciples: his eight
principal heart-sons, his thirteen close-sons, and his four female disciples. Moreover, he sang songs to male and female realized yogins
and to male and female practitioners who had faith and so forth,
which comprise the miscellaneous cycles.
At the end of his life, there are the songs in the cycle of bodily
miracles that heartened all his disciples;113 the cycle on his final advice before passing away; and his final vajra song from within the
cremation chamber: the song summarizing the essential meaning.114
Even more extensive than those were the innumerable songs sung
to gods and ḍākinīs for the sake of establishing beings on the paths of
ripening and liberation. In these cases, he stayed in the individual
abodes of each of the gods and ḍākinīs and [6b] benefited beings.
Having mastered the inner channels, energies, essences, and
samādhi, the heart-son of the Venerable [Mi la ras pa] Ras chung rDo
rje grags pa brought all outer appearances, such as the four elements,
under his control. He then sang many songs, such as the song offering experience and realization to the lama;115 the earlier and later cycles on requesting permission to travel to Central Tibet to fulfill his
wishes,116 the cycle on teaching for the benefit of others: the wearisome hardship and the eight mansions of the view; the cycle on Bya
yul sGo brag; the cycle on Lady lDem bu: how adverse circumstances
become helpful; the cycle on Yar lha sham bu; and songs on how to
interpret omens and dreams.117
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mi la’i rnam mgur, 250; Chang 1989, 58–67.
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mi la’i rnam mgur, 250–54; Chang 1989, 68–73.
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mi la’i rnam mgur, 265–69; Chang 1989, 88–94.
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mi la’i rnam mgur, 254–64; Chang 1989, 74–87.
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mi la’i rnam mgur, 451–521; Chang 1989, 296–361.
This is the final cycle in the mgur ’bum. Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mi la’i rnam
mgur, 802–12; Chang 1989, 662–73.
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mi la’i rnam mgur, 851–52; Quintman 2010, 210–11:
Pur khang nang nas rdo rje glu’i mgur nas byung ba’i rnying po gnad drug gi mgur ’di
gsungs so. Note that the rnam thar has gnad drug instead of gnad dril.
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mi la’i rnam mgur, 389–93, 592–93; Chang 1989, 227–
31, 436–37.
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mi la’i rnam mgur, 731–53; Chang 1989, 584–605.
A portion of the text is illegible here.
Opening the Eyes of Faith
123
Furthermore, [regarding sGam po pa,] who became a genuine
heart-son of bZhad pa rdo rje [i.e., Mi la ras pa], the previous victor
said, “In the north a fully ordained monk named Physician will appear and cause the Mahāyāna to spread and flourish.”118 In accordance with this prophecy, he is famous nowadays in this land of snow
mountains as the physician of Dwags po, who spread the essential
teachings of the Practice Lineage and caused them to flourish. This
great being sang innumerable songs, such as the song of accepting
lay followers sung to patrons and the song of resolving grasper and
grasped, sung to disciples.
His heart-son, the protector of beings, glorious Phag mo gru pa,
sang many songs about view, meditation, conduct, fruition, and practice.
Phag mo gru pa’s heart-son, the siddha gLing chen ras pa, whose
realization is exalted all the way to the Ganges River in India, sang
many songs, such as the former and latter songs of offering and
praise to the [Three] Jewels; the song of praise to lamas and sacred
places; the song of thirteen critiques in response to the behavior of
many beings, many songs on the eight kinds of necessities, and the
cycle on Mig mangs gangs.
The heart-son of the venerable gLing, the protector of beings
gTsang pa rgya ras, sang many songs, such as the song of removing
the obstacles of yoga; the song of examining the experiences of meditation and view; the song of arousing faith in lay disciples; the reason
for singing songs; the reason for not singing songs; the kha dgog po ma;
[7a] a message to the kingdom; and the garuḍa of rTsa ri.
The great austerities of his heart-son, the victor rGod tshang pa,
caused the teachings of the practice lineage to shine like the sun. He
sang innumerable songs, such as the song of voluntary hardships; the
song that matures disciples; and the song expressing knowledge to
disciples.
His heart-son Yang dgon chos kyi rgyal po sang many songs, such
as the song of the spontaneous realization of the view and the song of
the seven branches.
His heart-son, sPyan snga rin ldan sang songs such as the song of
inevitable cause and effect.
His heart-son, the omniscient Zur phug pa, sang songs such as the
song of oral instructions to the disciples.
118
This prophecy is usually attributed to the The Great Compassion White Lotus Sūtra
(sNying rje chen po Padma dkar po’i mdo, Mahākaruṇāpuṇḍarīkasūtra), cited in Mi la
ras pa’s mGur ’bum (gTsang smyon Heruka, Mi la’i rnam mgur, 618; Chang 1989,
463).
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His heart-son, the supreme individual ’Ba’ ra ba rGyal mtshan
dpal bzang po, sang many songs, such as the song of the twelve
analogies and the song of bringing what’s desired.
His heart-son, the Venerable One with the name of Nam mkha’,
sang songs that enhanced the practice and removed obstacles of disciples.
His heart-son, Byang sems bSod nams don grub, sang songs that
encouraged practice.
The heart-son who encompassed the essence of the nectar of
speech of many superior lamas and siddhas such as Byang sems bSod
nams don grub, my father, who brought together the wisdom and
compassion of the buddhas of the three times during this period of
the five degenerations and then acted for the benefit of the teachings
and sentient beings, was called Sha ra ba Sangs rgyas seng ge, an
incomparable emanation, who illuminated the teachings of the Practice Lineage realization. This renowned supreme and holy being sang
songs about how to practice the ground, path, fruition, view, meditation, and conduct.
Moreover, the authentic bKa’ rgyud lamas sang many songs to
tame beings, each in accordance with their specific needs in order to
benefit them.
In the tradition of Ancient Mantra, the one who was born in a lotus and whose life span is equal to the sun and the moon is called
Padmakara, an emanation who openly subdued corrupting and malicious beings, such as [evil minded] seers and bloodthirsty demons.
[7b] By annihilating them, he performed innumerable deeds for the
benefit of the teachings and sentient beings. His amazing deeds are
beyond measure and he also sang innumerable songs, such as I am
greater than the king, and I am nobler to the queen.119
Furthermore, previous siddhas of the oral transmissions (bka’
rgyud),120 such as rDza Ye shes dar po, Ma cig labs kyi sgron ma,
sNang sa ’Od ’bum pa, and Ri bo sgang pa, expressed their experience and realization in songs, which are inconceivable and indescribable.
Some of these are songs that burst forth from the depths of experience and realization, some are songs that arose through the perception of objects, and some were sung in response to supplications
made by disciples.
119
120
Cf. Padma bka’i thang, 369–75; Ellingson 1979, 230.
The term bKa’ rgyud in this context does not refer to the tradition stemming from
Mar pa and Mi la ras pa, but rather to other traditions in which oral transmission
is emphasized.
Opening the Eyes of Faith
125
2.2. An Outline Together with the Verses:
the Songs’ Introduction121
These songs that were sung by siddhas of the past may here be understood in the following way. They are a breeze that dispels the drowsiness and torpor of meditators. They are iron hooks that rein in scattered and agitated minds, bringing forth experience and realization.
They remove obstacles for those who suffer. They enhance well-being
for those who are happy. They are heart-advice that encourages the
faithful to practice dharma. They are the intended meaning of the
victors of the three times. They are lamps that dispel the darkness of
ignorance. They are rivers that purify the latencies of the two obscurations. They are bonfires that consume the firewood of a belief in a
self. They are the ground that generates excellent qualities. They
block the door of saṃsāra and the lower states. They show the path
of liberation and the higher states. They become the glory and protector of all beings.
Concerning these completely pure statements [i.e. the songs],
which are suffused with auspiciousness,122 one should say which siddha lama sung them, where they were sung, and for what purpose.
One should express the individual great qualities of these siddha
lama kings as explained above, and then sing [their songs]. [8a] [For
example,] when singing the songs of venerable Mi la, briefly praise
his greatness as described above. In a more extensive way, one
should recite the entire section from the larger biography, from
“Moreover, here in the snowy land of Tibet, in the beginning, like a
pit of fire...” up to “The one called the Glorious Venerable Mi la
bZhad pa rdo rje, the great Heruka himself, who is as famous as the
sun and moon, has said….”123
[Concerning the second and third points,] one should state the
place where and for what purpose a song was sung. For example,
when singing the Ling ba brag song cycle, explain that the songs
were sung in the cave of the sacred site of Ling ba brag. When describing the purpose for which it was sung, say it was sung for the
sake of establishing on the paths of ripening and liberation the broth121
122
123
The outline heading at this point in the text (dkar chags tshigs bcad dang bcas te
dbyangs kyi ngo sprod [7b]) is different from that found in the text’s opening section (dkar chag ngo sprod dang bcas te dbyangs kyi mtshams sbyar [3a]).
Provisional translation.
The quotations point to the introductory section to The Life of Milarepa wherein
gTsang smyon Heruka provides a brief summary of the yogin’s life. Cf. gTsang
smyon Heruka, Mi la’i rnam mgur, 3–8; Quintman 2010, 4–11.
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er and sister demons of Ling ba’i brag and so forth, all beings subsumed within the six classes of transmigrators, the five paths, or the
four modes of birth. Moreover, one should state it just as it is described in the text, starting from “In order to fulfill the command of
his lama, the venerable Mi la ras pa went to meditate at Ri bo dpal
’bar. Then, having reached Ling ba’i brag….”124
As illustrated by this, what is suitable for [the song about] Ling ba
is appropriate for whatever other songs are sung. Analyze the person, place, and purpose, and then sing.
2.3. Time Markers Together with Sections
Keep the Proper Length
One should judge how many songs to sing in order to benefit beings.
3. Prayers of Auspiciousness and Aspiration for
the Songs’ Conclusion
Lamas and Three Jewels, I offer the songs.
Assembled vīras and ḍākinīs, enjoy the sounds.
Four armed protector Mahākāla, dispel hindering conditions.
Sole mother Remati, protect us like a mother her son.
Noble lady Tshe ring ma, follow us like the body and its
smell.
Fortunate ones gathered here, rejoice.
For those of good auspice gathered from here and there
with devotion:
May there be auspiciousness of lamas and yidams.
May there be auspiciousness of vīras and ḍākinīs.
May there be auspiciousness of dharma protectors and
guardians. [8b]
May there be auspiciousness of thinking to cherish others more than oneself.
May there be auspiciousness of giving up sin and practicing virtue.
May there be auspiciousness of bringing thought and
action in line with dharma.
May unchanging auspiciousness remain firm.
124
Cf. gTsang smyon Heruka, Mi la’i rnam mgur, 228; Chang 1989, 38.
Opening the Eyes of Faith
127
It should be just so. If [such recitations are] too numerous, the king’s
ears will ache. If too few, the minister will not understand. Suitable
and fit, like the temperature of milk, they should be said in a concise
way just like that.
Concerning the sayings of the lamas of the past, lamps of wisdom
that open the eyes faith, for us yogins who practice the two stages of
meditation and belong to the lineage of compassion, they are provisions when wandering in charnel grounds and holy places, necessities when roaming savage lands and mountain retreats, offerings
when meeting lamas, gifts when encountering dharma brothers, offering articles when visiting temples and stūpas, goods when traveling around the countryside, ferry-fees when crossing rivers, offering
gifts for requests to kings, an axe for chipping away [alms from] the
wealthy and a file for scraping away [alms] from the poor. Even
when meeting bandits we reply in song, and on such occasions the
advice should be an exhortation to practice virtue.
Having provided such an aid for faith, if one is a yogin of the three
sacred snow mountains, the outskirts of bustling towns, the middle
reaches of slate and snow mountains, along the foothills of mistshrouded woods, assembly halls where vīras and ḍākinīs gather, the
dwellings of noble sages, [such places are] the central mast of the
great ship of the bKa’ brgyud teachings, the cornerstone of the mansion of the Practice Lineage teaching, a great sacred site where meditation naturally increases.
Yogins coming from such remote places should consider what is
of benefit for this life and the next, and then put effort into accumulating food and provisions for retreat. Or if one naturally gathers [9a]
the accumulations, food offered to the lama becomes a supporting
condition for one’s own nourishment, and so forth. Thus practice in a
broad way. Sing whatever is appropriate to the situation.125
In this way, in order to connect sentient beings to wholesome predispositions and the Mahāyāna dharma, the sayings of previous masters that explain the earlier and later profound methods for encouraging all beings in virtue, whatever was needed and appropriate, are
lamps of wisdom that dispel the mind’s darkness. This preliminary
catalogue proclaiming the dharma that brings about well-being now
125
Provisional translation.’brog ’di zhes bya ba nas byon pa’i rnal ’byor pa rnams la / ’di
phyi’i don la bsams nas sgrub rgyags lam chas kyi tshogs bsog (gsog) yang dag mdzad
’tshol zhes sam / rang bzhin gyi tshogs [9a] bsog (gsog) yin na / zas ’brel ’tsho ba’i ’thun
(mthun) ’gyur sogs / rgya che ba phyag len la ’debs ’tshal lo / zhes pa gang rung dbyangs
len yul dang sbyar te bya’o /.
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and in the future is unstructured experience written down by the
yogin who wanders in charnel grounds, King of Blood Drinkers, in
the middle autumn month of the Water-Female-Pig year (1503). By
the virtue of doing so,
Through the power of spreading the Buddha’s teaching and
causing it to flourish
May all beings, limitless as space, have perfect happiness, and
then
Have an attitude that cherishes others more than oneself,
Abandon sinful action and practice virtue, and thereby
Quickly attain the result of perfect Buddhahood.
Evaṃ
E ma ho.
This catalog of songs, a lamp dispelling darkness,
Was printed by Kun tu bzang mo,
After she thought to benefit the Buddha’s teachings beings.
sTod pa ’phel le of sMan khab wrote it down,
Sangs rgyal grogs mched of Zur tsho carved the blocks,
and Lo paṇ ’Jam dpal chos lha performed the editing.
Through the virtue of having completed this, may all beings,
limitless as space,
Perfect accumulations, purify obscurations, and quickly attain
the three bodies.
manghalaṃ bhavantu shubhaṃ
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Zla ba rgyal mtshan. Sha ra rab ’byams pa’i rnam thar. mKhas grub sha ra
rab ’jam [’byams] pa sangs rgyas seng ge’i rnam thar mthong ba
don ldan ngo mtshar nor bu’i phreng ba thar ’dod yid ’phrog blo
gsal mgul brgyan. Printed by Byams pa phun tshogs. In Rare
Dkar-brgyud-pa Texts from Himachal Pradesh. Edited by Urgyan
Dorje, 451–501. New Delhi. 1976. Written in 1559.
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Appendix 1: Tibetan Text126
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Appendix 2
http://andrewquintman.com/openingeyes/
Appendix 3
http://andrewquintman.com/openingeyes/
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