Theories for research in
Public Administration
G van der Waldt
Research Professor: Public Governance
North-West University
ABSTRACT
Theory underpins social science endeavours by providing the philosophical assumptions on the following aspects: aspects that constitute social reality (ontology); is accepted as valid evidence of that reality (epistemology); the means to
investigate the context (methodology); and the manner in which evidence is gathered (methods). Both positivists and interpretivists generally concur that theory
occupies a central role in scientific inquiry into the social world. In disciplines of
applied social science such as Public Administration, research generally fosters
the transition from theory to practice. In this respect, theory underlies the designs, methods, and findings of the research process.
The purpose of this article was to identify and categorise theories for the analysis
of key domains in Public Administration as a field of study. A further aim entailed contributing to the discourse on scientific rigour of Public Administration
research in general, and postgraduate studies in particular. For these purposes,
desktop research and an extensive literature survey were utilised.
INTRODUCTION
The construction of theories is a major goal of the sciences. Scientific observations
generally are guided by pre-existing theories and only become “scientific” through
continual experimental testing (Tomic 2010:714). Fisher (1978:37) contends that it
is only possible to understand the scientific theories of a given discipline until that
discipline develops a substantial body of knowledge in the form of empirical generalisations and underlying principles. In the absence of well-articulated theories, neither
qualitative nor quantitative research data have real significance. Research findings thus
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have little scientific sense when presented outside the context of a particular theory
or of certain theories in combination. For scholars in Public Administration, it is thus
important to build a constant corpus of knowledge of this emerging and applied discipline within the social sciences. Furthermore, it should be appreciated that there is
multiple theories applicable to analyse phenomena of a particular domain.
Public Administration as an interdiscipline entails the convergence of organisational
theory, social theory, political theory and related studies. In this regard, Pollitt (2010:292)
maintains that Public Administration “suffers from multiple personality disorder”. It focuses in general on the meaning, structures and functions of the public-sector domain
in all its forms. Public Administration is thus characterised by diversity and finds its
origin in various theoretical schools of thought, which Golembiewski (1977) refers to
as a “family of miniparadigms”. From a theoretical perspective, Public Administration
recounts historical foundations for the study of government as well as epistemological
matters associated with public service as a profession and an academic field. Research
in this field is generally complicated by the fact that governance-related phenomena are
complex and require multiple dimensions, approaches, models and theories to analyse
them. As interdiscipline, Public Governance can probably best be described as a multidimensional field of study involving various research traditions and approaches focusing
on governmental, political, economic, technological, legal, social, and cultural systems.
The primary purpose of this article is to pinpoint and categorise relevant theories for
the study of key domains in the field of Public Administration. The secondary purpose is contributing towards improving the scientific rigour of research within Public
Administration in general, and postgraduate studies (i.e. Master’s and doctoral research) in particular. This is done by reflecting on the significance of incorporating
theory into research designs, methods, and findings. Furthermore, the article intends
to underscore the importance of theory development (i.e. grounded theory) to enhance the maturity level of Public Administration’s corpus of knowledge. For these
purposes, desktop research and an extensive literature survey were used. Although
the author fully recognises the paradigmatic developments of Public Administration as
study domain (e.g. postmodernism, managerialism and governance), the term “Public
Administration” is used in this article. It should thus be regarded as an umbrella term
that includes recent trends and developments in the field.
THE CONCEPT OF “THEORY”
The concept of “theory” originates from the Greek theoria, meaning “contemplation”
or “speculation” (Bell and Bryman 2011:34). It is generally a systematic and formalised
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expression of previous observations, and is predictive, logical and testable. In principle, scientific theories typically are tentative, and subject to corrections or inclusion in
a wider theoretical structure (Bell 2005:26). The basic functions of theory are thus to
describe, explain, predict, or control phenomena in a variety of contexts.
Theory generally consists of philosophical assumptions, which can be classified in terms
of the following categories: epistemology (questions of knowledge), ontology (questions of existence), and axiology (questions of values) (Littlejohn and Foss 2005:18).
Epistemological questions deal with the way in which phenomena are explained, whilst
ontological underpinnings of a theory refer to what the researcher believes is real and
considers to exist. Based on a person’s ontology, knowledge is created by constructing
such an individual’s own reality (i.e. constructivism) (Littlejohn and Foss 2005:19).
Over time scholars developed classifications or levels of theories. Below, a brief summary are provided of the respective levels. These levels should be seen as a continuum
ranging from the simplest ones to the more sophisticated, complex levels of theory.
According to Grover and Glazier (1986:233–235), Grinnell (1993:94), and O’Leary
(2013:45), the following levels of theory can be distinguished:
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substantive theory : a set of propositions, which furnish an explanation for an
applied area of inquiry;
formal theory. a set of propositions, which furnish an explanation for a formal or
conceptual area of inquiry, that is, a discipline;
generalisations : typically more data connected than grand theory or paradigms;
grand theory : a set of theories or generalisations that transcend the borders of
disciplines to explain relationships among phenomena;
paradigm : a framework of basic assumptions with which perceptions are evaluated and relationships (and values) are delineated and applied to a discipline or
profession; and
world view : an individual’s accepted knowledge, including values and assumptions, which provide a “filter” for the perception of phenomena.
Popper (1963:246) furthermore draws a distinction between strong, “thick” theories
and weak, “thin” theories. Staats (1991:908) in turn distinguishes “framework” theory
from “interlevel” or “interfield” theory. Framework theory is generally used when the
detailed treatment of knowledge elements is not possible. The aim of framework theory is to develop a set of basic principles and extend them to selected (sampled) problems (phenomena) through the range of the different fields of the mentioned theory’s
purview. Interlevel or interfield theory in turn aims to construct “bridging” theories in
order to connect separated problem areas or fields.
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Theory can be regarded as the philosophical dimension of a phenomenon, while an
approach refers to the concrete methods and techniques applied to reach a certain
objective. The theory of a subject will, therefore, determine which approach a researcher will pursue. Generally, approaches are categorised in terms of three main
groups, namely normatism, empiricism and behaviourism. These groups can be used
as tools to analyse a phenomenon, In the case of Public Administration, twelve approaches generally are applied (Gladden 1966:20; Shafritz and Hyde 1997:3; Mautner
2000:166; Rosenbloom and Kravchuk 2002:5). These approaches are:
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politics/administration dichotomy;
historical;
institutional (bureaucratic);
behavioural systems;
public policy;
business management (managerialism);
comprehensive;
conventional;
political and political economy;
structural functional;
generic administrative; and
legal.
These approaches in turn guide the development of theory in the respective subfields
of the discipline.
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THEORY IN
SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH
The general purpose of science is to expand knowledge through the discovery of
facts. Theory building in this regard can be seen as the main instrument by which
researchers strive to achieve this purpose (Kelly 2010:286). Science is built on existing
knowledge and can be grouped into two broad categories, namely natural and social
sciences (Bryman 2012:4).
Theory, science and research have a complex interrelationship. Both theory and research form part of the scientific method, a process by which knowledge is acquired,
corrected and integrated into a totality of verifiable knowledge. Theories generate
hypotheses that can be proven or disproven by research, the results of which may enhance the theory. The results of research may also call a theory into question, causing
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it to be rejected or revised. According to Mullins (1973:34), Polkinghorne (1983:14),
and Zanetti (1997:147), a theory can be regarded as “scientific” if it is tentative, correctable and dynamic, allowing for changes when new data are discovered, rather
than asserting absolute certainty. Furthermore, the particular theory should be the
most parsimonious explanation of a phenomenon.
An investigation by Wessels (2008) and Cameron (2013) on the scientific rigour of
Public Administration research in South Africa, illustrate that more than two-thirds of
the studies in the review used theory to inform a study. From these, 17.9% of the
theories were applied; 3.6% were tested, and only 9.4% involved building new theory.
These findings underscore the importance of more thorough application, testing and
building of theories to advance knowledge production in the applicable field. This
is critical to take the field forward, build its maturity as a discipline, and ensure its
relevance, not only in practice, but also in terms of scholarly efforts.
Utilising theory in research design and methodology
According to Moore (1991:2), theory is basic to practices of knowledge construction
and knowledge production. Theory generally underpins research designs since it
provides understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. In this regard, theory
functions as a mental model attempting to explain how aspects of social reality work.
A research design, according to Kerlinger (1986:279) and Phillips (in Cooper and
Schindler 1998:130), can be seen as a blue print for the collection, measuring and
analysis of data. According to Mitchell and Cody (1993:173), theory influences research designs, including decisions about possible research and the development of
research questions. Theory furthermore informs methodology and has implications for
the way in which data are analysed and interpreted. Research methodology is based
on the particular design, qualitative, quantitative or mixed method. The nature of a
study can be exploratory (e.g. what is going on?) and descriptive (e.g. why is it going
on?). According to Babbie and Mouton (2001:272), exploratory research is inductive
in nature and aims to achieve a dense description of the phenomenon under enquiry.
Descriptive research aims to describe events or situations and infers that the representation of participants’ realities should be described clearly.
Constructing theoretical frameworks
Sound research depends on applying the most appropriate theory to design theoretical,
conceptual and analytical frameworks in order to study certain phenomena. Different
theories are best suited to the diverse units of analysis, such as groups, behaviour, and
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organisations. The choice of a suitable theory should begin by identifying the problem,
research goal, and units of analysis.
Miles and Huberman (1994:18) describe a theoretical framework as a written or visual
presentation that “explains either graphically, or in narrative form, the main things to
be studied – the key factors, concepts, constructs or variables – and the presumed
relationship among them”. In qualitative research a theoretical framework generally
emerges after a robust literature review was undertaken. This framework then increases
in levels of sophistication as participants’ views and issues are gathered and analysed.
A theoretical framework generally forms the grounding platform from which constructs associated with the phenomenon under investigation can be studied (Littlejohn
and Foss 2005:189). An example of such a meta-theoretical framework is outlined in
Table 1. In this example, the researcher aims to investigate the significance of leadership
Table 1: Example of a theoretical framework
Divine right
Worldview
Postmodern (New) Public Administration
Paradigm
General Systems Theory
Grand theory
Theoretical
domains
Government
Services
Human resources
(Behaviourism)
Subfields within
the theoretical
domains
Government systems and
structures
Service delivery
procedures
Political and
administrative leadership
Concepts
Local government/
municipality
Front-office practices
Supervision, direction,
mentoring, leading,
guidance
• Dual State Theory
• Principal-agent Theory
• State Autonomy
Theory
• Local State Theory
Regulation Theory
• Public Institutional
Theory
• Theories on public
accountability
• Public Good Theory
• Social Contract Theory
• Decision Theory
• Rational Choice
Theory
• Public Value Theory
• Social Exchange
Theory
• Diffusion of
Innovation Theory
• Trait Theory
• Contingency Theory
• Situational
Leadership Theory
• Functional Theory
• Managerial Grid
Theory
• Leader-member
Exchange Theory
• Transformational
Theory
• Behaviour Change
Theory
• Theory of Reasoned
Action
• Social Practice Theory
Theories
Source: Author
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on efficient service delivery in a particular municipality. The theoretical domains are
thus government, services, and human resources, each with its respective theories.
It should be noted that a complete theoretical framework will only emerge after a
thorough literature review. Just as a research problem requires contextualisation and
background information, a theory requires a framework to help understand its application on the topic under investigation.
THE (THEORETICAL) STATUS OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION RESEARCH
As stated previously, the study of Public Administration entails a broad and often interdisciplinary field (cf. Raadschelders 1999:281) of enquiry. This field comprises the
government and governance systems (e.g. regulatory, institutional and administrative),
the particular social system (e.g. human dynamics in society), the political system (e.g.
power dynamics in society), and the economic system (e.g. accumulation, production,
distribution of wealth). Public Administration as a field of study reflects various research traditions and approaches. These background elements denote a philosophical
and theoretical point of departure from which to conduct an inquiry into governancerelated phenomena. As such, it provides a research focus and methodological strategy
that informs the collection and the analysis of data.
Through traces of its classical origins in Western and Eastern cultures, Public
Administration has evolved to cover a broad field of scientific inquiry. As interdiscipline, it borrows heavily from adjacent or reference disciplines (cf. Van der Waldt
2016:213) such as sociology, political sciences, economics, and law. These are approaches and theories that scholars deem useful for the study of phenomena related
to the public sector. Early scholars in various fields made significant contributions
to theory development. These include authors such as Max Weber (On bureaucracy ), Gulick (POSTCORB ), Woodrow Wilson (The study of administration ), Chester
Barnard (Functions of the executive ), Dwight Waldo (The administrative state ), Lyndall
Urvick (Science of Administration Theory ), and Herbert A. Simon (Administrative behaviour). In a postmodern era, more contemporary scholars expanded the corpus of
knowledge to include managerial and broader governance perspectives. These are
scholars such as Bouckert, Bourgon, Frederickson, Hughes, Pollitt, Raadschelders,
and Rutgers.
Both the practice of public administration and the discipline Public Administration are
in a state of flux. This situation is pointed out by eminent scholars such as Greenwood
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and Eggins (1995), Rutgers (1998), and Lynn (2008). Their main argument is that practice is not supported adequately by basic and applied research anymore, mainly due
to outdated theory (cf. Van der Waldt 2016:216). It seems that the applied, practical,
and vocational foci that dominate research endeavours are dealt with at the expense of
theory application and theory building.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
In order to identify relevant theories, a number of bibliographic databases (Science
direct, Taylor and Francis online, Google Scholar and Web of Science) were searched
by using pre-determined keywords. Furthermore, online forums were scrutinised such
as ResearchGate.com and the Postgraduate Forum (www.postgraduateforum.com/) as
well as the data bases of the following international and national associations:
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American Society for Public Administration (www.aspanet.org/);
Asian Association for Public Administration (www.aapa.asia/);
Commonwealth Association for Public Administration and Management (https://
www.capam.org/);
Institute of Public Administration (www.ipaa.org.au/);
International Association of Schools and Institutes of Administration (www.iasia.
iias-iisa.org/);
International Institute of Administrative Sciences (www.iias-iisa.org/iasia);
International Public Policy Association (www.icpublicpolicy.org/);
National Academy of Public Administration (www.napawash.org/);
National Forum for Black Public Administrators (www.nfbpa.org/);
The Global Standard in Public Service Education (www.naspaa.org/students/
resources/ journals.asp);
The Institute of Public Administration of Canada (www.ipac.ca/); and
South African Association of Public Administration and Management (www.
saapam.co.za/).
This search resulted in the identification of a significant number (>350) of potentially
relevant theories. Given the extensive number of theories, only those with a direct
bearing on main Public Administration domains were reviewed further and eventually
included in the table (Table 2). Consideration was given to the disciplinary bias regarding the application of these theories (e.g. public-sector related focus). Subsequently, a
shortlist of theories was drawn up to cover the most important conceptual dimensions
of the field of study.
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Table 2, as main focus and contribution of this article, consist of four elements. Firstly,
it lists the main study domains associated with research in Public Administration. These
domains are identified based on the following material:
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a content analysis of topics of Master’s and doctoral dissertations and theses;
the categories of SAQA-registered unit standards for Public Administration and
Management; and
the most relevant themes of articles published in two prominent journals in South
Africa, namely the Journal of Public Administration and Administratio Publica.
The listed domains are:
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Policy Analysis and Management;
Development Management;
Public Organisational Development and Management;
Managing public service delivery;
Financial Management and Procurement;
Information, Knowledge, Communication and Technology Management;
Public Management Ethics;
Public Administration and Management history, theory and research;
Disaster Studies; and
Inter-government Relations.
For purposes of this article, Disaster management was excluded (mainly due to the
general absence of modules in current PA curricula concerned specifically with disaster management) and was replaced with “Government and governance”. This was
done to include subdomains such as “local government”, “co-operative governance”,
“goodness” results-based perspectives, “systems and structures” of government, and
“global governance”. Secondly, the table lists the potential major subdomains within
the main domains, as provided above. Each of these is referred to as “unit of analysis”
or “focus of study”. Thirdly, the table identifies meta-approaches and key issues that
researchers should consider when conducting research in this subdomain.
Lastly, Table 2 identifies grand and substantive theories which should be analysed for
purposes of scientific inquiry, knowledge constructions, and the design of conceptual
and analytical frameworks in the particular subdomain. In practical terms this implies
that researchers at the various levels, including postgraduate candidates, should utilise these theories (and others not listed here) in their literature survey and theoretical orientation (typically chapters 2 and 3) to explore the constructs associated with
their topic.
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It should be noted that these lists are not mutually exclusive. In other words, metaapproaches and key issues as well as theories listed under “Government and governance” could also be useful in the domains of “Public Administration” and “Public
policy”, and vice versa. Researchers are thus encouraged to perform desktop research
to determine whether other theories listed under different domains (or not listed at
all) may also be useful for their studies in these fields. It should be noted further that
theories related to governance/public administrative issues flow from a wide range of
disciplines within the social sciences. Disciplinary boundaries often simply serve to
demarcate the types and contexts of issues in which scholars are interested and the
methods through which these may be studied.
In this sense, attempting a comprehensive review of theories would not be possible within the scope of this article. Therefore, the author does not claim that this list is complete.
Instead, it should be regarded as work in progress. The idea is that this table could provide valuable guidance to researchers in Public Administration, especially those involved
in postgraduate studies. To assist analyses further, where possible, the originator(s) or
designer(s) of the identified substantive (micro-) theory are included as well.
Table 2: Core theories for Public Administration research
Unit of analysis/ focus
of study
Meta-approach/key issues
Grand and substantive theories
Theme 1: Government and governance
Origins
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•
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•
•
•
Ideal state
Rule of law
Treaties of government
Network governance
Neo-liberal
Corporate governance
Plato, Aristotle, Confucius, Cicero,
Machiavelli Montesquieu, John
Locke, Thomas Hobbes, Jean Jacques
Rousseau.
• Montevideo Convention on Rights and
Duties of States (1933)
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Force Theory
Evolutionary Theory
Divine Right Theory
Social Contract Theory
Conquest Theory
Coercion Theory of State Formation
Polinsky, AM: Public Enforcement Theory
Domhoff, GW: State Autonomy Theory
Jellinek, G (1900): General Theory of
the State
Marxist Theory of the State
Theory of Liberal State
Bremer’s Theory of Foundations of the
Constitutional State
Islamic Government Theory
Constitutive Theory
Declaratory Theory
Moral Government Theory
Unit of analysis/ focus
of study
Goodness of
governance
Global governance
Meta-approach/key issues
Grand and substantive theories
• Outcomes-/results-based; value-formoney
• Basic human rights
• Efficiency & effectiveness
• Economy
• Productivity
• Performance
• State stability
• Law and order
• Social well-being
• Growth
• Merit and spoil systems
• NPM
• Corporate Governance (King I-III etc.)
• Moore, MH: Public Value Theory
• Rothstein, B, Samanni, M & Teorell, J:
Quality of Government Theory
• Theories of Governance
• Samuelson, PA: Public Good Theory
• Korpi (1983); Huber & Stephens (2001):
Power Resource Theory (PRT)
• Grotius, H: Moral Government Theory
• Grunig, J: Excellence Theory
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
• Von Bertalanffy, L (1968): General
Systems Theory
• Wallerstein (1976): World Systems
Theory
• Prebisch (1960): Path-dependency
Theory
• Max Weber: Iron Cage Theory
• World Government Theory
• Game Theory
• International Political Theory
• Complexity Theory
• International Relations Theory
• Davis, G (1950): Theory of International
Integration
• One World Government Theory
(Conspiracy Theory)
Systems thinking
Strong/weak states
Imperialism
Core/periphery
Bretton-Wood institutions
United Nations
Washington Consensus
Treaty of Westphalia
System of government/
state structures
• Osborne & Geabler (1992): Reinventing
government
• Corporatisation
• Network Government
• Whole-of-government
• Third-party government
• Collaboration
• Comparative analyses
• Von Bertalanffy, L (1968): General
Systems Theory
• Wallerstein (1976): World Systems
Theory
• Bureaucratic Politics Theory
• Theory of Bureaucracy
• Big Government Theory
• Citizen-over-state theories of
government size and growth
• Mooney, Knox & Schacht (2007):
Functionalist Theory
• Callon, M; Latour, B: Actor Network
Theory
Co-operative
Governance and
Intergovernmental
Relations
• Systems of Government
• Statehood
• Constitutional dispensation
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•
•
•
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•
Political Systems Theory
Principal-Agency Theory
Social Exchange Theory
Saunders (1982): Dual State Theory
Public Institutional Theory
Organisation Theory
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Unit of analysis/ focus
of study
Local Government
Meta-approach/key issues
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•
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•
•
Constitutional obligations
Statutory and regulatory framework
Functions
Role-players and stakeholders
Developmental mandate
Provincial oversight
Grants
Grand and substantive theories
• Saunders (1982): Dual State Theory
• Ross, S & Mitnick, B: Principal-agent
Theory
• Domhoff, GW: State Autonomy Theory
• Goodwin, M: Regulation Theory
• Duncan & Goodwin (1982): Theories of
local planning and spatial development
• Cockburn (1977): Local State Theory
Theme 2: Public Administration and Management
Paradigmatic
perspectives (classical to
postmodern)
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• Three main branches of theory: Classical
Public Administration, New Public
Management Theory, and Postmodern
Public Administration Theory
• Approaches: i.e. administration/politics
dichotomy
• OECD: Modernising government
• Minnebrooks Conferences
• (also see Government – origin)
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• Theories of Luther Gulick: general
principles of administration
• Theories of Mary Parker Follett
• Theories of Henry Fayol
• Theories of Chester Barnard
• Theories of Herbert A Simon:
Administrative Behaviour Theory
• Theories of Dwight Waldo
• Theories of Woodrow Wilson:
Administration/politics dichotomy
• Theories of Max Weber: Bureaucratic
Theory
• Theories of Frederick W Taylor: Scientific
management
• Theories of Lyndall Urvick: Science of
Administration Theory
• Theories of Rensis Likert: 4 Systems of
Management
• Theories of Chris Argyris: Fusion process
theory of management
• Mayo & Roethlisberger (1927): Human
Relations Theory of Public Administration
• Theories of political control of
bureaucracy
• Theories of bureaucratic politics
• Public Institutional Theory
• Raadschelders: Public Administration as
interdisciplinary study
• Frederickson, HG: New Public
Administration Theory
• Bouckert, G & Pollitt, C: Public
Management Reform Theory
• Hughes; Peters & Guy: Public
Management Theory
Unit of analysis/ focus
of study
Public Administration
Teaching & Learning
Research (knowledge
construction and
production, and theory
development)
Public Management
• Functions
• Applications
• Skills
• Techniques and Tools
Meta-approach/key issues
Grand and substantive theories
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Piagetian: Learning Theory
Bruner: Constructivism
Watson, JB: Behaviourism
Vroom (1964): Expectancy Theory
Classical Gestalt Theory
Tolman: Sign Learning Theory
Active Learning Theory
Kirkpatrick: Learning and Training
Evaluation Theory (Four-level)
Bandura: Social Learning Theory
Argyris, C: Double-Loop Learning
Deep Profound and Surface Learning
Theory
Learning as Transformation Theory
Cognitivist Theory
Feedback and Reinforcement Theory
Staff Development Theory
Adult Learning Theory
Continuum Theory
Epistemology
Ontology
Phenomenology
Theism
Interpretivism
Constructivism
Paradigms
Grand, interlevel and interfield theories
Scientific principles
Positivism (logic)
Empiricism
Reductionism
Induction & deduction
Logic (argumentation)
Disciplines
Multi-, inter- and transdisciplinarity
A-priori knowledge
Hermeneutics
Qualitative, quantitative, mixed method
research
• Approaches i.e. historical, legal,
institutional, behavioural systems,
political, structural functional,
public policy, political economy, and
managerial approaches
•
•
•
•
•
Grounded Theory
Critical Theory
Feminist Theory
Social Sciences Theory
Interpretive Theory
•
•
•
•
•
•
• Taylor, F; Gilbreth, F: Scientific
Management Theory
• Gulick, L & Urwick, L (1937): Principles of
management
• Koontz, H & O’Donnell, C (1964):
Principles of management
• Drucker, P (1954): Management Practice
Theory
• Theories of Public Management
• Classical to modern management
approaches and theories
• Curriculum design
• Qualification and educational
programmes
• Skills development
• SAQA & NQF
• Vocational/practice dichotomy
• Blended/mix-mode teaching
• Teaching technology
• Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Skills
• Multi-, inter- and transdisciplinarity
• Approaches: pedagogy, didactic,
androgogy, experiential, directive,
supportive, facilitating
• Connectivism (digital learning)
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Managerialism
Business-like
Market-based
Network
Rationalisation
Reform
•
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•
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Unit of analysis/ focus
of study
Meta-approach/key issues
Grand and substantive theories
Theme 3: Public organisations
Classical Organisation Theory:
• Taylor (1916): Principles of scientific
management
• Gullick (1937): Papers on the science of
administration
• Gullick & Urwick (1937): Theory of
departmentalisation
• Weber (1946): Bureaucracy
• Simon (1946): Proverbs of administration
• Fayol (1949): General principles of
management
Neoclassical Organisation Theory:
• Merton (1957): Social theory and social
structure
• March, J G & Simon, H A (1958):
Organisations
• Barnard (1966): The functions of the
executive
• Katz, D & Kahn, R L (1966); Hirokawa, R
Y (1979): Organisation Communication
Theory
• Organisational
development
• Management
• Structure and design
• Bureaucracy
• Hierarchy
•
•
•
•
•
Structural-functionalism
Mechanistic and organic systems
Cybernetics
Learning organisation
Departmentalisation
Modern Structural Organisation
Theory:
• Burns & Stalker (1961): The management
of innovation
• Blau & Scott (1962): Formal
organisations
• Walker and Lorch (1968): Organisational
choice: Product versus function
• Mintzberg (1979): The Structure of
organisations
• Jaques (1990): In praise of hierarchy
• Adaptive Structuration Theory
• Cooley, Mead and Goffman:
Organisation culture, climate
General:
• Principal-agent Theory
• Theory of bureaucracy
• Public Institutional Theory
• Contingency Theory
• Public Institutional Theory
• Mechanistic and Organic Systems Theory
• Albert, S A & Whetten, D A; Cheney
and Christensen: Organisational Identity
Theory
• Cox, T & Blake, S: Theory of
prejudice, discrimination, stereotypes,
ethnocentrism
• Grunig, J: Excellence Theory
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Unit of analysis/ focus
of study
Meta-approach/key issues
Grand and substantive theories
Theme 4: Human Resource Management
• Motivation
• Skills and
competencies
• Supervision
• Team building
• Recruitment,
selection, induction,
and placement
• Grievance and
discipline
• Career development
• Performance
appraisals
• Remuneration and
compensation
• Talent management
• Training and
development
• Labour relations,
collective bargaining,
and conflict
resolution
• Equal employment
opportunities
Public leadership
• Behaviouralism
• Industrial Revolution: “worker-asmachine” metaphor
• Organisational culture
• Organisational climate
• Human motivation
• Team dynamics
• Group conflict
• Personnel and staff
• Line and support functions
• Human resources
• Strategic human resource management
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Personality
Political leadership
Administrative leadership
Leadership approaches and skills
Organisational culture
Group dynamics
Societal values, norms and traditions
• Maslow (1943): Hierarchy of needs:
Motivation Theory
• Elton Mayo, Kurt Lewin, Raymond Miles:
Human Relations Theory
• Herzberg: Motivation-hygiene Theory
• Douglas McGregor: Theory X and Y
• Skinner: Behaviourism
• Vroom (1964): Expectancy Theory
• Rensis Likert: Participative Decisionmaking Theory
• Hargreaves, A & Dawe, R: Path of
Professional Development Theory
• John Baird (1977); BW Tuchman’s Model
of Groups Theory
• Cohen and Bailey (1997); Drexler, A,
Sibbet, D and Forrester, R (2009): Team
Performance Theory
• Jablin, FM (2001); Kramer MW (2010):
Anticipatory Socialization Theory
• Saks, AM and Gruman, JA (2012):
Socialization Resources Theory
• Adams, J S: Equity Theory
• Jablin F M (2001): Disengagement
Theory
• Janis, L (1983): Groupthink Theory
• Berko, R, Wolvin, A & Wolvin, D (2012):
Team Conflict Theory
• Wanous J P (1980): Self-Selection Theory
• McGuire, W J (1961): Inoculation Theory
• Phillips, J M (1998): Realistic Job Preview
Theory
• Jablin, F M (1984); Klein, H J & Polin, B
(2012): Assimilating Theory
• Contingency Theory
• Zaleznik, A (1977): Trait Theory
• Fiedler, F: Contingency Theory
• Hersey, P & Blanchard, K: Situational
Leadership Theory
• Chester Barnard: Functional Theory
• Blake, R & Mouton, J: Managerial Grid
Theory
• Graen, G: Leader-member Exchange
Theory
• Burn, J M: Transformational Theory
Theme 5: Public service delivery
Systems,
procedures
•
•
•
•
•
•
NPM
Customer
Outsourcing
PPPs
Commercialisation
Privatisation
• Samuelson, P A: Public Good Theory
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of human needs:
Motivation Theory
• Social Equity Theory
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Unit of analysis/ focus
of study
Meta-approach/key issues
Processes
improvement
• Alternative service delivery
• Programme evaluation
Principles
• Normative, public sector values
• Professional and ethical standards
• Good governance
• Administrative fairness and
reasonableness
• Service liability
• Responsiveness and accountability
• Transparency and openness
• Batho Pele principles
Grand and substantive theories
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Public Institutional Theory
Theories on public accountability
Behaviour Change Theory
Theory of Reasoned Action
Social Practice Theory
Diffusion of Innovation Theory
Continuum Theory
Ajzen (1985): Theory of Planned
Behaviour
• Reckwitz (2002): Social Practice Theory
• Ryan & Gross (1943): Diffusion of
Innovation Theory
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Samuelson, P A: Public Good Theory
Social Contract Theory
Decision Theory
Homans (1961): Rational Choice Theory
Public Value Theory
Public Choice Theory
Social Exchange Theory
•
•
•
•
•
•
Nicomachean ethics (classic)
Samuelson, P A: Public Good Theory
Social Contract Theory
Moral Government Theory
Sidgwick, H: Meta-ethical Theory
Munroe et al. (2007): Theory of Planned
Behaviour
Theme 6: Public ethics
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Corruption
Maladministration
Nepotism
Public sector values
Public ethos
Professionalism
Conduct
•
•
•
•
Normative, public sector values
Professional and ethical standards
Good governance
Administrative fairness and
reasonableness
• Service liability
• Responsiveness and accountability
• Transparency
Theme 7: Technology in Public Administration
• Information and
communication
technology
• e-Governance
• e-Democracy
• e-Decision-making
• Big Data
• Knowledge
Management
• Management
information systems
• Digital-era governance
• Early-adopters
•
•
•
•
•
Diffusion of Innovation Theory
Critical Mass theory
Knowledge Gap Theory
Muted Group Theory
Ryan & Gross (1943): Diffusion of
Innovation Theory
• Callon, M, Latour, B: Actor Network
Theory
Theme 8: Development Management
Social transformation/
change
198
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Capitalism
Socialism
Marxism
Max Weber: Protestant Ethic
Liberalism
Bretton-Wood Institutions
UNDP
Sustainable Development Goals
African Journal of Public Affairs
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Chaos, Complexity & Non-linear Theory
Game Theory
Stewardship Theory
Growth and Catch-up Theories
Underdevelopment Theory
Modernisation
Human development
Unit of analysis/ focus
of study
Meta-approach/key issues
Grand and substantive theories
Developmental state/
developmental local
government
• City resilience
• Adaptation
• Urbanisation
• Stewardship Theory
Ecological/environmental (protection)
• Sustainable Development Goals
• International treaties, protocols and
conventions
• Climate change
• Ecological approach
• Entropy
• Green Economics
• Stewardship Theory
• Environmental Theories
•
•
•
•
•
•
• Lippmann (1922): Public Opinion
Theory
• McCombs & Shaw (1986): AgendaSetting Theory
• Mass-elite Theory
• Tankard et al. (1991): Framing and
Priming Theory
• Social Contract Theory
• Contingency Theory
• Public Value Theory
• Public Choice Theory
• Rational Choice Theory
• Whitney & Becker (1982): Gate-keeping
Theory
• Public Good Theory
• Democratic Theory
• Jowett, Jowett & O’Donnell (2012):
Propaganda Theory
• Public Persuasion Theory
• Political Systems Theory
• Game Theory
• Social Exchange Theory
• Dependency Theory
• Dialogic Communication Theory
• Knowledge Gap Theory
• Group Theory
• Social Interaction Theory
• Muted Group Theory
• Spiral of Silence Theory
• Expectancy Value Theory
• Social Penetration Theory
• Political Systems Theory
• Principal-Agency theory
• Organisation Theory
Theme 9: Public policy
•
•
•
•
Design
Implementation
Analysis
Statutory &
regulatory
framework
Administrative law
Constitutional dispensation
Public good
Well-being
Societal values and norms
Political dynamics
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Unit of analysis/ focus
of study
• Local democracy/
Public participation
in policy-making
• Constitutional and
statutory obligations
• Ward Committee
System
Meta-approach/key issues
• Principles of good governance
• Transparency
• Democratic dialogue
Grand and substantive theories
• Herodotus: Classical Democratic Theory
• Pateman, C; Mosca; Michaels; Dahl, R:
Modern Democratic Theory
• Davies; Elazar, D: Participatory
Democratic Theory
• Follet; Dewey: Social Reform Theory
• Lippman; Schumpeter; Mill, JS:
Citizenship and Public Service Theory
• Gate-keeping Theory
• Agenda Setting Theory
• Social Exchange Theory
• Media Richness Theory
• Medium Theory
• Dependency Theory
• Argumentation Theory
• Expectancy Value Theory
• Social Penetration Theory
• Dialogic Communication Theory
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory
• Priming and Framing
• Hypodermic Needle Theory
• Cultivation Theory
Theme 10: Financial Management and Supply Chain Management
•
•
•
•
•
Procurement
Budgeting
Allocation
Distribution
Revenue generation
and collection
• Auditing and
accounting
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Keynesian economics
Smith: Wealth of nations
Weber: Protestant ethic
Karl Marx: Das Capital/ Communist
Manifesto
Wildavsky: Budgeting as political
instrument
Welfare versus prosperity/marketdriven economic approaches
Fiscal and monetary policy approaches
Stabilisation
Economic growth/wealth creation
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Public Value Theory
Stewardship Theory
Public Choice Theory
Economic Theory
Theories on public accountability
Decision Theory
Agent Theory
Rational Choice Theory
Human Capital Theory
Contingency Theory
Scientific Management Theory
CONCLUSION
Science is by definition cumulative, involving periods of paradigm shifts that occur
when current theories fail to explain certain phenomena. In applied social sciences
the application of existing theories to address a problem should generate new knowledge as a form of theory-testing research. Research projects should thus test existing
theories, and build new or improved theories. Endeavours of Public Administration
research such as postgraduate studies, should develop, test, and advance theory. As
such, it should have well-articulated and sound theoretical foundations.
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African Journal of Public Affairs
It was the basic premise of this article that the research community in public sector settings are in dire need of more scientific rigor in the developing of theory. In this respect,
the main contribution of the article is a detailed list of meta-approaches as well as grand
and substantive theories to guide scholarly analyses of public sector-related study domains. Postgraduate studies should start off with robust literature surveys on these potential theories, and continue to construct sound theoretical frameworks. Such frameworks
in turn should inform research design and methodological decisions. It is recommended
strongly that more basic research should be focused on to foster the scientific rigour of
research practices and to build the corpus of knowledge for the discipline.
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