Animal, page 1 of 8 © The Animal Consortium 2019. This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
doi:10.1017/S1751731119000466
animal
Lameness and its relationship with health and production
measures in broiler chickens
E. G. Granquist1†, G. Vasdal2, I. C. de Jong3 and R. O. Moe1
1
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ullevålsveien 72, 0454 Oslo, Norway; 2Norwegian Meat and Poultry Research Centre,
Lørenveien 38, 0515 Oslo, Norway; 3Wageningen Livestock Research, Wageningen University & Research, PO Box 338, 6700 AH, Wageningen, The Netherlands
(Received 11 September 2018; Accepted 14 February 2019)
The aim of this study was to explore lameness and the associations between lameness and health/production measures of animal
welfare in commercial broiler production, using the Welfare Quality® protocol for broilers. A total of 50 flocks were included in the
sample and farm visits were conducted for lameness scoring at a mean age of 28.9 days. The percentage of animals (n = 7500) in
the six different gait score (GS) categories were GS0: 2.53%, GS1: 44.19%, GS2: 33.84%, GS3: 16.32%, GS4: 2.36% and GS5:
0.53%. Production and other welfare data were collected for each flock after slaughter. Higher gait scores were associated with
increased hock burn score ( P < 0.02), increased footpad dermatitis score ( P < 0.01), reduced bird cleanliness score ( P < 0.01) and
peat litter ( P < 0.01). Although not statistically significant, there was a tendency for increased flock gait score being associated
with wet litter ( P = 0.07). In addition, condemnations at postmortem inspection were associated with increasing gait scores
( P < 0.05), indicating that at least a portion of the lameness cases display pathological changes on the carcasses. In conclusion,
19%of the birds showed moderate-to-severe lameness, which was associated with several production or health and welfare
observations including feather cleanliness and condemnations as unfit for human consumption at slaughter. Although stocking
density and growth rate are already known key factors for lameness, associations of lameness with hock burns, footpad dermatitis
and cleanliness of the birds suggest that a suboptimal physical environment (e.g. litter- and air quality) may be detrimental to leg
health. Further studies are needed to explore these associations in more detail.
Keywords: poultry, dermatitis, condemnation, gait, welfare
Implications
Lameness in broiler chickens is a primary welfare concern as
it is considered painful. Reduced growth and culling of lame
birds also affects farm profitability. Footpad dermatitis may
cause lameness and has been used as an indicator of welfare
in chickens. Identifying risk factors associated with lameness
(such as pathological conditions associated with condemnation at postmortem inspection) may provide important
tools for flock welfare assessment.
Introduction
There has been a perpetual concern for the welfare of
chickens in modern broiler production, especially regarding
lameness (Julian, 1998; EFSA, 2012; Kapell et al., 2012).
Although high growth rate is identified as a key factor for
lameness (Julian, 1998; Kapell et al., 2012), factors such as
stocking density, diseases, nutritional deficiencies, air
†
E-mail: erikgeorg.granquist@nmbu.no
quality, light, circadian rhythms, age, BW, genetics and
management practices are also known to be associated
(Julian, 1998; Sørensen et al., 2000; Williams et al., 2000;
Bradshaw et al., 2002; Bessei, 2006; Knowles et al., 2008).
Lameness in broilers is usually assessed by examining the
gait of individual birds using, for example, the Bristol gait
scoring system, which scores from 0 (normal) to 5 (unable to
walk) (Kestin et al., 1992). Several studies found that 14% to
50% of broilers suffer from lameness as reflected by gait
scores 3, 4 or 5 (Kestin et al., 1992; Sanotra et al., 2003;
Knowles et al., 2008; de Jong et al., 2011; Bassler et al.,
2013; Kittelsen et al., 2017). Lameness is associated with
pain (McGeown et al., 1999), therefore representing an
important welfare concern. Indeed, studies have shown that
lame birds (gait score ⩾ 3) prefer food with analgesic, and
that lame broilers increase their activity when given
analgesics (McGeown et al., 1999; Danbury et al., 2000;
Caplen et al., 2013; Hothersall et al., 2016). Furthermore,
lame birds may have more difficulties reaching resources in
the house such as food and water (Weeks et al., 2000; Butterworth et al., 2002; Sanotra et al., 2002). Lameness is also
1
Granquist, Vasdal, de Jong and Moe
related to difficulties in escaping aversive encounters, and in
performing behaviour such as dust bathing (Vestergaard and
Sanotra, 1999), foraging, walking and preening (Weeks
et al., 2000), thereby further compromising their welfare.
Lameness has been shown to negatively affect the final
slaughter weight (Gocsik et al., 2014) and increased lameness has also been associated with a higher mortality in
flocks (Wideman et al., 2012), thus also having a negative
impact on the farmer’s economy. Previous studies suggest
that infectious leg disorders such as bacterial chondronecrosis and osteomyelitis may be important underlying
causes for lameness (Bradshaw et al., 2002; Kittelsen et al.,
2015), and a recent study found that impaired gait in broilers
close to slaughter age was associated with increased 1st
week mortality (Kittelsen et al., 2017). This association
between 1st week mortality and later lameness indicates that
early infections in the day-old chick may be implicated and
such infections may eventually cause lameness. First week
mortality can, however, also have non-infectious causes such
as dehydration and starvation. It is unclear whether potential
persistent infections are associated with other flock-based
welfare issues, or related to health and production.
The aim of this study was to investigate associations
between lameness and commonly used health- and
production-related measures of animal welfare in broiler
flocks. We hypothesized that there is a relationship
between lameness and the general health status of the
broiler chicken flocks, which may influence production
measures.
Material and methods
Study design
In total, 50 commercial broiler chicken farms were selected
from the list of about 150 broiler producers delivering
chickens (hybrid: Ross 308, mixed sex) to a slaughter plant,
located in the southeast of Norway (Nortura Hærland). The
producers were contacted by phone a few weeks before the
visit. Participation in the study was voluntary. All enrolled
farms were visited during January to March 2015. Each flock
was assessed according to the Welfare Quality® (2009)
protocol for broilers. The flock sizes in the observed flocks
ranged from 3900 to 28 900 birds, and the stocking density
ranged from 15 to 33 kg/m2. Table 1 displays some flock
characteristics of the sampled flocks. Each flock was examined on the farm by the same observer between 28 and
30 days of age (average age of slaughter in Norway is
31 days). The individual farms received their day-old chickens
from one of three different hatcheries out of which one
served 44 of the 50 flocks. Data from the meat inspection
and production data were collected from the abattoir for
each flock, shortly after processing. Meat inspection was
performed in accordance with EU regulation (Comission
Regulation (EC) No. 854/2004, 2004). The sub-categories of
condemnations at meat inspection were as follows:
omphalitis, circulatory disorders, liver lesions, ascites,
abnormal growth, wounds and abnormal colour and odour.
In addition, data on condemnations due to technical injuries
or faecal contamination were collected, but not used in the
further data analyses. The categories of condemnation are
Table 1 Descriptive broiler flock data
Measure (continuous)
N
Mean
SD
Min
Max
Broilers in flock (n)
Age parent flock (weeks)
Age at visit (day)
Live weight at visit (g)
Live weight at slaughter (g)
Daily weight gain (g)a
FCR (kg weight/kg feed)
Footpad dermatitis score (0 to 200)
Hock burn score (0 to 200)
Cleanliness score (0 to 300)
Flock litter quality scores (0 to 5)b
Birds per drinker (n)
Total mortality (%)
Culled (% of total mortality)
Stocking density (animals/m2)
Stocking density (kg/m2)
Flock weight uniformity (CV)
50
48
50
50
49
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
35
50
50
50
17 391.06
37.35
28.90
1587.54
1861.43
40.18a
2.16
15.54
5.78
97.54
2.23
16.74
2.20
25.15
17.42
27.33
0.14
6080.25
6.29
1.80
231.75
197.43
2.76
0.08
22.38
11.77
15.50
1.04
5.45
0.83
11.89
2.55
3.83
0.04
3900
27
27
1075
1631
35.10
2.02
0
0
6
1
6.69
1.14
8.33
9.14
15.54
0.11
28 950
51
34
2500
2513
48.23
2.41
111
53
115
4.8
33
5.39
55.55
20.55
33.19
0.26
Measure (ordinal)
N
Median
Interquartile range
Min
Max
7500
281
50
2
2
2
1 to 2
1 to 3
2 to 3
0
0
1
5
5
4
Individual gait score (0 to 5)
Litter quality measurements (0 to 5)
Level of dust (0 to 4)
FCR = feed conversion rate; CV = CV (%/100).
Daily weight gain calculated at slaughter.
b
Mean of several measurements in each house.
a
2
Lameness in broiler chickens
only crude indications of pathological conditions and do not
involve necropsy examination performed by pathologist.
Farm visits
For detailed description of welfare assessments, we refer to
the Welfare Quality® (2009) broiler assessment protocol.
Before the start of the study, the observer received training
by experienced persons in the theory and practise of the
protocol. Each farm visit was completed within 3 to 4 h.
During every farm visit, the observer used a new dark-blue
overall with a hood and plastic boots. Data from the farm
visits were recorded on the site, using specialized software
on a personal digital assistant (PDA). (Software designed by
H. van den Heuvel, Wageningen University and Research,
Wageningen Livestock Research.)
The assessment started with an initial consultation with
the farmer, where information such as number of animals
originally placed, hatchery, age of parent flock, house
dimensions, litter type, feed type, mortality and number of
culled animals was recorded. Then, the assessments
continued according to the Welfare Quality® protocol for
broilers. Results on the touch test are reported elsewhere
(Vasdal et al., 2018) and will not be discussed here.
To assess lameness in the flock, 150 birds from at least five
different and arbitrary locations in the house were gait
scored as follows: at each location, around 30 birds were
carefully fenced in, using a mobile cardboard catching pen
that was placed around a group of animals with minimal
disturbance. The five locations were selected to avoid repeated assessments. Each bird was individually encouraged to
walk out of the pen and then scored. Gait scores were classified according to these criteria: (0) Normal, dexterous and
agile. (1) Slight abnormality, but difficult to define. (2) Definite and identifiable abnormality. (3) Obvious abnormality,
affects ability to move. (4) Severe abnormality, only takes a
few steps. (5) Incapable of walking (Kestin et al., 1992).
After the gait scoring was completed, a total of other 100
birds in five different locations were scored for plumage
cleanliness (scored from 0 (clean) to 3 (feathers very dirty)),
footpad dermatitis (scored from 0 (no footpad lesion) to 4
(severe lesion, large area injured)) and hock burns (scored
from 0 (no hock burn) to 4 (severe, dark coloured lesion of
considerable size)). In addition, several resource-based
measures such as litter quality (scored from 0 (completely
dry) to 4 (stick to boot once the crust is broken)) at minimum
four and maximum six different locations in the house, level
of dust (scored from 0 (no dust) to 4 (thick layer of dust)),
drinker types and drinker space (birds per drinker) were
recorded. According to the Welfare Quality® (2009) broiler
assessment protocol, mean dust- and litter scores for each
broiler house were used in the analyses.
Calculation of scores
Gait score for each flock was calculated by multiplying all
animals with score 0 with 0, all animals with score 1 with
1 and so on for 150 scored animals in each flock:
∑ = ((n0 × 0) + (n1 × 1) + (n2 × 2) + (n3 × 3) + (n4 × 4) +
(n5 × 5)). The total flock gait score could theoretically range
from 0 (all 150 animals receive score 0) to 750 (all 150
animals receive score 5). Thus, an increased flock gait score
indicates increased lameness, but a few severely lame birds
in a flock could give a similar score as a flock with many, but
only moderately lame birds.
Footpad dermatitis and hock burn scores were calculated
by multiplying all animals with score 0 with 0, all animals
with scores 1 and 2 with 1, and animals with scores 3 and 4
with 2: Ʃ = (n0 × 0) + ((n1 + n2) ×1) + ((n3 + n4) ×2). The
total flock score could theoretically range from 0 (all 100
animals receive score 0) to 200 (all 100 animals receive
scores of 3 and 4), which is the same procedure commonly
used at the slaughterhouses. Cleanliness score was calculated by multiplying all animals with score 0 with 0, all animals with score 1 with 1 and so on for all 100 animals:
Ʃ = ((n0 × 0) + (n1 × 1) + (n2 × 2) + (n3 × 3)). The total flock
cleanliness score could theoretically range from 0 (all 100
animals receive score 0) to 300 (all 100 animals receive
score 3). Thus, an increased cleanliness score indicates
soiled birds.
Statistical methods
The data were collected on a handheld computer at the farm
and transferred to an Excel (2013) spreadsheet and further to
Stata SE 14 (Stata Corp LP, TX, USA). Inspection of the variables were performed in Stata using graphical tools (box
plots, histograms and scatter diagrams), tabulations, calculations of means, medians, interquartile ranges, standard
errors and 95% confidence intervals. Gait score was the
outcome of the analyses and was considered normally distributed after log10 transformation. Univariable linear
regression was used to study the effects of independent
variables on the flock level gait score. Independent variables
that obtained a P-value of <0.2 in univariable association
with the dependent variable, were included in a multivariable regression model. The final model was obtained by
backward exclusion until all independent variables obtained
a P-value of <0.05 in the model. The multivariable regression
model used the transformed (log10) variable of gait scores
and the output of the model displays the logarithmic association. Residuals of univariable and multivariable regressions were inspected for normality by normal quantile plots.
The final model was derived, based on information criteria
analyses and likelihood ratio tests for every inclusion or
exclusion of predictors in the model. No collinearity or
interactions were revealed by the analyses.
Results
Descriptive flock data
Table 1 shows descriptive data of the study population and
comprise of flock characteristics, production data, health
parameters and production environmental data.
Table 2 shows the frequency of causes for condemnations
at the postmortem inspection. These results were used as an
3
Granquist, Vasdal, de Jong and Moe
Table 2 The mean total condemnation in the broiler flocks and the proportions (P) of causes of condemnation as unfit for human consumption
Measure
Total condemnation (%)
N
Mean
Median
Min
Max
SD
50
0.89
0.82
0.36
2.61
0.45
a
N
P
Median
Min
Max
SD
Abnormal colour or odour (%)
Omphalitis (%)
Circulatory disorders (%)
Liver lesions (%)
Ascites (%)
Abnormal growth (%)
Wounds (%)
Other (%)
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
0.03
0.03
0.44
0.05
0.26
0.09
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.36
0.02
0.20
0.05
0.03
–
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
–
0.18
0.27
2.97
1.10
1.65
1.76
1.10
–
0.03
0.04
0.44
0.15
0.27
0.25
0.17
–
Subcategories
a
Data obtained from the Norwegian Food Authority.
Table 3 Distribution of broilers (n = 7500) within the different gait scoring categories
A: Distribution of gait scores in the total sample
Proportion
0 – normal, dexterous and agile
1 – slight abnormality, but difficult to define
2 – definite and identifiable abnormality
3 – obvious abnormality, affects ability to move
4 – severe abnormality, only takes a few steps
5 – incapable of walking
B: Mean individual and flock level scores in sample
SD
Min
Max
0.03
0.44
0.34
0.16
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.18
0.12
0.08
0.03
0.01
0
0
0.18
0.03
0
0
0.10
0.67
0.62
0.50
0.11
0.06
Mean score
SD
Min
Max
259.40
52.03
186
439
0 to 750 – total gait score on flock level
indication of the health status of the study population. The
most common causes of condemnation as unfit for human
consumption were circulatory disorders and ascites.
Lameness
Table 3a shows the distribution of gait scores in the study
population. The mean age at scoring was 28.9 days. Three
per cent% of the study sample had a normal gait (score 1),
whereas 19% had a score at 3 or above, representing an
obvious abnormality, severe abnormality or incapability of
walking. Birds with moderate-to-severe lameness (i.e. gait
score ⩾ 3) were found in all flocks; however, the prevalence
of such birds varied substantially between flocks. Table 1
shows the median gait score from individual gait scoring and
Table 3b shows the mean gait scores in the study sample.
The flock level gait score ranged from 186 to 439, with an
average of 259.4 ± 52.02 (Table 3b). Figure 1 shows the
grading of individual birds and allocation to each gait score
category (0 to 5).
Table 4 shows the univariable associations between flocklevel gait scores and health- and production-related measures of welfare. The analyses revealed that there were
associations between gait score and condemnations (unfit
for human consumption) at the meat inspection. The association indicates that one log increase in gait score at the
flock level, results in a 0.052 log increase in the percentage
4
of condemned broiler carcasses (P < 0.05). A subcategory of
condemnations; abnormal colour and odour is associated
with abnormal gait for which one log unit increase results in
0.74 log increase in condemnations (P < 0.05). Further,
abnormal gait was associated with hock burns (P < 0.005),
foot pad dermatitis (P < 0.01) and cleanliness score of the
bird (P < 0.01). Although not statistically significant, there
was a tendency for increased flock gait score being associated with wet litter (P = 0.07). The multiple regression
model retained significant relationships between five different predictors and the flock-level gait score (Table 5). The
model found significant associations between gait score and
type of litter (P < 0.01), weight of birds at farm visit
(P < 0.05), total condemnations (P < 0.01) at meat inspection, hock burns (P < 0.01) and cleanliness score (P < 0.01).
The coefficient of multiple determination was 0.59, indicating a good fit of the model to the observed data.
Discussion
The aim of this study was to investigate the associations
between lameness and commonly used health- and
production-related measures of animal welfare in Norwegian
broiler flocks. Briefly, in support of the hypothesis, a relationship between lameness and several of the health and
Lameness in broiler chickens
Figure 1 Number of broilers (n=7500) in each of the six gait scoring categories (0 to 5) in each of the 50 farms (n=150 birds per farm).
Table 4 Univariable associations with the mean of individual gait scores on broiler flock level
Gait score (log10)
Peat litter v. wood shavings
Litter quality (0 to 5)
Stocking density (kg/m2)
Live weight at visit (g)
Live weight at slaughter (g)
Daily weight gain (g/day)
Total mortality (%)
1st week mortality (%)
Culled (% of total mortality)
Total condemnation (%)
Abnormal colour and odour (%)
Omphalitis (%)
Circulatory disorder (%)
Liver lesions (%)
Ascites (%)
Abnormal growth (%)
Wounds (%)
Hock burns (%)
Footpad dermatitis (%)
Cleanliness score (0 to 300)
Flock uniformity (CV)
Coefficient log10(y)
SEM
za
P > |z|
95% CIb
0.074
0.021
−0.001
−0.000
0.000
0.004
−0.003
−5.060
0.000
0.052
0.738
0.462
−0.017
−0.083
−0.029
0.046
−0.045
0.002
0.001
0.002
−0.465
0.042
0.011
0.003
0.000
0.000
0.004
0.014
3.057
0.001
0.025
0.352
0.271
0.027
0.076
0.043
0.048
0.069
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.310
1.75
1.87
−0.18
−1.75
1.34
0.88
−0.22
−1.66
0.27
2.05
2.09
1.71
−0.64
−1.08
−0.67
−0.97
−0.65
2.59
2.71
2.78
−1.50
0.087
0.068
0.857
0.086
0.186
0.382
0.827
0.105
0.786
0.045
0.042
0.094
0.526
0.283
0.504
0.338
0.517
0.013
0.009
0.008
0.140
− 0.011, 0.158
− 0.002, 0.043
−0.007, 0.006
−0.000, 0.000
−0.000, 0.000
−0.005, 0.012
−0.032, 0.026
−11.214, 1.094
−0.002, 0.003
0.001, 0.104
0.030, 1.446
−0.082, 1.006
−0.071, 0.037
−0.236, 0.071
−0.116, 0.058
−0.142, 0.050
−0.183, 0.093
0.001, 0.004
0.000, 0.002
0.001, 0.003
−1.088, 0.158
a
z is the standard score.
CI is the confidence interval.
b
production measures were identified. Thus, the results
strongly support that there is a complex relationship between
the overall flock health status, the production environment
and lameness in broiler chickens. The results show that a
substantial proportion (19%) of broilers displayed moderateto-severe lameness (gait score ⩾ 3), which is in accordance
with previous studies (Sanotra et al., 2003; Knowles et al.,
2008; Bassler et al., 2013; Kittelsen et al., 2017). This indicates that potentially painful conditions are present on both
individual and flock level, which may thereby compromise
animal welfare (Vestergaard and Sanotra, 1999; Danbury
et al., 2000; Weeks et al., 2000; Sanotra et al., 2002; Caplen
et al., 2013; Hothersall et al., 2016).
Although the prevalence of hock burns and footpad dermatitis were relatively low in the present study, lameness
was strongly associated with increased prevalence of both
hock burn and footpad dermatitis, which is in accordance
with several earlier studies (De Jong et al., 2014; Kittelsen
et al., 2017; Tullo et al., 2017). Severe scores of footpad
dermatitis and hock burn have been associated with
5
Granquist, Vasdal, de Jong and Moe
Table 5 Multiple linear associations of gait score in the broiler flocks
Gait score (log10)
Peat litter v. wood shavings
Live weight at visit (g)
Total condemnation (%)
Hock burns (%)
Cleanliness score (0 to 300)
Coefficient (log10)
SE
ta
P > |t|
95% CIb
0.087
− 0.000
0.054
0.004
0.003
0.029
0.000
0.018
0.001
0.001
3.01
− 2.49
2.91
4.99
5.14
0.004
0.017
0.006
0.000
0.000
0.029, 0.146
− 0.000, −0.000
0.016, 0.091
0.002, 0.005
0.002, 0.004
a
t is the t-value of the t-test.
CI is the confidence interval.
b
ulcerative and necrotic lesions on the broilers feet and hocks
that may be painful (Haslam et al., 2007; de Jong et al.,
2014). The evaluation of the severity of contact dermatitis
lesions by histopathology has been recommended in previous reports, to validate the macroscopic scoring systems
(Michel et al., 2012; Zikic et al., 2017). Since the scoring was
performed in live birds, histology was not performed in the
current study. The ulcerative lesions may be a gateway for
bacteria, which could cause lameness in affected birds
(Hester, 1994), as it is well known that cases of lameness
may be associated with infectious components (Butterworth,
1999). Furthermore, we found both univariable and multivariable associations between increased lameness and dirtier
birds (P <0.01), suggesting that cleanliness scoring should
be considered as one potential indicator for the welfare of
broilers. Lameness was not strictly coincident with the
observed role of wet litter (P = 0.07) in our study, which is
well known to be associated with lameness from previous
studies (de Jong et al., 2014). Wet litter is a multifactorial
problem that is affected by suboptimal ventilation, feed
components, gut health, season, stocking density, litter
depth and live weight (McIlroy et al., 1987; Ekstrand et al.,
1998; Hermans et al., 2006; Dunlop et al., 2016). Several of
these risk factors are directly linked to the management of
the broiler production unit. Although results of the multiple
regression show an association between litter type and
lameness, the number of flocks using peat litter was only four
(8%). It is, however, likely that litter type may influence on
the litter quality, and thus being associated with lameness.
Lameness was associated with total condemnations at
postmortem meat inspection, and with the subcategory
‘abnormal colour and odour’. Carcass condemnations due to
abnormal colour and odour can result from septicaemia,
toxaemia, poor bleeding or jaundice (Haslam et al., 2008),
but may occasionally include carcass appearances not strictly
related to pathology. Since the percentage of birds condemned in this category was low in the present study, and
since the underlying causes for the abnormal colour and
odour in the condemned birds were not further investigated,
the association with lameness needs further validation. No
associations between flock mortality and lameness were
observed in contrast to the association with 1st week mortality found by Kittelsen et al. (2017).
Despite showing a weak effect, the live weight of the birds
was inversely associated with gait score in this study. In
6
addition, the growth rate was not statistically related to
lameness, which is contradictory to other studies (Julian,
1998; Sanotra et al., 2003; Kapell et al., 2012). Although
increased growth rate and increased live weight have been
considered key factors for lameness in fast growing broilers
(Julian, 1998; Kestin et al., 2001; Sanotra et al., 2003; Kapell
et al., 2012), high growth rates may also indicate an optimal
physical environment in the house with a low infection
pressure, and a farmer with good culling management. The
variation of culling varied substantially between flocks in the
present study, ranging from 0% to 55% of the total mortality, but there were no associations between culling and
lameness. One reason for this may be that active culling
reduces the number of lame birds in the flock by removal,
and where culling rates are low, there may be a generally
better health status, resulting in less lameness. The stocking
density and age of the birds in the current study are lower
than generally reported elsewhere, as maximum density in
Norway is lower than EU (36 v. 42 kg/m2). There were no
associations between lameness and stocking density in the
present study. This contrasts previous studies where
increased stocking density was identified as a risk factor for
lameness in fast growing broilers (Sørensen et al., 2000;
Estevez, 2007). However, the environment provided for the
birds can be more important than stocking density itself
(Dawkins et al., 2004; Jones et al., 2005). Flock uniformity
(often noted as CV) is a measure of how even the flock is,
with regards to BW during lay (broiler breeders) or at
slaughter (broilers), where a uniform flock is identified with a
low CV (usually below 10%) (Petitte et al., 1981; Feddes
et al., 2002). Poor uniformity may indicate reduced welfare,
due to either management problems or health problems,
including sub-clinical infections. Although there was a relatively large variation in flock uniformity in the 50 observed
flocks (Table 1), we were unable to identify any association
between flock uniformity and lameness in the present study.
Further studies are needed to investigate associations
between flock uniformity and health- and production
measures.
In conclusion, 19% of the birds had a moderate-to-severe
lameness, and lameness in the flock was associated with a
range of health and production measures, including hock
burns, footpad dermatitis, feather cleanliness and causes of
condemnation. Although stocking density and growth rate
are known key factors for lameness, our results suggest that
Lameness in broiler chickens
a suboptimal physical environment may be another detrimental factor to leg health in addition to stocking density
and growth rate. Since carcass condemnations, hock lesions
and footpad dermatitis may be directly or indirectly associated with bacterial invasion, we suggest that future studies
investigate the involvement of infections in lameness and
other welfare outcomes.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the Norwegian Research Council:
Grant number 234 191. The authors would also like to thank all
participating farmers for allowing us into their farms, and Anne
Mette Dagrød and Hilde Bryhn (both Nortura) for efficiently
providing us with production data from the visited flocks. The
authors extend our gratitude to Professor Eystein Skjerve for his
support with design and data management. The authors thank
Hans van den Heuvel for having designed the software for
registration on the PDA.
Declaration of interest
None.
de Jong IC, Gunnink H and van Harn J 2014. Wet litter not only induces footpad
dermatitis but also reduces overall welfare, technical performance, and carcass
yield in broiler chickens. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 23, 51–58.
de Jong IC, Moya TP, Gunnink H, van den Heuvel H, Hindle VA, Mul M and Van
reenen K 2011. Simplifying the Welfare Quality assessment protocol for
broilers = Vereenvoudiging van het Welfare Quality protocol voor het meten
van welzijn bij vleeskuikens (No. 533). Wageningen UR Livestock Research,
Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Dunlop MW, Moss AF, Groves PJ, Wilkinson SJ, Stuetz RM and Selle PH 2016.
The multidimensional causal factors of ‘wet litter’ in chicken-meat production.
Science of the Total Environment 562, 766–776.
EFSA 2012. European Food Safety Authority Panel on Animal Health and Welfare: scientific opinion on the use of animal-based measures to assess welfare of
broilers. EFSA Journal 10, 2774.
Ekstrand C, Carpenter TE, Andersson I and Algers B 1998. Prevalence and
control of foot-pad dermatitis in broilers in Sweden. British Poultry Science 39,
318–324.
Estevez I 2007. Density allowances for broilers: where to set the limits? Poultry
Science 86, 1265–1272.
Feddes JJ, Emmanuel EJ and Zuidhoft MJ 2002. Broiler performance, body
weight variance, feed and water intake, and carcass quality at different stocking
densities. Poultry Science 81, 774–779.
Gocsik E, Kortes HE, Lansink AG and Saatkamp HW 2014. Effects of different
broiler production systems on health care costs in the Netherlands. Poultry
Science 93, 1301–1317.
Haslam SM, Knowles TG, Brown SN, Wilkins LJ, Kestin SC, Warriss PD and Nicol
CJ 2007. Factors affecting the prevalence of foot pad dermatitis, hock burns and
breast burn in broiler chicken. British Poultry Science 48, 264–275.
Ethics statement
The animals subject to this study were handled according to
ethical standards and valid regulations. No ethical permission was required. Participation in the study was voluntary.
Haslam SM, Knowles TG, Brown SN, Wilkins LJ, Kestin SC, Warriss PD and Nicol
CJ 2008. Prevalence and factors associated with it, of birds dead on arrival at the
slaughterhouse and other rejection conditions in broiler chickens. British Poultry
Science 49, 685–696.
Software and data repository resources
None of the data were deposited in an official repository.
Hester PY 1994. The role of environment and management on leg abnormalities
in meat-type fowl. Poultry Science 73, 904–915.
References
Bassler AW, Arnould C, Butterworth A, Colin L, De Jong IC, Ferrante V, Ferrari P,
Haslam S, Wemensfelder F and Blokhuis HJ 2013. Potential risk factors associated with contact dermatitis, lameness, negative emotional state, and fear of
humans in broiler chicken flocks. Poultry Science 92, 2811–2826.
Bessei W 2006. Welfare of broilers: a review. World’s Poultry Science Journal 62,
455–466.
Bradshaw RH, Kirkden RD and Broom DM 2002. A review of the aetiology and
pathology of leg weakness in broilers in relation to welfare. Avian and Poultry
Biology Reviews 13, 45–103.
Butterworth A 1999. Infectious components of broiler lameness: a review.
World’s Poultry Science Journal 55, 327–352.
Butterworth A, Weeks CA, Crea PR and Kestin SC 2002. Dehydration and
lameness in a broiler flock. Animal Welfare 11, 89–94.
Caplen G, Colborne GR, Hothersall B, Nicol CJ, Waterman-Pearson AE, Weeks
CA and Murrell JC 2013. Lame broiler chickens respond to non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs with objective changes in gait function: a controlled
clinical trial. The Veterinary Journal 196, 477–482.
Comission Regulation (EU) No. 854/2004 of 29 April 2004 laying down specific
rules for the organisation of Official Controls on Products of Animal Origin
Intended for Human Consumption. Official Journal of the European Union L226,
83–127.
Danbury TC, Weeks CA, Chambers JP, Waterman-Pearson AE and Kestin SC
2000. Self-selection of the analgesic drug carprofen by lame broiler chickens.
Veterinary Record 146, 307–311.
Dawkins MS, Donelly CA and Jones TA 2004. Chicken welfare is influenced more
by housing conditions than by stocking density. Nature 427, 342–344.
Hermans PG, Fradkin D, Muchnik IB and Organ KL 2006. Prevalence of wet litter
and the associated risk factors in broiler flocks in the United Kingdom. Veterinary
Record 158, 615–622.
Hothersall B, Caplen G, Parker RMA, Nicol CJ, Waterman-Pearson AE, Weeks CA
and Murrell JC 2016. Effects of carprofen, meloxicam and butorphanol on broiler
chickens’ performance in mobility tests. Animal Welfare 25, 55–67.
Jones TA, Donnelly CA and Stamp Dawkins M 2005. Environmental and management factors affecting the welfare of chickens on commercial farms in the
United Kingdom and Denmark stocked at five densities. Poultry Science 84,
1155–1165.
Julian RJ 1998. Rapid growth problems: ascites and skeletal deformities in
broilers. Poultry Science 77, 1773–1780.
Kapell DN, Hill WG, Neeteson AM, McAdam J, Koerhuis AN and Avendano S
2012. Twenty-five years of selection for improved leg health in purebred broiler
lines and underlying genetic parameters. Poultry Science 91, 3032–3043.
Kestin SC, Gordon S, Su G and Sorensen P 2001. Relationships in broiler chickens
between lameness, liveweight, growth rate and age. Veterinary Record 148,
195–197.
Kestin SC, Knowles TG, Tinch AE and Gregory NG 1992. Prevalence of leg
weakness in broiler chickens and its relationship with genotype. Veterinary
Record 131, 190–194.
Kittelsen KE, David B, Moe RO, Poulsen HD, Young JF and Granquist EG 2017.
Associations between gait score, production data, abattoir registrations and
post mortem tibia measurements in Norwegian broiler chickens. Poultry Science
96, 1033–1040.
Kittelsen KE, Granquist EG, Kolbjørnsen Ø, Nafstad O and Moe RO 2015. A
comparison of post-mortem findings in broilers dead-on-farm and broilers deadon-arrival at the abattoir. Poultry Science 94, 2622–2629.
Knowles TG, Kestin SC, Haslam SM, Brown SN, Green LE, Butterworth A, Pope
SJ, Pfeiffer D and Nicol CJ 2008. Leg disorders in broiler chickens: prevalence,
risk factors and prevention. PLoS One 3, e1545.
McGeown D, Danbury TC, Waterman-Pearson AE and Kestin SC 1999. Effect of
carprofen on lameness in broiler chickens. Veterinary Record 144, 668–671.
7
Granquist, Vasdal, de Jong and Moe
McIlroy SG, Goodall EA and McMurray CH 1987. A contact dermatitis of broilers–epidemiological findings. Avian Pathology 16, 93–105.
Vasdal G, Moe RO, de Jong IC and Granquist EG 2018. The relationship between
measures of fear of humans and lameness in broiler chicken flocks. Animal 12,
334–339.
Michel V, Prampart E, Mirabito L, Allain V, Arnould C, Huonnic D, Le Bouquin S
and Albaric O 2012. Histologically-validated footpad dermatitis scoring system
for use in chicken processing plants. British Poultry Science 53, 275–281.
Vestergaard KS and Sanotra GS 1999. Relationships between leg disorders and
changes in the behaviour. Veterinary Record 144, 205–209.
Petitte JN, Hawes RO and Gerry RW 1981. Control of flock uniformity of broiler
breeder pullets through segregation according to body weight. Poultry Science
60, 2395–2400.
Weeks CA, Danbury TD, Davies HC, Hunt P and Kestin SC 2000. The behaviour of
broiler chickens and its modification by lameness. Applied Animal Behaviour
Science 67, 111–125.
Sanotra GS, Berg C and Lund JD 2003. A comparison between leg problems in
Danish and Swedish broiler production. Animal Welfare 12, 677–683.
Welfare Quality® 2009. Welfare Quality® assessment protocol for poultry
(broilers, laying hens). Welfare Quality®Consortium, Lelystad, The Netherlands.
Sanotra GS, Lund JD and Vestergaard KS 2002. Influence of light-dark schedules
and stocking density on behaviour, risk of leg problems and occurrence of
chronic fear in broilers. British Poultry Science 43, 344–354.
Sørensen P, Su G and Kestin SC 2000. Effects of age and stocking density on leg
weakness in broiler chickens. Poultry Science 79, 864–870.
Wideman RF Jr, Hamal KR, Stark JM, Blankenship J, Lester H, Mitchell KN, Lorenzoni
G and Pevzner I 2012. A wire-flooring model for inducing lameness in broilers:
evaluation of probiotics as a prophylactic treatment. Poultry Science 91, 870–883.
Williams B, Solomon S, Waddington D, Thorp B and Farquharson C 2000.
Skeletal development in the meat-type chicken. British Poultry Science 41,
141–149.
Tullo E, Fontana I, Peña Fernández A, Vranken E, Norton T, Berckmans D
and Guarino M 2017. Association between environmental predisposing risk
factors and leg disorders in broiler chickens. Journal of Animal Science 95,
1512–1520.
8
Zikic D, Djukic-Stojcic M, Bjedoc S, Peric L, Stojanovic S and Uscebrka G 2017.
Effect of litter on development and severity of footpad dermatitis and behavior
of broiler chickens. Brazilian Journal of Poultry Science 19, 247–254.