BLOOD, SEX, AND LIBERATION: A CHRISTIAN CRITIQUE OF HINDU TANTRIC SEXUALITY D. Luke Bray, Th.M., Ph.D. Introduction Sex and religion have been inseparable partners from the beginning of history.1 Some religious traditions grant unrestricted access to all sexual appetites, while others dictate sexual morality to their adherents. Regardless, religion and sexuality are bedfellows concerning human society and culture. Human sexuality is a ubiquitous experience across the planet because every human being is a sexual being. However, how sexuality is explored and constrained differs within every cultural system. The Oxford English Dictionary defines the notion of sex or gender as "two main categories (male and female) into which humans and most other living things are divided on the basis of their reproductive functions."2 The term sexuality can describe the capacity for sexual feelings an individual may experience, a person's sexual orientation, or the sexual activity in which an individual may engage. For this paper, the focus will be upon the latter of those definitions of sexuality.3 It is also important to note the difference between Tantric sexuality and the contemporary practice of "Tantric Sex." The sexual revolution of the 1960s helped popularize various versions of Tantric sexual practices. Practitioners mingled Hindu and Buddhist Tantra, postural yoga, and various forms of Eastern mysticism to produce "Tantric Sex." Manuals espousing "Tantric Sex" are numerous. However, the majority are unpublished or self-published documents and often contradict one another regarding the best approach to spiritual sex. These contemporary claims of sexual Tantra use different labels, but two of the most popular are "Tantric Sex" and "Sexual Yoga." The study of these western movements is outside the parameters set for this study. Instead, this paper will examine Hindu Tantric Sexuality (HTS) by first defining Hindu Tantra and exploring a few mythological origins stories, which shaped the sexualization of Hindu Tantra. What follows will be an examination of the critical characteristics of 1Geoffrey Parrinder, Sexual Morality in the World’s Religions, (Rockport, MA: Oneworld Publications, 1996). 2 The Oxford Dictionaries, accessed on 16 May 2016; available from http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/sex; Internet. 3 Parrinder, 1–3. Tantric sexuality. The paper's final section will contrast a Biblical understanding of human sexuality with Hindu Tantric sexuality. Tantra in Indic Tradition The term, Tantra, is problematic from the outset because of etic influence from Western scholars, especially regarding Shiva, Vaisnava, and Jain religious traditions.4 Many of the ancient texts used in Shavian practice, often labeled as Tantra, were described as kaula5 before the tenth and eleventh centuries.6 The term "Tantra" is an Anglicized word used in the 19th century among western scholars to describe the complex corpus of non-Vedic teachings. The term comes from Sanskrit, meaning "treatise" or "exposition."7 A literal rendering of the word Tantra includes concepts such as loom, warp, and weave. As a result, Hindu Tantra can be understood as an overarching body of teaching similar to a tapestry woven together by various teachers acting upon multiple points of knowledge and influence. It explains the basic principles of reality and how a person can attain moksha8 through various practices, including sacred mantras9 and hatha yogic10 techniques. David Gordon White, a specialist in South Asian religions, provides what is considered by many scholars to be the most comprehensive definition of the multifaceted tradition known as Tantra: Tantra is [an] Asian body of beliefs and practices which, working from the principle that the universe we experience is nothing other than the concrete 4 Geoffrey Samuel, The Origins of Yoga and Tantra: Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century, (New York: Cambridge University, 2008), 229. 5 David Gordon White provides a concise glossary of terms in Tantra in Practice. He defines kaula as “an overarching term for a movement or period within early medieval Hindu Tantra, in which erotic ritual practice was highlighted.” The term kula refers to a “family clan; a Tantric lineage or family, extending back through a series of male and female teachers to a divine pantheon and the supreme god at the heart or summit of the pantheon itself.” David Gordon White, Tantra in Practice, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), 628. 6 Samuel, 229. 7 Online Etymology Dictionary, accessed on 16 May 2016; available at http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Tantra; Internet. 8 David Gordon White provides a concise glossary of terms in Tantra in Practice. He defines moksha as “liberation from rebirth into the cycle of suffering existence.” David Gordon White, Tantra in Practice, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), 629. 9 Mantra is a voiced ritual formula used to contact a deity during meditation. 10 Hatha Yoga is a form of postural yoga designed to bring about liberation and immortality through purification and manipulation of the practitioner’s body. 1 manifestation of the divine energy of the godhead that creates and maintains that universe, seeks to ritually appropriate and channel that energy, within the human microcosm, in creative and emancipatory ways.11 Some scholars contend that Hindu Tantra is a substantial body of teaching aiming at final liberation through various ritualistic practices. Still, ritualistic practices are accomplished through heightened spiritual awareness or even magic. Another South Asian religious expert, Madeleine Biardeau, proposes a broader definition of Hindu Tantra: "Tantra is an attempt to place (kama) desire, in every sense of the word, in the service of liberation…not to sacrifice this world for liberation's sake, but to reinstate it, in varying ways, within the perspective of salvation."12 She asserts that the supreme use of desire is to gain both earthly and supernatural enjoyments (bhukti) and power (siddhis). Hindu Tantric practice aims at obtaining liberation in this life. In other words, Tantric practice is devoted to the idea of gaining access to divine energy and appropriating that energy for enlightenment. The search for enlightenment can only be found in the absolute godhead who gives all creatures life and hope for salvation. Because of the generality of these definitions of Hindu Tantra, many Hindu Tantric practitioners would probably reject them, choosing for themselves more precise definitions to describe their particular tradition. Mythological Origins Modern archeological excavations of the ruined cities of the Indus plains reveal ancient traces of sexually explicit origin stories.13 Among the voluminous Hindu scriptures, several important mythological stories emerge. The Aryan invaders discovered worship practices among the conquered peoples to be diverse. Yet, a common theme emphasized worshiping the phallus (linga) and the vulva (yoni). These ancient practices are displayed by the ubiquitous presence of cone-shaped objects, which represented phallic worship. Proto-Shiva is believed to be represented by carved images of a horned figure with three faces sitting nude in a yoga position surrounded by wild. Later Hindu tradition depicted Shiva with three or four faces. He was also considered a god of fertility.14 Shiva was the god of sex and Yogic asceticism. In the Mahabharata, one of the great Hindu poems, Shiva is described sitting in ascetic mediation when he sees Parvati, daughter of Himalaya, walking by. He pursues her and eventually marries Parvati. After the wedding, Shiva and Parvati engage in sexual intercourse, but Shiva's sexual abilities wane after a time. He leaves Parvati and travels to the forest to revive his sexual prowess using ascetic meditation. While wandering in the woods, the sages' wives in the region 11 White, Tantra in Practice, 9. 12 Ibid. 9. 13 Samuel, 22–24. 14 Parrinder, 6. 2 become enamored with Shiva causing the sages to curse Shiva's penis, leaving him impotent. The result of this curse leads to an enormous fire in the forest where Brahma and Vishnu attempt to find the top of Shiva's enormous linga. The fire is only quenched when the sages and their wives agree to worship Shiva's phallus. In another text, the Linga Purana, there is a story regarding a visit by several of the gods to the home of Shiva and Parvati. When the gods enter the house, Shiva and Parvati are engaging in sexual intercourse, and they refuse to cease their activity even after their guests arrive. Some of the gods are upset, but Vishnu laughs. Shiva and Parvati die while copulating. As he is dying, Shiva announces that he will now take the shape of the linga, which everyone must worship, and Parvati will assume the form of the yoni.15 Hindu tradition embraces numerous gods and goddesses. Though most of the goddesses are less important than their counterparts, this is not the case regarding Parvati, the wife of Shiva. She is called many different names; however, Parvati, Sakti, and Kali are the most popular.16 Parvati is the Mother Goddess, and she is believed to be the potency of Shiva. While the goddess was a Great Mother, she inspired terror and fear. She is often depicted as an old hag, black, completely naked with a garland of human skulls around her neck. In her ears, she also wore earrings of dead infants. Out of her mouth came huge tusks, and between them, she brandished a red tongue while dancing on the chest of Shiva.17 Parvati is worshipped in the yoni, and it is believed that after she quarreled with her father, she threw herself into a sacrificial fire. The ashes of her yoni were caught up into the air and later fell in various places in India, establishing her cult's shrines.18 Krishna is another significant god among the Hindu Tantric tradition. In one story, he plays his flute, causing women to leave their husbands and dance with him in the forest. After bathing with him, the women remove their clothing and jewels and give them all to Krishna.19 In the Brahma-Vaivarta Purana, a beautiful cowgirl named Radha enraptures Krishna. He woos Radha causing her to leave her husband. Soon after, they engage in sexual intercourse. The account of their sexual intercourse portrays a violent sensuality: Krishna pulled Radha with both his arms and stripped her of her clothes. Then he kissed her in four different ways, and the bells in her girdle were torn off in the battle of love. Then Radha mounted Krishna adopted eight different positions and tore her body with biting and scratching until she was unable to bear any more, and they ceased from the battle.20 15 The Linga Purana, (New Dehli, India: Shri Jainendra Press, 1990), 58–67. 16 W.J. Johnson, Dictionary of Hinduism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 99–100. 17 Samuel, 247. 18 Parrinder, 9. 19 Ibid., 9–10. 20 Ibid., 10. 3 There are numerous stories within the Hindu scripture, which could be related in this section; however, these examples display the enormous emphasis placed upon human sexuality related to the sexual behavior of the gods and goddesses. The sexual practices of human beings are not only in direct correlation with the gods, but the sexual organs themselves are symbolic, representing the deities. Tantric Thought and Practice While Tantric practice is exceptionally diverse, a significant emphasis is placed upon the interplay between the internal and external worlds. White gives a helpful explanation regarding the external and internal practices of Tantra and how these practices help one understand which deity is being contacted: Generally speaking, the more subtle the medium (sound and light), the more internal, meditative, and sublimated the practice; conversely, concrete (fluid and solid) media imply external and more body-related practice, including sexual ritual, alchemy, and heath yoga. Internal practice, though it may incorporate the lower demonic and animal forms of divine energy, will tend to focus on the deity in sublime, even abstract, ways; external practice, which often implies sacrificial offerings, postural states, and ritual technologies, will more often focus on fierce forms of hypostases of the deity, which it seeks to coerce and control.21 Tantric performance is integral to religious expression. It is not simply enough to internally practice meditation; the practitioner must also "do" as well as "know." There is a broad spectrum concerning Tantric practice. We may find blood sacrifices, human bones, bodily fluids, sexual intercourse, dancing, or postural yoga from one extreme. We may simply find meditative ritualism and mental enactment at the other end of the spectrum. White comments on these distinctions: Practitioners who "do" their Tantra will emphasize the somatic goals of bodily immortality (jivanmukti), pleasures (bhukti), and power (or "powers," siddhis) in the world. Those who "know" their practice will tend to focus on selfdeification at a more cognitive or psychological level: the transformation of human consciousness into divine consciousness.22 The overarching goal of both those who "do" and those who "know" their Tantra practice is the enlightenment and, therefore, the liberation of all creatures from the existence of suffering. Hindu Tantra's theory and practice operate on the mesocosmic level. That is to say that the practitioners attempt to bridge the gap between the 21 White, Tantra in Practice, 12. 22 Ibid. 4 protocosm (original universe) and the metacosm (the shared universe) as well as the macrocosm (universe at large) and the microcosm (universe in simplicity). Hindu Tantric Sexuality The distinctive elements of HTS first appeared prior to tenth-century Hindu sources and have continued to the present time in various South Asian traditions.23 Tantric sexual art abounds with images of male and female sexual intercourse and often sexual intercourse in an orgiastic gathering. Tantric scriptures highlight the sexual practice of the deities. For example, Shiva, the high god of Shiva Hindu Tantra, engages in endless sexual marathons with many consorts. At other times, Shiva and his companions are described as dwelling within the female sexual organ itself. The origins of Hindu Tantra are debated. Sexual intercourse was often how the gathered religious adherents could extract the necessary sexual fluids for their religious rituals. Tantric practitioners sacrificed the sexual fluids to the Tantric goddesses so that the goddess could feed upon them. In the Hindu context, the Tantric Virile Hero24 collected his semen and the female consort's sexual fluid and partook of them in a Eucharistic fashion. The ultimate consumer of the fluid was the goddess who, if satisfied, would grant the man the desired power he sought. While there are various characteristics of HTS, the worship of a feminine deity, the consumption or insemination of sexual fluids, the connection with the Hindu mandala,25 the use of mantra, the practice of yoga, and the goal of moksha seem to be the predominant characteristics of HTS. Yoginis Worship of the yogini or goddess is a primary focus of HTS. The Tantric religious pantheon elevates the goddess because the universe was created through the goddess's womb. The human cycle of birth and rebirth only occurs because women can produce children through their wombs. The man is seen as a necessary participant in the act of procreation; however, not the life-generating source. The woman is essential to the ritual because her yoni is the incarnational presence of the goddess. Some Tantra practitioners view the subjugation of women across the world as the most fundamental problem in human cultures. According to Shri Param Eswaran, the Father of Paratan and Master of the Living Goddess Tradition and founder of the first Mahavidya Temple in Tamil Nadu, South India, a proper understanding of human sexuality must include worship of the female partner: 23 Samuel, 229. 24 The Tantric Virile Hero a man who would successfully encounter the yogini and complete the sexual rite. 25 The mandala is the energy grid that represents a continuous flow of divine, demonic, human, and animal impulses in the universe. 5 In Tantra, the right side of the body considered male and the left side female. This is true for both men and women. Love can only exist, when one connects with one's soul, and then realize the God (male), Goddess (female) within. Men's fascination with women as a source of life, has been known from the beginning of time, yet men in modern society, due to his rushed life have [forgotten] the art of worshiping a woman as his Goddess, for his betterment. [Women] on the other hand are too busy to make their mark in the world, have [forgotten] that they are the life giving essence, the same essence as the Great Goddess of Creation, Para-Sakthi.26 Sexual Fluids Indian traditions have always viewed sexual fluids, menstrual blood, and urine as powerful and therefore dangerous substances.27 The ancient yogini cults describe the yogini's need to feed upon male semen, animal sacrifice, or some other prescribed vital fluid.28 Women who were considered witches and who represented the yoginis consumed the fluids, which was sometimes the blood of a child or adult and or the sexual emissions of practitioners, on behalf of the goddess. White explains Tantric practitioners "manipulated sexual fluids as a means to effecting a powerful expansion of consciousness from the limited consciousness of the … practitioner to the all-encompassing 'godconsciousness' of the Tantric superman."29 HTS portrays post-menstrual women's vulva or "nether mouth"30 as bloody and bloodthirsty. The blood from the yoni was considered intrinsically hot and fiery, burning 26 Tantric Goddess Network, “The Divine Feminine and Tantra,” accessed on 16 May 2016; http://tantric-goddess.org/the_divine_feminine.html; Internet. 27 David Gordon White, Kiss of the Yogini: “Tantric Sex” in Its South Asian Contexts, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), 67. 28 The great importance of partaking of the female discharge is recorded in a late medieval poem, Kamapanacastiram (“Treatise on the Arrow of Lust”): First Stage: “Like a cow which licks tenderly its calf, spread out your tongue broad, and lick her yoni lapping up the juices oozing out like a thirsty dog which laps cool water. Second Stage: Like a worshipper who circumambulates the shrine pass your tongue over her yoni round around from left to right moving in ever narrowing circles till you reach the very center. Her yoni will open up like a dark and gaping chasm. Open then the vulva’s lips with firm pressure of your tongue and insert its stiff tip inside like a spear’s powerful thrust, digging, poking deep and far. Third Stage: With your nose pressing against the yonimani (clitoris) your tongue enters her innermost shrine thrusting and digging and piking deep. Searching for hidden treasures inside. Inhale deeply, breathing in the mellow odors of the juices of her yoni. Fourth Stage: Taking the protruding, throbbing jewel of her yoni gently, gently between your teeth and tongue, suck it like a suckling feeding at the breast; it will rise and glisten, stand up from its sheath. It will swell like a large ruby. The fragrant copious discharge appearing like sweet foam between the lips of the vulva is a rejuvenating drink when missed with your milk-white, lustrous, thick fragrant sperm.” David Gordon White, Kiss of the Yogini: “Tantric Sex” in Its South Asian Contexts, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), 74–75. 29 White, Kiss of the Yogini, 68. 30 Ibid. 6 up the cool male semen. It was believed to be fatally dangerous for a man to touch menstrual blood and the initial blood from defloration. Because of this fear, many Hindu women today receive intervention from the bride's mother or a close relative to ensure that the hymen is broken before the wedding night to protect the groom. The consumption of sexual fluids is integral to the yogini ritual. Early records describe the ways of the Yogini cults as violent and bloody. White represents the approach of the Tantric Hero: Having entered into a forbidding forest, one uses one's blood to trace a fearsome diagram, at whose six corners one situates a series of terrifying goddesses. One worships these with mantras, and then places them in the midst of one's own body. They are then worshiped with pieces of one's own flesh, as well as an offering of blood, by which they are compelled to reciprocate. Then, having pierced his eight body parts (hands, breast, forehead, eyes, throat, and middle of the back), and having mixed (this blood and flesh) together with urine, feces, and some liquor, the practitioner places the mixture in the offering bowl. Having thus offered his own bodily constituents, he then worships these goddesses with food offerings, incense, and so on. Each of seven yogini is called upon and exhorted to eat one of the practitioners bodily constituents: semen, bone, morrow, fat, flesh, blood, and skin.31 The practitioner who has sacrificed himself in this way then calls upon the goddess to bless him with extraordinary power or insight. These ritual acts were addressed to various goddesses often involving human sexuality and sexual interactions between male and female observant, White observes: It is in this context that the two most salient elements of Tantra, eros, and thanatos, emerge. The decapitation and dismembered bodies that litter the myriad tableaux of Tantric expression exemplify the practitioner who heroically gives up that which is most precious to him, and which is restored to him by the Tantric deity. There is, however, a more effective way to sacrifice one's life essence, which does not involve losing one's head. This is the offering of one's sexual emissions, which are at once the stuff of life itself and the staff of life and preferred food of several classes of Tantric deities, generally female.32 The following kaula text describes the Tantric Goddess's insatiable desire for vital fluids: The Goddess is fond of the vulva and penis, fond of the nectar of vulva and penis. Therefore, one should fully worship the Goddess with the nectar of vulva and penis. A man— who worships the Goddess by the drinking of the virile fluid and by taking pleasure in the wife of another man, as well as with the nectar of the 31 Ibid., 71. 32 Ibid.,17. 7 vulva and penis— knows no sorrow and becomes possessed of perfected mantras. But he who worships Candika without the clan-generated fluids will see the good deeds of thousands of lifetimes destroyed.33 The female consort was integral to the clan within the Tantric system because the clan fluid or nectar (kulamrta) ran through her yoni. The feminine sexual fluid or "vulva essence" was considered the nectar of enlightenment. The female consort passed the divine discharge, whether it was the sexual fluid or menstrual emission. Males within the community were unable to experience the divine flow. Therefore, they needed to gain access through the feminine sexual organ. Male participants sometimes would receive the sexual fluids from the "mouth" of the consort, which was her vulva, drinking the discharge. White asserts the Kaula Tantric tradition focused primarily upon drinking the sexual fluid, the "power substances" either through "mutual oral congress or through a form of genital sex called vajroli mudra ("urethral suction"), by which the male partner was able, following ejaculation, to draw up into himself the sexual discharge of his female partner"34 The Rudrayamala Tantra states it quite poetically: By virtue of the Vira mental disposition, one becomes a regent of the directions, having the form of Rudra. This universe is subservient to (adhinam) the Vira; (yet) the Vira is dependent on (adhinam) the clan fluid (kula). Therefore, by choosing the clan fluid, a (previously) unconscious being (jade) becomes the master of every supernatural power."35 Mandala A key to understanding Hindu Tantra is the mandala. The mandala is the energy grid that represents a continuous flow of divine, demonic, human, and animal impulses in the universe. This flow of energy is constructive and destructive depending upon where it originates. A pyramid can illustrate the mandala. From the top of the pyramid, the supreme deity expels all energy in the universe. The energy cascades over the pyramid's walls until it reaches the ground. Whether human, demonic, divine, or animal, every being is situated at different levels upon the pyramid's walls, experiencing the flow of energy radiating from its apex, the supreme deity. Every entity in the universe receives various energy levels depending on its grid location. As a result, every being is understood as being some emanation of the supreme deity. Therefore, from the Hindu Tantric perspective, the physical world is not an illusion 33 Ibid., 74. 34 Ibid., 11. 35 Ibid., 11–12. 8 to necessarily be escaped. Instead, it is a universe to be fully embraced utilizing the divine energy, thereby giving the practitioner the supreme deity's perspective. White explains the energy interdependence through concentric circles: The energy levels of the Tantric universe are generally represented as a set of concentric circles (cakes) of hypostasized forms of the divine energy which, in addition to appearing as an array of divine, enlightened, perfected demonic, human, or animal beings, also manifest themselves on an acoustic level, as garlands or piled-up aggregates of phonemes (mantras); on a graphic level, as the written characters of the hieratic alphabets; and as the hierarchized cakras of the yogic body. These same configurations constitute the flow charts of Tantric lineages, with the flow of divine energy (but also the fluid, acoustic, or hot essence of the godhead; or the teachings of enlightened buddhas) streaming downward and outward through a success of male and female deities and demigods— the latter often portrayed in an animals or demonic mode— into" superhuman" gurus (Padoux) and their human disciples.36 Tantric mandala is how humans can interact with the divine and enter into supernatural or superhuman experiences. Mandala interaction involves meditative projection, enabling the practitioner to project their being into the vortex of the godhead. When the spiritual projection is accomplished, the practitioner has achieved enlightenment. In some cases, they return to the center of their being to await final moksha and subsequent deification. Even though the name or attributes of the deity found at the mandala's center may change depending upon the particular tradition, many of the same practices overlap. In almost every case, the practitioner performs specific external rituals and internal meditations, which involve harmonizing one's consciousness with the consciousness of the divine godhead. In addition, the practitioner must overcome obstacles to reach the mandala. These may be bodily discipline, demonic forces, animals, or circumstantial realities. Finally, the practitioner must embrace these challenges to positively accept the energy radiating from other entities, which will draw them closer to the center of the mandala. Mantra Various forms of mantra exist within Hindu Tantra. In the most basic sense, The mantra is a vocal sound; usually, a phrase or word uttered in meditation. Geoffrey Samuel defines mantra as a "ritual formula transmitted form guru to student through which the presence of the deity is invoked or compelled."37 Within the Shiva tradition, the concept of mantra is linked to a complex theological system of sound. It is 36 White, Tantra in Practice, 10. 37 Samuel, 254. 9 believed a particular sound carries creative power, which reveals and controls the universe. In early accounts, mantras were used to call upon a deity to possess an individual or release their power on behalf of the practitioner. In other cases, especially in later records, the mantra served as an inner semanticization of ritual, replacing in some cases the offering of sexual fluids in the worship of the yogini.38 Mantra is essential in the practice of Tantric Yoga.39 Various non-verbal sounds are made with the mouth, which is believed to assist the practitioner in centering their energy with the mandala. Typically, the uttered non-verbal sounds are variations of the sound that is believed to have emanated from Shiva's erect linga40 as heard by Vishnu and Brahma (om, um, hum).41 Mantra is especially important in Tantric sexual rituals because it enables the practitioner to contact the desired god or goddess. Yoga & Cakras Yoga42 constitutes a vital part of Tantric tradition. From a historical and conceptual perspective, the practice of yoga is in many ways an internalization of sexual intercourse between a man and a woman.43 The human body acts as a sail catching the surrounding energy and using it effectively or ineffectively. Nearly all forms of yoga require the practitioner to return to the center of the emanating mandala by harnessing their body and its energy forces to connect with the energy flowing around it appropriately. Andrea Jain asserts that yoga is a crucial component to Tantra because it serves "to increasingly refine 38 David Gordon White, The Alchemical Body: Siddha Traditions in Medieval India, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 138. 39 Mircea Eliade notes that the practical value and philosophical importance of mantras is two fold: “First, the yogic function of the phonemes use as ‘supports’ for concentration; second—and this is the peculiarly tantric contribution—the elaboration of a gnostic system and an interiorized liturgy through revalorization of the archaic traditions concerning ‘mystical sound.’” Mircea Eliade, Trask Willard, and David Gordon, Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009), 212–13. 40 The Linga Purana, 67. 41 It is recorded in the Linga Purana that Vishnu and Brahma bowed low to Shiva while standing near the sea, Brahma declared: “We bowed to lord Siva at the sides, behind and in front and wondered what that was. O great Devas! Then a loud sound Om issued (out of the column). It was clearly a prolated sound.” The Linga Purana, (New Delhi, India: Shri Jainendra Press, 1990), 67. Om is a mystical syllable which consists of three separate sounds which meld together in various forms. The letters represents the sounds: a, u, m. These sounds have the highest spiritual importance and are used in religious meditation. 42 Andrea Jain agrees with Geoffrey Samuel’s broad definition of the term yoga: “[Yoga] is a disciplined and systematic techniques for the training and control of the human mind-body complex, which are also understood as techniques for the reshaping of human consciousness towards some kind of higher goal.” Andrea Jain, Selling Yoga: From Counter Culture to Pop Culture, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 4. 43 White, Tantra in Practice, 15. 10 consciousness, not as a means to salvation from embodied existence, but as a means to achieving a state of divine consciousness while remaining in embodied existence."44 The climax of the yogic experience occurs when the person succeeds in centering all of the energies coursing through his or her body, whether it be fluid (blood or otherwise), spoken words, or written material. The final phase occurs with the reimplosion of feminine energy into a masculine essence or consciousness. White concludes the union between feminine and masculine fluids combined to produce the "nectar," which brings the participant closer to becoming a "self-made god."45 This phase in Hindu yoga is called Kundalini (the cold serpent energy). Feminine energy is situated in the lower regions of the body, and masculine energy is located in the cranial vault. The masculine and feminine union is illustrated by the male and female sexual fluids. By assuming various yogic postures (asanas), breath control (pranayama), internal energy blocks (bandhas), and seals (mudras), the practitioner can fan the inner fire of yoga, thereby communing with the deities.46 According to Hindu Yogic tradition, there are seven essential cakras.47 The term cakras, refers to specific locations on the human body, which are believed to harness bodily energy. These energy sources are aligned along the spinal column.48 The first of these is the muladhara (root). It is found at the base of the spine between the anus and the genital organs. This plexus is related to the cohesive power of matter and is personified by the gods Indra, Brahma, Dakini, and Sakti. The second cakras is called svadhisthana, which is located at the base of the penis. The svadhisthana cakra is related to the concept of water and the sense of taste. Manipura is the third cakra situated in the lower back opposite of the navel. The fourth, anahata, is located in the region of the heart. It is related to air, the sense of touch, the phallus, and blood systems. The Visuddha cakra is the region of the throat. The ajna cakras are found between the eyebrows and are the seat of all cognitive functions. The last cakra is the sahasrara, located at the top of the head. After the energy has flowed through the entire body, it ends its journey at this seventh cakras. This location represents the plane of transcendence between the practitioner and the deity.49 Y yogic practitioners utilize various poses and mantras to align themselves so energy can travel through each cakras, climaxing at the top of the head to achieve the desired energy transference. 44 Jain, 13. 45 Ibid. 46 White, The Alchemical Body, 220. 47 A cakra is a point of spiritual power located along the body. The points are personified by gods and can be released by exercises or postures. 48 White, Tantra in Practice, 626. 49 Eliade, Willard, and White, 241–43. 11 Moksha Final liberation or moksha is the last characteristic of HTS to be noted. This concept is not novel to Hindu Tantra; it is a common belief among all Hindus. The doctrine is first observed in the writings of the Upanishads, where the soul of the dead is described as being carried away by the fire god, Agni, who consumes the material flesh in cremation, thereby releasing the soul into the heavenly world where they will experience everlasting bliss.50 Moksha, which means "release or liberation" refers to the "final liberation from rebirth into the cycle of suffering existence."51 It is the ultimate goal of mainstream Hindus. For thousands of years, Hindu thinkers have assessed the relationship between human sexuality and liberation. Krishna, in the Bhagavad-Gita, asserts there is no contradiction between righteousness (dharma) and sexual passion, "I am the strength of the strong devoid of attachment and passion and the energy of procreation in all beings which is not contrary to righteousness."52 Stuart Sovatsky notes, "The 'dharmic' expression of passion involves interpreting and enacting erotic sensations in harmony with natural rhythms and principles of growth. These rhythms emerge at the individual, interpersonal, and cosmic levels."53 While Hindu Tantric practitioners would agree with mainstream Hinduism upon the final goal of everlasting liberation from the cycle of suffering, they would also emphasize temporal liberation and enlightenment through sexual intercourse and genital orgasm. The initiation into the Shavian Tantric community included a transaction with sexual fluid between the guru, the male initiate, and the female consort. Samuel explains that for the Tantric traditions, "the transmission of the liberating insight was the function of the guru or spiritual teacher, and a central step was the process of initiation, in which the guru passed on his insight to the initiate."54 In some cases, the male initiate was physically inseminated with the sexual fluid or blood. Sometimes the female emission was mingled with the semen of the guru. The ritual was believed to transform the initiate into a legitimate son of the clan, thereby giving him all of the rights and privileges of a clan member and granting him liberation of insight. 50 R.C. Zaehner, Hinduism, (Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, reprinted 1985), 57. 51 White, Tantra in Practice, 629. 52 Knowledge of the Ultimate Truth, “Anvaya,” accessed 17 May 2016; available from http://www.bhagavad-gita.org/Gita/verse-07-11.html; Internet. 53 Georg Feuerstein, Enlightened Sexuality: Essays on Body-Positive Spirituality, (Freedom, Calif: Crossing Press, 1989), –62. 54 Samuel, 252. 12 Critique of Hindu Tantra from a Christian Sexual Ethic A Biblical understanding of sexuality is rooted in the creation narrative. In contrast to Hindu creation stories, the Bible asserts there is only one God, and this God created the universe and human beings in his image. According to the account found in Genesis, humans were created as sexual beings for distinction and procreation. Creator and Image Bearers Contrary to Hindu theology, which asserts masculine and feminine divinity resides within every human, the Bible affirms the original humans were created with distinct genders. "God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them"55 (Gen 1:27). Another significant contrast from Hindu Tantra is the order of human creation. Tantra affirms the priority of creation upon the female teaching that from the yoni came all life, thereby giving matriarchal authority and privilege to the woman. However, the biblical narrative maintains masculine priority. After a suitable helper was not found in creation, God created a woman from the rib of the man. After seeing the newly created helper, Adam exclaimed: "This, at last, is bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh; she shall be called Woman, because she was taken out of Man" (Gen 2:23). While this Biblical narrative does not necessarily subjugate women, it does contradict the Hindu notion, which elevates the feminine yoni above all else. In Hindu Tantra, the man is of little consequence in procreation, while the woman is viewed as the source of life. A Biblical perspective portrays man and woman as essential to the procreative process revealing an undeniable interdependence between the sexes. The Purpose of Sexuality A biblical understanding of sexuality also differs from HTS regarding the fundamental purpose of sexuality. According to Tantric tradition, sexuality functions to harness the body's energy so that individuals can achieve moksha. Reproduction of the species is a by-product; Tantra focuses primarily upon individual transformation. Geoffrey Parrinder provides clarity regarding the purpose of Tantric sexuality: Sexual intercourse of any kind was treated in a ritual fashion, between husband and wife, or different partners, or with the temple girl. Sexual union was transformed into a ceremonial through which the human couple became a divine pair. The rite was prepared by meditation and ceremonies to make it fruitful, for bodily union alone was not thought to be sufficient to bring salvation. The act of sex was formal and not promiscuous, and coition was not a quick relief in orgasm but a long process in caresses and different postures, for which the Kama Sutra and other manuals were of great help.56 55 All scripture quotations are from the English Standard Version. 56 Parrinder, 36–37. 13 The Biblical purpose of human sexuality is centered upon the glory of God. In the creation narrative, everything that God creates is said to be "good" (Gen 1:31). This "goodness" includes human sexuality. Sexual distinction was not made by accident because of divine battle tumult, but rather God intentionally crafted the human frame to need and delight in the opposite sex. Gender was instituted by God in the very beginning when he made human beings either male or female. Each sex was designed to sensually desire the opposite sex to produce offspring and unite the man and woman as "one flesh" (Gen 2:24). Procreation honors the creator by multiplying his "image" upon the earth. As a result, humans are called upon to worship God with their bodies so that even the sexual act can be experiential worship of the Creator. The Jewish text, The Holy Letter, written by Nahmanides in the thirteenth century, applies a mystical connotation to the notion of sex before the Creator God: "Through the act [of intercourse] they become partners with God in the act of creation. This is the mystery of what the sages said, 'When a man unites with his wife in holiness, the Shekinah is between them in the mystery of man and woman.'"57 The primary purpose of human sexuality rests upon giving glory to the Creator; however, secondary purposes for human sexuality are procreation and marital enjoyment. Of course, both secondary reasons point to the overarching goal of glorifying God. Blood and Sexual Fluids The Tantric focus upon vital fluids must also be contrasted with Biblical clarity. According to Tantric tradition, blood, semen, and vaginal secretions are considered powerful substances, which can give liberating insight to the practitioner and provide sustenance to the goddess. Therefore, a Biblical understanding of these vital fluids is necessary. Beginning with blood, the Bible does place a significant emphasis upon blood. Throughout the Old Testament narratives, the spilling of innocent blood is condemned. From the story of Cain's murder of Abel, whose blood cried out to God for justice, to God's declaration to Noah after the floodwaters subside: "Whoever sheds the blood of man, by man shall his blood be shed, for God made man in his own image" (Gen 9:6). Human blood is viewed as the source of life, and as a result, human life should be treated with the utmost care. However, in contrast to Tantric practices of ingesting or ensanguining blood, the Bible forbids its consumption (Gen 9:4). According to the Bible, blood sacrifices are necessary to remove the guilt of sin. The sacrifice of the vital fluid of an animal and later perfectly climaxed in the shedding of blood by Jesus Christ removed the guilt of sin from humans. While blood is considered essential and sacred, the physical properties of the blood are not dangerous or miraculous in themselves, but only as a representation of the life given by the Creator. In the Old Testament law, there were specific contexts where blood could ascribe cleanness to an individual or group, such as in times of sacrifice; however, blood discharged from the body, especially menstrual discharge, made the woman and all those 57 Gary Thomas, Sacred Marriage: What if God Designed Marriage to Make Us Holy More Than to Make Us Happy, (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing, 2000), 206. 14 who touched it unclean. Equal importance was placed upon seminal discharge in the Old Testament scriptures. Appropriate context for semen and other related sexual discharges were appropriate during the act of intercourse; however, the wasting of "seed" was an abomination to the Lord (Gen 38:9). Also, sexual fluids expended during intercourse made the couple unclean until the evening (Lev 15:16-18). While sexual fluids were inherently precious, enabling the marriage to produce offspring that would follow the covenant, ingesting these fluids was not permitted. From Hindu tradition, if semen was spilled, whether awake or asleep, it was necessary to take the semen between the thumb and forefinger, rubbing it on the forehead or breast, chanting, "I reclaim this semen, let me come to strength again." Hindu Tantric practitioners believed semen was imbued with magical properties. If a man did not desire his partner to conceive while having intercourse, he would insert his sexual organ and join his mouth over hers, breathing in and out, saying, "With power, with semen, I reclaim you." Likewise, if he desired to conceive, he would say, "With power, with semen, I deposit semen in you."58 According to the Bible, however, semen does not carry magical properties, nor do human beings have the ability to instruct fluids to perform in specific ways. Only God, the creator, has the ability to create life, and He sovereignly opens the womb and closes the womb (Judg 13:3). A Christian sexual ethic calls the man and woman to sexual faithfulness within the constraints of a marriage relationship. This, of course, is different from Tantric tradition, which allows for sexual intercourse with multiple partners and ritual prostitutes. The guiding principle revealed in a Biblical understanding of human sexuality contrary to Hindu Tantra is thankfulness. Tantric practitioners engaged in sexual activities for the appeasement of the goddess, who, in the end, is focused upon self-gratification. The practitioner desires power, insight, or influence from the deity, so he or she performs the necessary ritual to achieve that goal. God designs Christian sexuality as a blessing to his creation. While sexual intercourse is a delight to a man and woman within the context of marriage, it is not done to appease God's wrath, nor is it done to gain special favor from him. Christian sexuality is a blessing from the creator and should be enjoyed with thankfulness. Conclusion Tantric sexuality is complex. It would be foolish to assume all practitioners of Tantra would agree upon everything written in this paper. However, the key elements which guide Tantric sexual practice are goddess worship, mantra, mandala, yoga, and moksha. While all of these practices contain innumerable nuances, the sexual perspective they expose is important. These practices point to the self and the eventual selftransformation into a blissful existence. Human sexuality is much more than a means to attract or please a particular deity. Sexuality is a blessing created to be enjoyed within the confines of marriage and should not be used as a quid pro quo with spiritual forces. Hindu Tantra springs from various textual sources and traditions, but the overall emphasis focuses upon self and divine 58 Parrinder, 18–19. 15 appeasement, revealing a dark path. 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