Environmental and health risk assessment of Pb, Zn, As
and Sb in soccer field soils and sediments from mine
tailings: solid speciation and bioaccessibility
Grégoire Pascaud, Thibaut Lévèque, Marilyne Soubrand, Salma Boussen,
Emmanuel Joussein, Camille Dumat
To cite this version:
Grégoire Pascaud, Thibaut Lévèque, Marilyne Soubrand, Salma Boussen, Emmanuel Joussein, et al..
Environmental and health risk assessment of Pb, Zn, As and Sb in soccer field soils and sediments from
mine tailings: solid speciation and bioaccessibility. Environmental Science and Pollution Research,
Springer Verlag, 2014, 21 (6), pp.4254-4264. 10.1007/s11356-013-2297-2. hal-01585027
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To cite this version : Pascaud, Grégoire and Lévèque, Thibaut and
Soubrand, Marilyne and Boussen, Salma and Joussein, Emmanuel and
Dumat, Camille Environmental and health risk assessment of Pb, Zn,
As and Sb in soccer field soils and sediments from mine tailings: solid
speciation and bioaccessibility. (2014) Environmental Science and
Pollution Research, Vol. 21 (n° 6). pp. 4254-4264. ISSN 0944-1344
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Environmental and health risk assessment of Pb, Zn,
As and Sb in soccer field soils and sediments from mine
tailings: solid speciation and bioaccessibility
Grégoire Pascaud & Thibaut Leveque &
Marilyne Soubrand & Salma Boussen &
Emmanuel Joussein & Camille Dumat
Abstract Areas polluted by the persistent presence of metal(loid)s induce health problems, especially when recreational
activities (on land or water) promote human exposure to the
pollutants. This study focuses on one of the most encountered
worldwide mining waste, i.e. those from the extraction of Pb–
Zn–Ag. The representative Pb–Zn-rich tailing (about 64,
100 m3) sampled is located near a soccer field and a famous
river for fishing. The scientific interests is relative to: (1)
mobility and bioaccessibility of metal(oid)s, (2) human risk
assessments and (3) relationship between human risks and
solid-bearing phases in the environment. Soccer field soils,
tailings and sediments from the nearby river were sampled;
moreover, metal(loid) speciation (from BCR experiments) and
bioaccessibility were measured and solid speciation performed by X-ray diffraction and electron microscopy in order
to highlight metal(loid) dispersion and impact. Results demonstrate that the soccer field is highly contaminated by Pb, Zn,
As and Sb due primarily to waste runoff. In terms of risk
assessment, Pb and As human bioaccessibility highlights the
major health risk (48 and 22.5 % of human bioaccessibility,
respectively). Since local populations are regularly in close
contact with metal(loid)s, the health risk due to pollutant
exposure needs to be reduced through sustainable waste disposal and the rehabilitation of polluted sites.
Keywords Bioaccessibility . Mineralogy . BCR . Soccer
field . Metals . Metalloids
Introduction
G. Pascaud : M. Soubrand (*) : E. Joussein
Université de Limoges, GRESE, EA 4330, 123 avenue Albert
Thomas, 87060 Limoges, France
e-mail: marilyne.soubrand@unilim.fr
T. Leveque : C. Dumat
Université de Toulouse, INP-ENSAT, Avenue de l’Agrobiopôle,
31326 Castanet-Tolosan, France
T. Leveque : C. Dumat
UMR 5245 CNRS-INP-UPS, EcoLab (Laboratoire Ecologie
fonctionnelle et Environnement), Avenue de l’Agrobiopôle, BP
32607, 31326 Castanet-Tolosan, France
T. Leveque
STCM, Société de traitements chimiques des métaux, 30 Avenue de
Fondeyre, 31200 Toulouse, France
S. Boussen
Université de Tunis El Manar, laboratoire des Ressources Minérales
et Environnement, Faculté des Sciences, Tunis, Tunisie
The major anthropogenic sources of metal(loid)s in the environment are mining and smelting activities (Uzu et al. 2009).
One of the main concerns regarding mining activities is the
production of a huge amount of wastes, typically stored in the
vicinity of mines (Sobanska et al. 2010). Since these industrial
waste materials contain inorganic pollutants, they represent
secondary sources of pollution for soils, water and the atmosphere. Moreover, these wastes can induce health-related consequences through direct particle ingestion or inhalation (Uzu
et al. 2011) or food chain impacts (Schreck et al. 2012). It has
therefore become necessary to assess the behavior and impact
of these process wastes in sensitive sanitary contexts like
playgrounds in relation to their potential mobility towards
the environment (Gieré et al. 2003). It has been well
established that the chemical speciation of metal(loid)s can
strongly influence both their behavior in soils and
(eco)toxicity as regards their solubility, mobility and bioavailability (Schreck et al. 2011).
Over the past decade, a number of studies have been
performed for the purpose of determining the general
behavior of heavy metals in various soil contexts, such
as acidic (Birkefeld et al. 2006; Chen et al. 2006) or alkaline,
as well as in a carbonated context (Fotovat and Naidu
1998; Boussen et al. 2013). From a classical perspective,
the behavior of chemical elements is assessed by a
sequential or selective extraction procedure like BCR
method, which provides semi-quantitative information
on their compartmentalization in soils and their mobility
and bioavailability in relation to the stability of interactions
developed with soil components or the solid metal compounds
formed (e.g. Van Herreweghe et al. 2003; Neel et al.
2007; Pueyo et al. 2008; Anju and Banerjee 2010; Smith et al.
2011; Uzu et al. 2011; Boussen et al. 2013). The coupling of
this BCR chemical procedure with a mineralogical approach
(e.g. XRD, SEM, TEM) allows determining the various
bearing phases of metal(loid)s in soils (Kovács et al. 2006;
Otones and Alvarez-Ayuso 2011; Chiang et al. 2010) and then
leads to predicting their stability.
According to Pelfrêne et al. (2012), soils enriched with
metal(loid)s can pose a potential threat to human health if
directly ingested or transferred through food. However, the
conventional BCR extraction procedure is not suitable for
assessing the bioavailable fraction of pollutants in the case
of accidental soil ingestion (e.g. children through outdoor
hand-to-mouth activities) (Day et al. 1979; Duggan et al.
1985; Wixson and Davies 1994). In reality, the human
bioavailability of a pollutant, whose contaminant fraction
is absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract and reaches
systemic circulation (Semple et al. 2004; Denys et al.
2009), is firstly controlled by its release from the solid
soil phase into the stomach, which defines bioaccessibility.
Recently, the Bioaccessibility Research Group of Europe
(BARGE) has developed a standardized procedure (Cave
et al. 2006) (known as the Unified Bioaccessibility Method, or UBM) for current use in contaminated soil studies
(Denys et al. 2009; Broadway et al. 2010; Button et al.
2008; Caboche et al. 2010; Denys et al. 2007; Pelfrêne
et al. 2011; Pelfrêne et al. 2012).
The main objectives of this survey are to estimate the
potential environmental and health risks associated with
Pb, Zn, As and Sb near the contamination source (an
abandoned mine tailing) relative to both receptor soils,
i.e. a soccer field and sediments. The scientific impact
and interests of this study pertain to the: (1) mobility
and bioaccessibility of metal(oid)s, (2) human risk assessments and (3) relationship between human risks and
solid-bearing phases in the environment. Compartmentation and speciation have been respectively determined
by BCR sequential extraction and mineralogical characterization. Moreover, the bioaccessibility of Pb, Zn, As
and Sb, in using both the gastric and intestinal phases,
has been measured in order to assess the human bioavailability of pollutants and highlight the health risks
caused by these contaminants with regard to the actual
recreational activities being practiced.
Materials and methods
Site description
This study focuses on a former Pb–Ag mine, located in the
French Massif Central region, that has been abandoned since
the early 1900s. Annual rainfall at the site roughly equals
983 mm, and the mean temperature is 9.5 °C. From 1860 to
1900, the Pontgibaud mine produced approximately 64,
100 m3 of mining waste enriched with contrasted metal(loid)s:
Pb, Zn, Sb and As. The lack of vegetation combined with the
tailing pile slopes has caused material instability. These mine
tailings have been exposed to both hydraulic and wind erosion, inducing a dispersion of toxic mining wastes in the river
and on the soccer field (Fig. 1). Moreover, these waste materials were used during the 1960s as the soccer field underlay,
the pathway running along the site and the sand for concrete
mixes. According to this, soccer field sampled is either classified as Technosols (‘dominated by human-made materials’)
(FAO 2006). Recreational activities (land or water) have taken
place at the site, serving to raise human exposure to the
pollutants, particularly as regards soccer players and young
children.
Sample collection and preparation
Various representative samples (up to 31) were extracted in
order to expose the potential environmental risks from this
tailing (references are indicated in Fig. 1). In sum, two composites (five-sample mixes) were drawn from the top of the
tailing, referred to as T1 and T2. Sample T3 corresponds to the
fines fraction of the waste material mobilized by runoff. The
pathway (T4) and soccer field topsoil (soils 1a and 1b; 0–5
and 5–10 cm in depth respectively) were also sampled. Moreover, surface sediment (0–5 cm) in the river running below the
tailing was sampled (Sed).
The samples were air-dried in the laboratory, then sieved to
2 mm and stored at ambient temperature in polyethylene
containers.
Physicochemical analysis
The grain size fraction <63 μm was obtained after sieving.
The soil pH was measured in a solid/liquid ratio of 1:5 with
double deionized water (NF ISO 10390 Standard). The organic C content was determined by the loss ignition method. The
cation exchange capacity (CEC) was determined according to
Fig. 1 Aerial photography of the former mining area with sample localization
the 0.05 N cobaltihexamine method at the soil pH (NF ISO
31–130 Standard). Double deionized water (18.2 MΩ cm−1)
was used for all experiments. All reagents were of analytical
reagent grade or higher purity.
Mineralogical analysis
Each sample was X-rayed after crushing by a PANalytical
X'Pert Pro diffractometer equipped with a diffracted-beam
monochromator. Analyses were carried out using Co Kα
radiation (40 kV, 40 mA) from 5 to 75 °2θ with a step size
of 0.04 °2θ /s. The XRD patterns were interpreted by running
the X'PertHighScore software. A semi-quantitative determination of the crystallized phases was performed according to
the RIR method and has been reported in terms of sample
representativeness.
Complementary scanning electron microscopy investigations were conducted on all samples after inclusion in resin
and thinly polished. Samples were observed using a SEM
Phillips XL30 operated at 20 KV and provided with an
energy-dispersive X-ray spectrum (EDS) analyser. These samples had previously been Au–Pd coated.
Geochemical analysis
Chemical analyses
Total metal(loid) contents were derived from X-ray fluorescence analyses (XRF) using an XMET 5100 commercialized
by OXFORD Instruments. Acquisitions were generated from
pressed pellets at times varying from 60 to 180 s, for major or
trace elements, respectively. The validation step involved total
metal concentrations measured after acidic mineralization.
Sequential extractions
Sequential extractions were performed using the BCR protocol Pérez-Cid et al. (1998) as reported in Table 1. In sum, 1 g
of materials was mixed with each solution. Following each
step, supernatants were obtained after centrifuging at 3,
300×g, 15 min and filtration with a 0.45-μm filter reference.
Metal(loid) contents were then analysed by inductively
coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES)
on an IRIS Intrepid II XXDL apparatus. Duplicate analyses
were performed on all samples.
Table 1 Sequential extraction protocol (BCR)
Fraction
Chemical reagents
Volume (ml)
Solid–solution
ratio (g/ml)
Sonication time
and power
F1: exchangeable fraction
F2: reducible fraction
Acetic acid (CH3COOH) 0.11 mol/l
Hydroxylammonium (HONH2·HCl) 0.10 mol/l
(reagent brought back to pH 2 with nitric acid 69 %)
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) 30 %
Ammonium acetate (C2H3O2NH4) 1 mol/l
(reagent brought back to pH 2 with nitric acid 69 %)
20
20
0.025
0.025
20 W for 7 min
20 W for 7 min
10
25
0.05
0.02
20 W for 2 min
20 W for 6 min
F3: oxidisable fraction
Bioaccessibility measurements
The bioaccessibility test simulates chemical conditions of the
gastrointestinal tract and is used to reproduce the phenomena
involved in the case of an accidental ingestion of polluted soil.
This protocol is based on the BARGE-unified protocol
(Denys et al. 2009; Pelfrêne et al. 2012).
Several extracting solutions representing gastric and intestinal attacks were thus prepared (see Table 2). In sum, 0.6 g of
soil were mixed in 9 ml of saliva (pH 6.5) and the mix was
shaken for 5 min. Next, 13.5 ml of gastric solution were added
(pH 1.0) and the pH suspension was adjusted to 1.2 using HCl
acid at 37 % g g−1. This suspension was then mixed with an
‘end-over’ agitator for 1 h at 37°C. pH remained between 1.2
and 1.7 by adding 37 % HCl. The intestinal phase was
obtained after centrifuging 3,000×g for 5 min. Metal(loid)
concentrations were derived after filtration (0.45 μm) by
ICP-OES. This same protocol was then applied to an intestinal
solution: 0.6 g of soil was mixed, with pH ranging between
5.8 and 6.8. Shaking lasted 4 h using an end-over agitator;
centrifugation at 3,000×g took another 5 min. Sample solutions were analysed by ICP-OES on an IRIS Intrepid II XXDL
device. Bioaccessibility results were expressed in terms of
percentage of total metal content. All tests were conducted
in duplicate.
Results and discussion
Physicochemical parameters and total metal(loid) contents
The set of physicochemical parameters are listed in Table 3; pH
values range from 3.9 to 6.3. On the whole, these low values are
characteristic of the region's underlying acidic bedrock. The
lowest pH values (3.9 to 4.3) are observed in the tailing samples
(T1, T2, T3 and T4). Soil samples from the soccer field display a
pH ranging from 6.0 to 6.3. The organic carbon contents of
tailing and sediment samples were between 0.4 and 0.8 wt% and
up to 7.7 wt% for topsoils. The cation exchange capacity (CEC)
is similar for both the tailing and sediment samples (between 4.4
and 4.6 cmol kg−1) and is highest for Soil 1a topsoil
(12 cmol kg−1) due to the presence of organic matter. Particle
size analysis shows that sample T3 is rich in fine particles, as a
result of the migration of fine particles from tailings by runoff
Table 2 Composition of the digestive solution used during the bioaccessibility test
Saliva
Gastric phase
Bile
Intestinal phase
KCl 89.6 g/l—10 ml
KSCN 20 g/l—10 ml
NaH2PO4 88.8 g/l—10 ml
NaCl 175.3 g/l—1.7 ml
NaOH 40 g/l—1.8 ml
urea 25 g/l—8 ml
α-Amylase—145 mg
Uric acid—15 mg
Mucin—50 mg
NaCl 175.3 g—15.7 ml
NaH2PO4 88.8 g/l—3 ml
KCl 89.6 g/l—9.2 ml
CaCl2.2H2O 22.2 g/l—18 ml
NH4Cl 30.6 g/l—10 ml
HCl 37 % g/g—8.3 ml
Glucose 65 g/l—10 ml
Glucoronic acid 2 g/l—10 ml
Urea 25 g/l—3.4 ml
Glucosonamine hydrochlorite 33 g/l—10 ml
Bovine albumine—1 g
Pepsin—1 g
Mucin—3 g
NaCl 175.3 g—30 ml
NaHCO3 84.7 g/l—68.3 ml
KCl 89.6 g/l—4.2 ml
HCl 37 % g/g—200 μl
urea 25 g/l—10 ml
CaCl2.2H2O 22.2 g/l—10 ml
Bovine albumine—1 g
Porcine bile
NaCl 175.3 g—40 ml
NaHCO3 84.7 g/l—40 ml
KH2PO4 8 g/l—10 ml
KCl 89.6 g/l—6.3 ml
MgCl2 5 g/l—10 ml
HCl 37 % g/g—180 μl
CaCl2.2H2O 22.2 g/l—9 ml
Bovine albumine—1 g
Pancreatin—3 g
Lipase—0.5 g
Table 3 Physicochemical characteristics of the samples
Sample
<63 μm
(g 100 g−1)
C org
(g 100 g−1)
pH
T1
T2
T3
T4
25.3
6.6
79.5
36.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.8
4.3
4.5
3.9
4.3
Sed
Soil1a
Soil1b
3.2
12.5
8.8
0.5
7.7
3.5
6.0
6.3
6.0
CEC
(cmol kg−1)
Pb
(mg kg−1)
Zn
As
Sb
4.5
4.5
4.4
4.6
16,603±27
9,651±19
38,412±45
15,686±222
1,064±7
786±6
1,309±9
1,177±7
354±113
325±72
330±78
592±111
196±14
157±13
363±18
228±15
4.6
12.1
5.4
12,675±23
2,930±106
2,780±104
DL=5
652±5
995±7
949±7
DL=3
189±55
242±54
261±53
DL=3
195±14
159±14
167±14
DL=34
DL detection limit
(hydric erosion). The physicochemical properties reveal similarities between the filling path materials (T4) and the tailings, with
a slight enrichment in fine particles, which were probably also
mobilized by tailing runoff.
In terms of metal(loid) contents, the tailing samples show
relatively high values. Lead (Pb) contents are respectively 16,
603 and 9,651 mg kg−l for T1 and T2 (Table 3). Several studies
on former mines in the French Massif Central and other countries
have yielded results of the same order of magnitude, e.g. 400 mg
Pb kg−l (Bodénan et al. 2004), 774 mg kg−l (Courtin-Nomade
et al. 2012), 5,091 mg kg−l (Ye et al. 2001) and 15,200 mg kg−l
(Wanat et al. 2013). Regarding zinc tailing contents, 1,064 and
786 mg kg−l were respectively found for T1 and T2. In comparison, these values average between 119 and 12,563 mg kg−l in
the literature (Ye et al. 2001; Bodénan et al. 2004; CourtinNomade et al. 2012). In the case of arsenic (As), tailing sample
concentrations are less than Pb and Zn (respectively 354 and
325 mg kg−l for T1 and T2). These As concentrations are
relatively low compared to similar study sites: 6,054 mg kg−l
and sometimes even reaching 83,000 mg kg−l (Bodénan et al.
2004; Wanat et al. 2013). Along the same lines, antimony (Sb)
concentrations amount to 196 mg kg−l for T1 and 157 mg kg−l
for T2. These values remain very low compared to the literature,
which reports some values of up to 11,560 mg kg−l (CourtinNomade et al. 2012). Greater concentrations in both Pb (38,
412 mg kg−l) and Sb (363 mg kg−l) were observed in the T3
sample, whereas concentrations in Zn (1,309 mg kg−l) and As
(330 mg kg−l) are of the same order of magnitude as the tailings.
For the filling path (T4), the Pb, Zn, As and Sb contents were
respectively 15,686, 1,177, 592 and 228 mg kg−l. These values
lie close to those of tailings T1, except for the recording of a
major Sb enrichment.
As expected, sediments (Sed) near the riverside show high
metal(loid) contents: 12,675, 652, 189 and 195 mg kg−l for Pb,
Zn, As and Sb, respectively. These values are much higher
relative to the geochemical background (Grosbois et al. 2012)
and median European stream sediments (Salminen 2005) Moreover, over 1 m of riverside, the metal(loid) contents are roughly
4,973, 597 and 135 mg kg−l for Pb, Zn and Sb, respectively (data
not shown). Another study on downstream river sediments conducted by Cottard (2010) indicated concentrations of Pb, Zn and
As (Sb was not measured) much lower and nearer the geochemical background: 383, 201 and 110 mg kg−l, respectively.
With respect to the soil samples, Pb contents are 2,930 and
2,780 mg kg−l for soils 1a and 1b. In contrast, Zn seems to be
more heavily concentrated than Pb on the soccer field, as the
contents are nearly identical to those observed for the mine
waste deposit (up to 950 mg kg−l). As and Sb contents however appear to be slightly lower than those of the deposit, with
values typically one-third less (250 mg kg−l for As and
150 mg kg−l for Sb). Regardless of the particular element,
the contents are considerably higher than the natural background (Baize 1997; Reimann et al. 2003; Diomides 2005;
Wilson et al. 2010) and playgrounds/recreation parks in several cities of the world (Carr et al. 2008; Elom et al. 2013).
Many soccer field contamination sources are making contributions: (1) the side paths have been laid from waste tailings,
which has led to spreading pollution towards the soccer field
from particles, notably under shoes; (2) surface input from
runoff and wind deposits of tailing particles and (3) topsoil has
been many times disturbed during the grass maintenance.
Independent of the elements and samples, the metal(loid)
contents exceed the predicted values of no-effect concentrations of soils (PNECsoil—12 mg kg−l for Pb, 24 mg kg−l for
Zn, 1.6 mg kg−l for As, and 37 mg kg−l for Sb, Smolders
et al. 2009; Reimann et al. 2010), thus corresponding to
the values that define the threshold used in environmental
risk assessment. These results therefore suggest a significant
contamination around the mine waste deposit in each
environmental compartment (sediments and soils) surrounded
by the hydric and aerial vectors.
Mineralogical characterization
The XRD and SEM-EDS analyses are reported in Figs. 2 and 3,
respectively. XRD results clearly show, for all samples, that the
Qtz + Beu
Qtz + Musc
Qtz + Beu
Qtz
Qtz
Ang
Musc
Qtz
Qtz
Fds
AngBeu
Chl
Qtz + Ang
Chl + Kaol
Beu
Musc
Chl
Musc
Fig. 2 XRD patterns of the study
samples (tailings, sediments and
soils). Musc: muscovite; Kaol:
kaolinite; Chl: chlorite; Qtz:
quartz; Fds: feldspar; Beu:
beudantite; Ang: anglesite
Intensity
T1
T2
T3
T4
Sed
Soil 1a
Soil 1b
5
15
25
35
45
55
65
Position (°2 )
mineralogical background corresponds to quartz (SiO2), orthoclase (KAlSi3O8) and phyllosilicates, such as muscovite
(KAl 2 (OH) 2 AlSi 3 O 10 ), chlorite ((Mg,Fe,Mn,Al) 12 ((Si,
Al)8O20)(OH)16) and kaolinite (Si2Al2O5(OH)4). The quartz
and muscovite constitute the major phases in terms of a semiquantitative approach (Table 4). As expected, T3 and T4 are
enriched in clay (i.e. depending on topography), whereas the
amount of quartz decreases. These results are consistent with
the grain size fractions (Table 3). The fine clay particles are
leached by runoff (e.g. producing a stormwater impact) in
accordance with a standard sedimentary logic. As regards the
soccer field surface, the mineralogy is dominated by the same
solid phases (i.e. quartz, micas, feldspars, kaolinite and chlorite), which is consistent with these soil materials. The presence
of barite is also to be noted.
For all samples, the major metal(loid)-bearing phases are
anglesite (PbSO4) and beudantite (PbFe3(AsO4)(SO4)(OH)6);
from a semi-quantitative XRD, these represent overall about 6
and 1 % respectively of all samples (data not shown), with the
T3 samples being the leading bearing phases. The SEM-EDS
analyses serve to confirm the XRD results, in addition to
highlighting the presence of less crystallized bearing phases,
like lead oxides (PbO), Fe–oxyhydroxides, Zn/Fe–
oxyhydroxides and Pb/Fe–oxyhydroxides (Fig. 3). Zn
however seems to be slightly diffuse. Moreover, Sb-bearing
phases could not be identified due to: (1) the small concentration in each sample and (2) the very diffuse characteristic of
Sb. Recently, Joussein et al. (2013) showed that Sb is associated with the beudantite structure in an old mine site from the
Limousin region (French Massif Central). Lastly, based on the
proportion of mineral phases derived from XRD and SEMEDS, the metal(loid)-bearing phases are distributed relatively
homogeneously over the tailing and sediment samples.
Concerning the soccer field, the presence of beudantite and
anglesite is effective but in smaller amounts and any lead
oxides was detected in topsoils. A large number of bearing
phases are correlated with the presence of amorphous-bearing
phases (mainly metal(loid)-rich Fe–oxyhydroxides and
organo-mineral matrix). The geochemical distribution of metal(loid)s in each sample provides an understanding of their
behavior and stability over time.
Geochemical compartmentation in solid sample metal(loid)s
Sequential extractions (BCR)
The distribution of Pb, Zn, As and Sb fractions is shown in
Fig. 4. The exchangeable fraction (F1) corresponds to the
Table 4 Evolution in minerals, as estimated by the relative intensities of
XRD reflections for all samples studied
a
Quartz
Orthoclase
Muscovite
Kaolinite
Beudantite
PbFe3(AsO4)(SO4)(OH6)
Anglesite
PbSO4
Quartz
SiO2
Chlorite
Beudantite
Anglesite
a
b
T1
T2
T3
T4
Sed
a
a
a
a
b
c
c
c
b
b
b
d
d
d
b
c
c
c
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
c
Soil 1a
Soil 1b
a
a
d
d
b
d
d
d
c
c
c
c
d
c
c
c
c
c
Predominant
b
Dominant
c
Minor
d
Abundant
Iron oxyhydroxides and clay mixture
Pb 2% wt. ; As 1% wt. ; Zn 0.5% wt.
c
Iron oxyhydroxides
Pb 4% wt. ; As 1% wt.
Fig. 3 SEM-EDS photography in BSE mode: a tailing, b sediment and c
soil samples
easily soluble metal fraction. These labile Pb contents represent 1 to 13 % of total Pb concentrations; therefore, a nonnegligible share is effective for the labile Zn with values
ranging from 0.4 to 19 %. These results are in agreement with
the literature, which indicates a Pb percentage in F1 typically
ranging from 0 to 15 % and from 0 to 40 % for Zn (Cappuyns
et al. 2007; Rodrıguez et al. 2009). Conversely, the maximum
values obtained for As (0.6 %, Sed sample) and Sb (0.4 %, T3
sample) in exchangeable form are very low, as previously
observed in other studies (Fotovat and Naidu 1998; PérezCid et al. 1998; He 2007).
The fraction corresponding to the rather poorly crystalline
Fe/Mn oxyhydroxides and sulfates is called the reducible
fraction (F2). For Pb, the share of this fraction accounts for 3
to 25 % of total content. These values seem to be similar to
those previously found in the literature (between 20 and 40 %,
(Cappuyns et al. 2007; Álvarez-Valero et al. 2009). This result
is also in agreement with the mineralogical characterization
(see above). Anglesite, which is a Pb–sulfate, and Pb/Fe–
oxyhydroxide mixtures have been derived from the SEM
analyses (Fig. 3). Similarly, the Zn percentage in F2, which
amounts to between 0.5 and 11 %, lies within the range
presented in the literature (Álvarez-Valero et al. 2009;
Rodrıguez et al. 2009). The relation between Zn and Feoxyhydroxides, as highlighted in the SEM analyses, explains
the significance of these values especially for the topsoils. The
amounts of As and Sb for the F2 fraction are relatively low to
near-zero (recorded at 0.2 and 0.02 % for As and Sb, respectively). These values are low comparatively to the literature,
which reports around 5 to 10 % for As and 0 to 5 % for Sb (He
2007; Álvarez-Valero et al. 2009).
Third fraction extractions (F3) show that Pb is associated,
for 20 % on average, with the oxidizable fraction (Fig. 4),
which corresponds to the organic matter and sulfides. Since no
Pb–sulfides, like galena (PbS), have been identified during the
solid characterization, only the role of organic matter is to be
taken into consideration. This role is clearly apparent for the
soccer field samples, which are rich in organic matter (up to
30 % Pb for the F3 fraction). Zinc contents seem to be lower
than the observed literature data (i.e. around 10 % Rodrıguez
et al. 2009); 0.5 to 1 % of Zn is associated with the F3 fraction
F1: exchangeable fraction
F2: reductible fraction
F3: oxidizable fraction
F4: residual fraction
Fig. 4 Distribution of Pb, Zn, As and Sb according to the selected sequential extraction protocol (BCR)
(Fig. 4). In all likelihood, the diffuse presence of Zn can be
correlated with the presence of organic matter and iron
oxyhydroxides. Arsenic exhibits a very slight tendency to be
found with the oxidizable fraction since the values encountered
range from 1 to 4 %, which is low compared to the literature
(Álvarez-Valero et al. 2009). The Sb part in F3 remains negligible (0.5 to 1 % at most), as already demonstrated in literature
for other mining sites (Anju and Banerjee 2010).
The residual fraction is the most stable, i.e. with metal(loid)s
linked to the crystal structure and non-attackable by the F1, F2
and F3 fractions. The values obtained equal roughly 40 to 70 %
for Pb, 75 to 98 % for Zn and 95 % to nearly 100 % for As and
Sb (Fig. 4). These results indicate that As and Sb are mainly
concentrated in the residual fraction, considered to be long-term
stable with a very low risk of contaminant release into the
environment. In this study, the major As- (and Sb-) bearing
phase is beudantite, which is very stable according to the works
of Frentiu et al. (2009), Frost et al. (2011) and, more recently,
Joussein et al. (2013) in mining-related contexts.
BCR extractions are currently used to evaluate the potential
environmental risk relative to metal(loid) compartmentation:
it is commonly accepted that the metals associated with the
residual fraction are potentially weakly mobilized and bioavailable. In this instance, the compartmentation of elements
differs: Pb and Zn are significantly spread across all BCR
fractions, whereas As and Sb are primarily associated with the
residual fraction. Moreover, since no modification of the As
and Sb chemical speciation has been highlighted among all
samples (tailings, soccer field soils and sediments), it can be
concluded that the presence of the As- and Sb-bearing phases
in soils and sediments is due to hydric transfer relative to
runoff events or, albeit to a lesser extent given the context,
to wind deposits. Moreover, the nature of As/Sb-bearing
phases does not change during transfer. Therefore, the metals
remain associated with these same phases during transport
from tailings to topsoil or sediments. This fact induces non
mobile characters of these two elements in topsoil.
Metal(loid) human bioaccessibility
Bioaccessibility results are listed in Table 5. These results
expose the modification in terms of bioaccessibility: (1) between tailings or sediments and soils samples and (2) between
gastric and intestinal bioaccessibility. The same behavior
however can be found between As–Sb and Pb–Zn, which
matches the findings of BCR experiments.
Pb bioaccessibility from gastric phase extraction depends
on the sample origin and ranged from 7.2 to 40.6 % (Table 5).
In tailings T1 and T2, Pb bioaccessibility was around 20 %.
For the sediment samples, Pb gastric bioaccessibility ranged
between 7.2 and 19.0 %. The highest Pb gastric bioaccessibility is effective for soccer field soil samples, with approx.
40.6 % (soil 1a) and 39.8 % (soil 1b). These values are
relatively low compared to those obtained in a mining context
(Smith et al. 2011) and can be explained by the relative
stability of beudantite. Regarding the intestinal phase, the
values are spread from 3.3 to 10.7 %, which agrees closely
with the literature (Smith et al. 2011). The Pb gastric
Table 5 Determination of Pb, Zn, As and Sb bioaccessibility
Sample
T1
T2
T3
T4
Sed
Soil 1a
Soil 1b
Pb bioaccessibility (%)
Zn bioaccessibility (%)
As bioaccessibility (%)
Sb bioaccessibility (%)
Gastric phase
Intestinal phase
Gastric phase
Intestinal phase
Gastric phase
Intestinal phase
Gastric phase
Intestinal phase
21.5±1.3
23.3±0.7
7.2±0.4
13.6±0.9
19.0±0.5
40.6±0.4
39.8±1.8
5.3±0.8
3.4±1.3
3.3±0.3
5.9±0.9
10.7±1.6
7.3±0.5
6.7±0.2
1.9±1.3
1.7±0.7
23.1±0.4
2.6±0.9
30.7±0.4
28.5±0.4
26.9±1.8
0.9±0.1
0.9±0.1
13.6±0.2
1.8±0.2
25.5±3.2
5.1±0.2
4.9±0.3
11.3±1.3
4.9±0.7
6.4±0.4
2.3±0.9
5.3±0.4
7.6±0.4
6.0±1.8
11.2±0.3
7.1±0.3
8.7±0.4
3.1±0.1
10.8±5.4
8.4±0.1
8.1±0.5
<DL
<DL
<DL
<DL
<DL
<DL
<DL
<DL
<DL
<DL
<DL
<DL
<DL
<DL
DL detection limit
bioaccessibility observed for soils is generally on the order of
60 %, whereas intestinal bioaccessibility ranged from 2 to
10 % (Juhasz et al. 2011; Smith et al. 2011). It is wellknown that the toxic effect of a metallic or semi-metallic
element depends on its chemical speciation. According to
BCR extractions, Pb was distributed in the four fractions, with
an upper trend line for the more stable fraction (residual
fraction, see Fig. 4). These results are therefore consistent.
The real risk to human health is determined by comparing Pb
bioaccessibility, soil content and the Pb tolerable daily intake
(TDI). This TDI measure corresponds to the smallest human
intake without any risk chronic effects occurring; it is usually
expressed on the basis of body weight in microgramme per
kilogramme of body weight per day. Since TDIPb equals
0.15 μg kg bw−1 day−1 (Winter-Sorkina et al. 2003), this value
represents 7.5 μg/day for a human weighing 50 kg. The
accidental ingestion of 1 g of soccer field soil can, according
to the worst case scenario, deliver in an adult body 50 % of 2,
930 μg Pb (Table 3), thus 1,451.5 μg, which greatly exceeds
the reference TDIPb. This value would increase in the case of a
child's ingestion. Consequently, the Pb health risk is significant even if an accidental 1 g daily ingestion of soil proves to
be relatively improbable.
The Zn gastric bioaccessibility and intestinal phase ranged
from 1.7 to 30.7 % and 5.1 % and 4.9 %, respectively, with the
highest percentage obtained for the soccer field. These values
are relatively low compared to literature data (Turner et al.
2009). In addition, a comparison of the Zn bioaccessible part
for all samples corroborates the values obtained in BCR
extraction (Table 5 and Fig. 4). Total bioaccessibility corresponds on average to 35 %. Since Zn is a micronutrient, TDIZn
is greater than TDIPb: TDIZn =0.6 mg kg bw−1 day−1 (Okorie
et al. 2012). The soil content amounts to 2,930 mg kg−1, thus
for an ingestion of 1 g, only 1,025.5 μg are accessible, which
represents 3 % for a 50-kg human TDI. In this context,
therefore, Zn does not constitute a health risk in the soccer
field nor in the site context (tailing, soil and sediment
samples).
The As gastric bioaccessibility varied from 2.3 to 11.3 %,
and the range was similar for the intestinal phase. As opposed
to Pb bioaccessibility, higher values were observed for the T1
sample (up to 11 % for both phases, compared to 6.0–8.4 % in
the soccer field soil samples). The 14.3 % average of total As
bioaccessibility means that As-bearing phases are fairly stable,
which is in agreement with the mineralogical and BCR results
(beudantite phase; see above). As regards the health risks
associated with the presence of As, TDIAs is equal to
0.3 mg kg bw−1 day−1 (Okorie et al. 2012), which corresponds
to 0.015 mg day−1 for a 50-kg human. One gram of soccer
field soil samples can thus deliver 14.3 % of 0.261 mg of As
(Table 3), i.e. 0.037 mg of As. This amount is 2.5 times greater
than the TDI value; consequently, even if As bioaccessibility
remains very low, the acute toxicity risk is in effect for As due
to its high toxicity level.
In this study, Sb bioaccessibility appears to be nonexistent.
This result is not in accordance with the limited literature
available for this element. In the mining context for example,
Denys et al. (2009) observed a Sb bioaccessibility ranging
from 1 to 10.8 %. The difference with this study pertains to the
difference in Sb-bearing phases. In this study, Sb is in fact
associated with the beudantite structure, which as confirmed
by results is stable (see BCR experiments above and Joussein
et al. 2013). No human health risk can thus be attributed to the
Sb element.
Generally speaking, the metal(loid) bioaccessibility approach herein matches the results obtained in previous surveys. The direct health risk is certain for Pb and As elements,
in particular on the type of soccer field classically used for
sports and recreation.
Conclusion
This study has highlighted the environmental and health impacts of mining wastes enriched with Pb, Zn, As and Sb. The
metal(loid)-bearing particles are slowly dispersed from tailing
waste materials into the surrounding environment (sediments
and soils) mainly by runoff (hydric) transport and, to a lesser
extent, by wind deposits. Moreover, the health risk assessment
is indeed pertinent and increasing over time, since the site's
periphery is currently being used: (1) as an active soccer field
and (2) for swimming in the river during the summer season.
In accordance with the mineralogical characterization of the
various metal(loid)-bearing phases, BCR extraction results
demonstrate that As and Sb are mainly associated with stable
minerals in the residual fraction, whereas Pb and Zn are quite
evenly distributed across the various soil fractions. The potential health risk induced by solid particle ingestion, assessed
using measured metal(loid) bioaccessibility values, is in perfect agreement with the speciation analysis. More specifically,
Pb and Zn are relatively bioaccessible as compared to As and
Sb. The health risks associated with accidental soccer field or
material ingestion should thus be taken into account since the
64,000 m3 of tailings represent even today a major contaminant dispersion risk. Moreover, due to the sizable tailing
ponds, it can be reasonably assumed that airborne particle
inhalation could increase the exposure to metal(loid)s since
motocross and biking activities are also currently being practiced on the site.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge firstly the
anonymous reviewer for their helpful and constructive comments and the
Regional Council for the study financial support.
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