The Bulgarian State in 927–969
The Epoch of Tsar Peter I
Edited by
Mirosław J. Leszka, Kirił Marinow
BY Z A N T I NA LODZ I E NSI A
Series of the Department of Byzantine History of the University of Łódź
Founded by
Professor Waldemar Ceran
in
1997
№ XXXIV
BY Z A N T I NA LODZ I E NSI A
XXXIV
The Bulgarian State in 927–969
The Epoch of Tsar Peter I
Edited by
Mirosław J. Leszka, Kirił Marinow
Translated by
Lyubomira Genova
Marek Majer
Artur Mękarski
Michał Zytka
Mirosław J. Leszka, Kirił Marinow – University of Łódź
Faculty of Philosophy and History
Institute of History, Department of Byzantine History
27a Kamińskiego St., 90-219 Łódź (Poland)
bizancjum@uni.lodz.pl
© Copyright by Authors, Łódź–Kraków 2018
© Copyright for this edition by University of Łódź, Łódź–Kraków 2018
© Copyright for this edition by Jagiellonian University Press, Łódź–Kraków 2018
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Contents
Forword .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
Sources and Modern Scholarship Zofia A. Brzozowska, Mirosław J. Leszka,
Kirił Marinow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.
Sources .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1. Foreign Sources .
1.2. Native Sources .
2.
5
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
Literature on the Subject
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
Part One: The Events
Chapter I
Peter’s Way to the Bulgarian Throne Mirosław J. Leszka
. . . . . . . . . . . .
23
Chapter II
Bulgarian-Byzantine Relations during the Reign of Symeon I
the Great (893–927) Mirosław J. Leszka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Chapter III
Peace Mirosław J. Leszka, Kirił Marinow
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
vi
The Bulgarian State in 927–969. The Epoch of Tsar Peter I
1.
Negotiations
2.
Peace Treaty
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
Chapter IV
The Byzantine Consort of the Bulgarian Ruler: Maria Lekapene
Zofia A. Brzozowska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.
Origins and Early Years
2.
The Year 927 – a Wedding among Peace Negotiations .
3.
Maria Lekapene as a Mother
4.
On the Bulgarian Throne at Peter’s Side
5.
Maria’s Death .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
Chapter V
The Internal Situation Mirosław J. Leszka, Kirił Marinow
1.
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
Fighting Internal Opposition .
1.1. John’s Plot
1.1.1.
John’s Fate after the Plot
1.2. Michael’s Rebellion
2.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
Characterisation of Domestic Policy
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
104
Chapter VI
Foreign Policy Mirosław J. Leszka, Kirił Marinow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
1.
The Serbian Question
2.
Hungarians
3.
Relations with Otto I .
4.
The Rus’ and the Pechenegs .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
111
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
120
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
129
132
vii
Contents
Chapter VII
Last Years of Peter’s Reign (963–969) Mirosław J. Leszka, Kirił Marinow 137
1.
The Crisis in Bulgarian-Byzantine Relationships .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
139
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
148
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
151
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
157
1.1. Testimony of the Life of St. Phantinos the Younger
2.
The Invasions of Svyatoslav (968)
3.
Death of Peter
Chapter VIII
The Year 971 Mirosław J. Leszka, Kirił Marinow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Part Two: The Structures
Chapter I
The Environment and Geopolitics of the State Kirił Marinow . . . . . . 173
Chapter II
The Economy Kirił Marinow .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.
Agriculture and Animal Husbandry
2.
Crafts and City Development
3.
Trade
203
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
203
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
207
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
216
Chapter III
Everyday Life Nikolay Hrissimov
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
223
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
223
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
226
1.
Climate and Environment
2.
Society
viii
The Bulgarian State in 927–969. The Epoch of Tsar Peter I
2.1. Women
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2. Children
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.
Food and Nutrition
4.
Dwellings .
5.
Holidays and Celebration
227
233
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
239
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
250
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
251
Chapter IV
State Organisation and Power Hierarchy in the Bulgarian Empire
(927–969) Georgi N. Nikolov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Chapter V
Armed Forces and the Defence System of Peter’s State
Kirił Marinow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
1.
The Army and its Organisation
2.
The Defence System of the Bulgarian State
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
270
280
Chapter VI
Wild, Haughty and Menacing Highlanders: Bulgarians and
Mountains in the Context of Byzantine-Bulgarian Armed Conflicts
Kirił Marinow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Chapter VII
The Church Mirosław J. Leszka, Jan M. Wolski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
1.
The Status of the Bulgarian Church and its Organisation Mirosław J. Leszka
2.
Monasticism Jan M. Wolski
3.
Bogomilism Jan M. Wolski
.
303
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
317
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
335
ix
Contents
Chapter VIII
The Culture Zofia A. Brzozowska, Angel Nikolov
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.
Political Ideology, Education and Literature Angel Nikolov
2.
Art and Church Architecture Zofia A. Brzozowska
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
347
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
380
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
380
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
392
2.1. Church Architecture and Sculpture
2.2. Painting .
347
Part Three: The Interpretations
A. Medieval Visions
Chapter I
The Portrayal of Peter in Mediaeval Sources Mirosław J. Leszka . . . . . 405
1.
Byzantine Sources
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1. Peter’s Titulature in the Byzantine Sources
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
405
405
1.2. Portrayal of Peter in the Context of the Conclusion of Peace in 927 and
at the Beginning of his Reign
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
410
1.3. Peter’s Religious Attitude. Portrayal of the Ruler in the Final Years of
his Reign .
2.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bulgarian Sources
2.1. Titulature
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
419
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
420
2.2. The Sermon against the Heretics
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3. Peter in the Lives of St. John of Rila
Other Sources
421
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
421
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
425
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
430
2.4. Peter in the Tale of the Prophet Isaiah
3.
415
3.1. Peter in the Works of Liudprand of Cremona
3.2. Ibrahim ibn Yakub’s Relation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
430
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
433
x
The Bulgarian State in 927–969. The Epoch of Tsar Peter I
Chapter II
War and Peace in the House of the Lord: A Conflict among
Orthodox Christians and its Overcoming according to the
Homily ‘On the Treaty with the Bulgarians’ Kirił Marinow . . . . . . . 435
1.
War and its Influence
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1. The Effects of Violence
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2. The Author’s Reaction, Feelings, Thoughts and Attitude to War
The Motive of Peace
438
. . . . . .
439
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
443
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
446
1.3. Some Conclusions on Rhetorical Authenticity
2.
438
2.1. The New Israel or the Body of Christ
2.2. God is Peace among Christians
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
446
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
450
Chapter III
The Cult of the Bulgarian Tsar Peter (927–969) and the Driving
Ideas of the Bulgarian Liberation Uprisings against the Byzantine
Rule in the 11th–12th Century Miliana Kaymakamova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
1.
2.
A Brief Overview of the History of the Cult of Tsar Peter in Medieval
Bulgaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
460
The Importance of the Cult of Tsar Peter for the Conceptual Justification
of the Bulgarian Liberation Uprisings in the 11th–12th Century . . . . . . . .
. .
468
B. Modern views
Chapter IV
The Portrayal of Peter in Modern Historiography Jan M. Wolski . . . . 481
1.
Seventeenth to Mid-Eighteenth Centuries
2.
Mid-Eighteenth to Mid-Nineteenth Century: The Birth of Native
Historiography and the Development of Historical Literature in the
Balkans and in Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
483
494
xi
Contents
3.
Historiography after the 1850s
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1. Classical Historiography on Medieval Bulgaria
3.2. Peter’s Rehabilitation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
511
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
522
3.3. Peter’s Place in the Historical Memory and Political Ideology
Conclusion
. . . . . . .
525
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
529
Abbreviations
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
535
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
543
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
543
Bibliography
1. Sources
2. Modern Scholarship
Indices
511
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
557
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
635
1. Index of People and Personages
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Index of Ethnic, Religious and Geographic Names
Illustrations
635
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
652
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
663
Foreword
T
sar Peter I (927–969) had not previously been the subject of a monograph. This is despite the fact that he was the longest reigning monarch
in the history of mediaeval Bulgaria, and being counted among the saints
by the Bulgarian Church. There had been, however, works discussing the
reigns of his two predecessors – Boris I and Symeon I – his grandfather
and father, and also the life of the most popular anchorite living in his
times, St. John of Rila.
On the one hand it appears to be understandable, since the scarcity
of the sources relating to his reign does not allow constructing a full
image of either Peter himself, nor of his reign. Despite the appearances,
however, the silence of the sources from his era did not shield this ruler
from numerous negative judgements about him, formulated by generations of scholars. They spoke of his lack of character, torpid governance
and his focus on religious over political matters. He was accused of being
a protégé of Constantinople and serving the Byzantine cause, and leading
the state into a social breakdown, which manifested itself through, i.a.,
the Byzantinisation of the court and the development of the Bogomilist
heresy. Finally, counted amongst his failures was the political disintegration which resulted in the state’s downfall – under Rus’ and Byzantine
2
The Bulgarian State in 927–969. The Epoch of Tsar Peter I
pressure – near the end of his reign and during the reign of his son and
successor, Boris II.
These evaluations suffered from a one major methodological fault
– assessing Peter primarily from the perspective of the accomplishments
of the aforementioned two great predecessors. Boris-Michael led to
Bulgaria’s Christianisation and an instilling among his subjects a new
literary and liturgical language with which they could express their faith
and through which they adapted the grand cultural achievements of the
Christian Byzantium for their own use. These two elements had a powerful influence on the final consolidation of the state and the subjects of the
Bulgarian rulers. Symeon, who not only contributed to the great cultural
growth of Bulgaria, but was primarily remembered on the pages of history
as an able and ambitious ruler who led Bulgaria to the apex of military
might, establishing the country as a power at the international arena
and in the political sphere. In comparison with them, the reign of their
descendant appeared indistinct at best, or outright decadent – devoid
of any great territorial gains or major cultural developments.
On the other hand, from the mid-twentieth century, there had been
burgeoning attempts at re-interpreting the reign of this ruler, rightly
questioning the portrayal of Peter’s reign fixed by the classic Bulgarian
mediaevists (and others), while the research into (widely understood)
material culture is providing increasingly more information about Bulgaria
of his time. For these reasons it seems to be fully justified to finally undertake larger scale research into Peter’s portraiture and the country he ruled.
In other words, to fill the existing gap in historiography regarding this
matter, and at the same time restore Peter to his rightful place in history.
This task, realised within the framework of the National Science
Centre (NCN), Poland, research grant was undertaken on the following
pages by an international team of scholars: employees of the Department
of Byzantine History and the Ceraneum Centre of the Łódź University
(Poland) and of the Department of History of Bulgaria of the St. Clement
of Ohrid University of Sofia (Bulgaria), with the minor participation
of the Department of Old and Medieval History of the St. Cyril and
St. Methodius University of Veliko Tarnovo (Bulgaria). In our reseach we
made two fundamental assumptions – that the original sources required
Foreword
3
a new reading taking into account the most recent achievements of the
worldwide Byzantine and mediaeval Bulgarian studies, and that the portrayal of Peter and his reign would be presented in fullest against the
backdrop of the Bulgarian state between 930s and the 960s.
We hope that this monograph is going to contribute to the preservation of a more balanced and generally positive evaluation of Peter I’s
role in the history of mediaeval Bulgaria.
***
We would like to thank our Colleagues from Ceraneum and from the
Department of Byzantine History and the Department of Slavic Studies,
all of University of Łódź (Poland), for the supportive attitude towards
our work: Prof. Maciej Kokoszko, Prof. Georgi Minczew, Prof. Teresa
Wolińska, Prof. Sławomir Bralewski, Prof. Ivan Petrov, Dr. Paweł
Filipczak, Dr. Agata Kawecka, Dr. Andrzej Kompa and Dr. Małgorzata
Skowronek. We thank Professor Jarosław Dudek from the University
of Zielona Góra for the meticulous and positive editorial review. We
thank Dr. Michał Zytka for editing and proofreading the English text.
We would also like to give thanks to Elżbieta Myślińska-Brzozowska for
providing the illustrations (drawings) for this volume.
***
This book was written as part of a research project financed by the
National Science Centre (Poland). Decision number: DEC-2014/14/M/
HS3/00758 (The Bulgarian State in 927–969. The Epoch of Tsar Peter I
the Pious).
The Editors
Zofia A. Brzozowska
Mirosław J. Leszka, Kirił Marinow
Sources
and Modern Scholarship
1. Sources
T
1.1. Foreign Sources
he sources that constitute the basis for the considerations presented
in this volume have predominantly been penned by the Byzantine authors1.
Crucially, many of the accounts which we are going to examine here were
1
The Reader will find a thorough overview of the Byzantine sources that include
information about Peter and Maria in the following work: Т. То д о р о в, България
през втората и третата четвърт на X век: политическа история, София 2006
[unpublished PhD thesis], pp. 19–17, 150–152. See also, i.a.: В. Гю з е л е в, Значението
на брака на цар Петър (927–969) с ромейката Мария-Ирина Лакапина (911–962),
[in:] Културните текстове на миналото – носители, символи, идеи, vol. I, Текстовете
на историята, история на текстовете. Материали от Юбилейната международна
конференция в чест на 60-годишнината на проф. д.и.н. Казимир Попконстантинов,
Велико Търново, 29–31 октомври 2003 г., София 2005, p. 32; А. Н и к о л о в,
Политическа мисъл в ранносредновековна България (средата на IX – края на X в.),
София 2006, pp. 233–236; Т. То д о р о в, Владетелският статут и титла на цар
Петър І след октомври 927 г.: писмени сведения и сфрагистични данни (сравнителен
анализ), [in:] Юбилеен сборник. Сто години от рождението на д-р Васил Хараланов
(1907–2007), Шумен 2008, pp. 94–95.
6
The Bulgarian State in 927–969. The Epoch of Tsar Peter I
written during tsar Peter’s life, or soon after his death. The most detailed
description of the developments of 927, i.e. the negotiations leading to
the conclusion of peace between the Empire and Bulgaria (the guarantee of which was to have been the marriage between Peter and a granddaughter of Romanos I Lekapenos), we find in a narrative written down
in the 10th century in Constantinople. It was created by authors from
the so-called ‘circle of Symeon Logothete’: Continuator of George the
Monk (Hamartolos), Symeon Logothete, Leo Grammatikos and PseudoSymeon Magistros2 .
The output of the anonymous Continuator of George the Monk
includes the description of events from 842 onwards – from the point
at which George’s narrative ended. The fragments devoted to Peter and
Maria are practically identical with the relevant passages in the Chronicle
of Symeon Logothete. The text is known in two variants. Redaction A,
older, written down prior to 963, describes the events prior to 948, i.e.
the death of Romanos I Lekapenos. The later redaction B includes the
history of Byzantium up to 963 (enhanced with certain additional details).
The older version of the Chronicle of Symeon Logothete is highly similar
to redaction A of the Continuation of George the Monk, while the newer
version closely resembles redaction B. In this monograph, we are not going
to differentiate between the redactions A and B, as the passages relating
to Maria Lekapene and Peter in both variants are identical. They include
first and foremost an unusually extensive and detailed narrative of the
events of 927, the beginning of Peter’s reign, the description of his brothers’
2
On the subject of Symeon Logothete and the works associated with his name, see:
В.Н. З л а т а р с к и, Известията за българите в хрониката на Симеон Метафраст
и Логотет, [in:] i d e m, Избрани произведения в четири тома, vol. I, ed. П. П е т р о в,
София 1972, pp. 359–573; А.П. К а ж д а н, Хроника Симеона Логофета, ВВ 15,
1959, pp.125–143; W. S w o b o d a, Kontynuacja Georgiosa, [in:] SSS, vol. II, p. 468;
М. К а й м а к а м о в а, Българска средновековна историопис, София 1990, pp. 170–171;
J. H o w a r d-J o h n s t o n, Byzantium, Bulgaria and the Peoples of Ukraine in the
890s, [in:] Материалы по археологии, истории и этнографии Таврии, vol. VII, ed.
А.И. А й б а б и н, Симферополь 2000, pp. 343–345; S. Wa h l g r e n, Autor und
Werk, [in:] S y m e o n L o g o t h e t e, pp. 3–8; A. B r z ó s t k o w s k a, Kroniki z kręgu
Symeona Logotety, [in:] Testimonia, vol. V, pp. 64–67; W. Tr e a d g o l d, The Middle
Byzantine Historians, New York–Basingstoke 2013, pp. 197–224.
Sources and Modern Scholarship
7
actions against him3 as well as a mention of the Bulgarian tsaritsa’s visits
to Constantinople in the later period4.
Textologically separate, but related in content, are the Chronicle of
Pseudo-Symeon Magistros and the Chronicle of Leo Grammatikos. Their
descriptions of the developments of 927 are similar to the ones discussed
above, but presented more concisely5.
The second, later redaction of the Chronicle of Symeon Logothete, completed ca. 963, most likely served as the basis for the anonymous author
of the first part of book VI of the Continuation of Theophanes, written at
roughly the same time6. It is hardly surprising, therefore, that this work’s
C o n t i n u a t o r o f G e o r g e t h e M o n k, pp. 904–907; S y m e o n L o g ot h e t e, 136. 45–51.
4
C o n t i n u a t o r o f G e o r g e t h e M o n k, p. 913; S y m e o n L o g o t h e t e,
136.67.
5
L e o G r a m m a t i k o s, pp. 315–317; P s e u d o-S y m e o n M a g i s t r o s, 33–34,
pp. 740–741.
6
Continuation of Theophanes encompasses the period between 813 and 961. Books
I–IV have been written by an anonymous author on Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos’
orders. Book V (Life of Basil) is often attributed to the emperor himself, while book
VI most likely had two authors. Its first part, covering the period after 886 until the
death of Romanos I Lekapenos (948) was written by an anonymous author, most likely
during Nikephoros II Phokas’ reign (963–969). As some scholars think, it is dependent
on one of the editions of Symeon Logothete’s work, in the version of Continuator
of George the Monk (edition B). The second, describing years 948–961, is associated
with the person of Theodore Daphnopates and was created – it is thought – prior
to 963. On the subject of authorship, source basis and the message of Continuation
of Theophanes: А.П. К а ж д а н, Из истории византийской хронографии X в., I,
O составе так называемой “Хроники Продолжателя Феофана”, ВВ 19, 1961, pp. 76–96;
A. M a r k o p o u l o s, Théodore Daphnopatés et la Continuation de Théophane, JÖB
35, 1985, pp. 171–182 (he considers the association of Daphnopates with Continuation
of Theophanes as exceedingly problematic); J. S i g n e s C o d o ñ e r, Algunas
consideraciones sobre la autoría del Theophanes Continuatus, Ery 10, 1989, pp. 17–28
(he ascribes the authorship of books I–V to Constantine VII himself ); J. L j u b a r s k i j,
Theophanes Continuatus und Genesios. Das Problem einer gemeinsamen Quelle, Bsl 48,
1987, pp. 45–55; i d e m, Сочинение Продолжателя Феофана. Хроника, история, жизнеописания?, [in:] П р о д о л ж а т е л ь Ф е о ф а н а, Жизнеописания византийских царей, еd. i d e m, Санкт-Петербург 1992, pp. 293–368; J.M. F e a t h e r s t o n e,
Theophanes Continuatus VI and De Cerimoniis I, 96, BZ 104, 2011, pp. 115–123 (he
supposes that the source’s compilation was done by parakoimomenos Basil, son
of Romanos I Lekapenos, during the reign of Nikephoros II Phokas); I. Š e v č e n k o,
3
8
The Bulgarian State in 927–969. The Epoch of Tsar Peter I
account of the circumstances in which the Bulgarian-Byzantine peace
treaty of 927 was concluded is also highly similar to the descriptions
mentioned above. It also includes a strikingly close depiction of the
marriage between Maria and Peter, as well as a record of the tsaritsa’s
several journeys to Constantinople, where, accompanied by her children,
she paid visits to her relatives7.
Some information on Peter’s times was also included in the works
of later Byzantine chroniclers: John Skylitzes8 and John Zonaras9. Both
of these authors included a description of the facts of 927, based on the
above-mentioned earlier accounts but presented in a more condensed
form10. Moreover, they also noted an event that, for obvious reasons, could
not have been mentioned by the authors of the earlier historiographical
works (concluded in the early 960s) – i.e. the death of Maria11 and the
Introduction, [in:] Chronographiae quae Theophanis Continuati nomine fertur
Liber que Vita Basilii Imperatoris amplectitur, ed. i d e m, Berlin 2011, pp. 3–13;
J.M. F e a t h e r s t o n e, Theophanes Continuatus: a History for the Palace, [in:] La face
cachée de la littérature byzantine. Le texte en tant que message immédiat, ed. P. O d o r i c o,
Paris 2012, pp. 123–135.
7
C o n t i n u a t o r o f T h e o p h a n e s, VI, 22–23, 35, pp. 412–415, 422.
8
Sýnopsis historión encompasses the period between 811 and 1057. It was most likely
written during the 1070s. For more information about John Skylitzes and his work,
see i.a.: H. T h u r n, Ioannes Skylitzes, Autor und Werk, [in:] J o h n S k y l i t z e s,
pp. VII–LVI; W. S e i b t, Johannes Skylitzes: Zur Person des Chronisten, JÖB 25, 1976,
pp. 81–85; J. B o n a r e k, Romajowie i obcy w Kronice Jana Skylitzesa. Identyfikacja
etniczna Bizantyńczyków i ich stosunek do obcych w świetle Kroniki Jana Skylitzesa,
Toruń 2003, pp. 15–24; C. H o l m e s, The rhetorical structure of Skylitzes’ Synopsis
Historion, [in:] Rhetoric in Byzantium, ed. E. J e f f r e y s, Aldershot 2003, pp. 187–199;
J.-C. C h e y n e t, John Skylitzes, the author and his family, [in:] J o h n S k y l i t z e s,
A Synopsis of Byzantine History, 811–1057, transl. J. Wo r t l e y, Cambridge 2010,
pp. IX–XI; B. F l u s i n, Re-writing history: John Skylitzes’ Synopsis historion,
[in:] J o h n S k y l i t z e s, A Synopsis…, pp. XII–XXXIII.
9
This work encompasses the history from the creation of the world until 1118, and
was written soon after that year. On John Zonaras and his chronicle: K. Z i e g l e r,
Zonaras, [in:] RE, vol. X.A.1, 1972, col. 718–732; I. G r i g o r i a d i s, Linguistic
and literary studies in the Epitome Historion of John Zonaras, Thessaloniki 1998;
T.M. B a n c h i c h, Introduction, [in:] The History of Zonaras from Alexander Severus
to the Death of Theodosius the Great, transl. i d e m, E.N. L a n e, New York 2009, pp. 1–19;
W. Tr e a d g o l d, The Middle…, p. 388sqq.
10
J o h n S k y l i t z e s, pp. 222–224; J o h n Z o n a r a s, pp. 473–475.
11
J o h n S k y l i t z e s, p. 255; J o h n Z o n a r a s, p. 495.
Sources and Modern Scholarship
9
final years of Peter’s reign12 . Another, particularly significant, source for
the final years of Peter’s reign is the History of Leo the Deacon13.
The works of Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos14 deserve particular
attention. He was of a similar age to Peter and his spouse and was married to
her aunt – Helena Lekapene; he also participated in the events of 927 and
most likely knew Maria personally. However, the ‘purple-born’ author is not
objective: he is unsympathetic to our heroine’s family and does not conceal
his outrage that she, a granddaughter of emperor Romanos I Lekapenos,
married a foreign, Slavic ruler. Constantine included an evaluation of this
marriage in chapter 13 of the treatise On the Governance of the Empire15.
J o h n S k y l i t z e s, p. 255sqq; J o h n Z o n a r a s, p. 495sqq.
Leo the Deacon was born ca. 950, and received a thorough education. As a clergyman, he was associated with the patriarchate of Constantinople and the imperial
court. He participated in the disastrous expedition of Basil II against the Bulgarians
in 986. His work was written after that event. On the subject of life and works of Leo
the Deacon, see i.a.: С.А. И в а н о в, Полемическая направленность Истории
Льва Диакона, ВВ 43, 1982, pp. 74–80; O. J u r e w i c z, Historia literatury bizantyńskiej, Wrocław 1982, pp. 181–182; М.Я. С ю з ю м о в, Лев Диакон и его время,
[in:] Л е в Д и а к о н, История, transl. М.М. К о п ы л е н к о, ed. Г.Г. Л и т а в р и н,
Москва 1988, pp. 137–165; The History of Leo the Deacon. Byzantine Military Expansion
in the Tenth Century, ed. A.-M. Ta l b o t, D.F. S u l i v a n, with assistance G.T. D e n n i s,
S. M c G r a t h, Washington 2006, pp. 9–52; A. K a z h d a n, History of Byzantine
Literature (850–1000), ed. Ch. A n g e l i d i, Athens 2006, pp. 278–286.
14
On the subject of Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos: P. L e m e r l e, Byzantine
Humanism: the First Phase. Notes and Remarks on Education and Culture in Byzantium
from the Origins to the 10th Century, transl. H. L i n d s a y, A. M o f f a t t, Canberra 1986,
p. 310sqq; A. To y n b e e, Constantine Porphyrogenitus and His World, London 1973;
T.E. G r e g o r y, The Political Program of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, [in:] Actes du
XVe Congrès International des Études Byzantines, vol. IV, Athènes 1985, pp. 122–133;
G. Ta n n e r, The Historical Method of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, BF 24, 1997,
pp. 125–140.
15
C o n s t a n t i n e V I I P o r p h y r o g e n n e t o s, On the Governance of
the Empire, 13, pp. 72–74. This work was created between 944 and 952, although
some of its parts may have been written earlier. Љ. М а к с и м о в и ћ, Структура
32. поглавља списа De admistrando imperio, ЗРВИ 21, 1982, p. 31 – believes
that chapter 32 was written between 927/928 and 944). A detailed analysis of
the work: К о н с т а н т и н Б а г р я н о р о д н ы й, Об управлении империей, еd.
Г.Г. Л и т а в р и н, А.П. Н о в о с о л ц е в, Москва 1989, pp. 276–457 (a list of academic literature – pp. 460–468). Cf. also: T. Ž i v k o v i ć, De conversione Croatorum et
Serborum. A Lost Source, Belgrade 2012. For the opinion of Constantine Porphyrogennetos
12
13
10
The Bulgarian State in 927–969. The Epoch of Tsar Peter I
Another of his works, the Book of Ceremonies16, may also prove a valuable
source. While it would be futile to search the pages of this text for direct
remarks on Maria, it does provide us with some important information
about the official status and titulature of the mid-10th century Bulgarian
ruler17.
Peter and Maria Lekapene are also mentioned, although very rarely,
by the western European sources. A particular role in this is played by
the contemporary to the tsar couple Liutprand of Cremona, who came
to Constantinople on a diplomatic mission twice (in 949 and in 968)18.
The person of Maria and the circumstances of her marriage with the
Bulgarian ruler drew Liudprand’s attention during both of his stays in
the Byzantine capital. In 968, the reasons were obvious – the goal of his
visit to Constantinople was, after all, to negotiate Nikephoros II Phokas’s
agreement to marry a ‘purple-born’ Byzantine woman to the son of Otto I.
The Byzantine-Bulgarian marriage of 927 may have been an important
argument during these negotiations, in that the rule according to which
a woman from the imperial family could not marry a foreign ruler was
on the Bulgarians, as well as on the causes of this ruler’s negative attitude towards the
Lekapenos family and their dynastic marriage of 927, see: Г. Л и т а в р и н, Константин
Багрянородный о Болгарии и Болгарах, [in:] Сборник в чест на акад. Димитър Ангелов,
ed. В. В е л к о в, София 1994, pp. 30–37; F. T i n n e f e l d, Byzantinische auswärtige
Heiratspolitik vom 9. zum 12 Jahrhundert, Bsl 54.1, 1993, pp. 21–22; Т. То д о р о в,
Константин Багренородни и династичният брак между владетелските домове на
Преслав и Константинопол от 927 г., ПКШ 7, 2003, pp. 391–398; В. Гю з е л е в,
Значението…, pp. 30–31; A. P a r o ń, “Trzeba, abyś tymi oto słowami odparł i to niedorzeczne żądanie” – wokół De administrando imperio Konstantyna VII, [in:] Causa
creandi. O pragmatyce źródła historycznego, ed. S. R o s i k, P. W i s z e w s k i, Wrocław
2005, pp. 345–361; А. Н и к о л о в, Политическа…, pp. 269–279.
16
It was created near the end of Constantine VII – likely during the years 957–959.
On the subject of this source – J.B. B u r y, The Ceremonial Book of Constantine
Porphyrogenitus, EHR 22, 1907, pp. 209–227; 417–439; A. M o f f a t t, The Master
of Ceremonies’ Bottom Drawer. The Unfinished State of the De cerimoniis of Constantine
Porphyrogennetos, Bsl 56, 1995, pp. 377–388; M. M a n i n i, Liber de Caerimoniis Aulae
Byzantinae: prosopografia e sepolture imperiali, Spoleto 2009.
17
C o n s t a n t i n e V I I P o r p h y r o g e n n e t o s, The Book of Ceremonies, II,
47, pp. 681–682.
18
L i u d p r a n d o f C r e m o n a, Retribution, III, 38, p. 86; L i u d p r a n d
o f C r e m o n a, Embassy, 16, 19, pp. 194–195.
Sources and Modern Scholarship
11
not strictly adhered to at the Constantinopolitan court19. Curiously,
Liudprand is also the only author to mention that, upon entering into
marriage, Maria adopted a new name (Irene, i.e. ‘Peace’), symbolically
underscoring the role she was to play in the Byzantine-Bulgarian relations
after 92720.
1.2. Native Sources
Regarding times of Peter and Maria, the native sources primarily serve
a complementary role. These are largely works that have been translated
from Greek, with minor authorial additions. Entirely original works are
less common. It is worth noting that tsaritsa Maria, aside from sphragistic
material, does not appear at all in sources of Bulgarian origin. Among
the Old Bulgarian texts that include mentions of tsar Peter, of particular
interest are: Sermon against the Heretics of Cosmas the Priest and Tale
of the Prophet Isaiah.
The Sermon against the Heretics may be considered as the first Slavic
heresiological treatise. It was written by Cosmas the Priest. This work
was most likely created either directly after tsar Peter’s death, or during
the 1040s. It is the fundamental source for learning about the Bogomilist
heresy and – from a broader perspective – about the religious life in the
contemporary Bulgaria21. Tale of the Prophet Isaiah (previously referred
to as Bulgarian Apocryphal Chronicle) is in turn an excellent testimony of the mediaeval Bulgarian historical and ‘national’ identity, which
in recent times became the basis for the study of the political ideology
in Bulgaria during the period being examined here. This semi-legendary
T. Wo l i ń s k a, Konstantynopolitańska misja Liudpranda z Kremony (968),
[in:] Cesarstwo bizantyńskie. Dzieje. Religia. Kultura. Studia ofiarowane Profesorowi
Waldemarowi Ceranowi przez uczniów na 70-lecie Jego urodzin, ed. P. K r u p c z y ń s k i,
M.J. L e s z k a, Łask–Łódź 2006, pp. 208–212.
20
J. S h e p a r d, A marriage too far? Maria Lekapena and Peter of Bulgaria, [in:] The
Empress Theophano. Byzantium and the West at the turn of the first millennium, ed.
A. D a v i d s, Cambridge 1995, pp. 126–127; В. Гю з е л е в, Значението…, p. 30.
21
Średniowieczne herezje dualistyczne na Bałkanach. Źródła słowiańskie, ed.
G. M i n c z ew, M. S k o w r o n e k, J.M. Wo l s k i, Łódź 2015, pp. 19–20, 67–70 (see
there for further literature).
19
12
The Bulgarian State in 927–969. The Epoch of Tsar Peter I
vision of history was created either during the latter half of the eleventh
century or – what is more likely – during the twelfth century22 .
In a study that requires the analysis of native sources (such as, e.g.,
research into the titulature of the Bulgarian rulers), the historian needs
to seek additional information by examining the Slavic translations
of Byzantine chronicles. From among the above-mentioned Greek historiographical texts, both versions of the Continuation of George the Monk
as well as the work of John Zonaras were certainly translated into the
language of the Orthodox Slavs23.
The Slavic translation of the Continuation of George the Monk was
completed in Bulgaria in the late 10th early 11th century, and it was based
on the newer, expanded redaction of the text (B), written after 963.
Therefore, the Slavic translation dates back to merely several decades
later than the original Greek version (i.e., incidentally, soon after Maria’s
death). According to numerous scholars, the Slavic translation is unusually
faithful to the original, preserving a version of the text that is closer to
the protograph than some of the extant Byzantine copies24.
On the subject of this work, see: K. M a r i n o w, Kilka uwag na temat ideologiczno-eschatologicznej wymowy “Bułgarskiej kroniki apokryficznej”, FE 4.6/7, 2007, pp. 61–75;
D. Č e š m e d ž i e v, Bułgarska tradycja państwowa w apokryfach: car Piotr w “Bułgarskiej
kronice apokryficznej”, transl. Ł. M y s i e l s k i, [in:] Biblia Slavorum Apocryphorum.
Novum Testamentum, ed. G. M i n c z e w, M. S k o w r o n e k, I. P e t r o v, Łódź 2009,
pp. 139–147; M. К а й м а к а м о в а, Значението на български апокрифен летопис (XI в.)
като извор за ранносредновековната българска култура, [in:] Stephanos Archaeologicos
in honorem Professoris Stephcae Angelova, ed. K. Р а б а д ж и е в, София 2010, pp. 593–612;
И. Б и л я р с к и, Сказание на Исая пророка и формирането на политическата идеология на ранносредновековна България, София 2011 [= I. B i l i a r s k y, The Tale of the
Prophet Isaiah. The Destiny and Meanings of an Apocryphal Text, Leiden–Boston 2013];
M. К а й м а к а м о в а, Власт и история в средновековна България (VII–XIV в.),
София 2011, pp. 183–216; V. Ta p k o v a-Z a i m o v a, A. M i l t e n o v a, Historical
and Apocalyptic Literature in Byzantium and Medieval Bulgaria, Sofia 2011, pp. 274–300.
23
Д.И. П о л ы в я н н ы й, Царь Петр в исторической памяти болгарского средневековья, [in:] Средновековният българин и “другите”. Сборник в чест на 60-годишнината на проф. дин Петър Ангелов, ed. А. Н и к о л о в, Г.Н. Н и к о л о в, София
2013, p. 139.
24
А.П. К а ж д а н, Хроника Симеона…, p. 126; W. S w o b o d a, Kontynuacja
Georgiosa…, p. 468; М. К а й м а к а м о в а, Българска…, pp. 170–171;
A. B r z ó s t k o w s k a, Kroniki…, pp. 64–66.
22
Sources and Modern Scholarship
13
Interestingly enough, another translation of the Chronicle of Symeon
Logothete (vel Continuation of George the Monk), entirely independent
from the translation discussed above, was produced in the 14th century in the South Slavic area. It was based on the older redaction of the
Byzantine chronicle (A), covering events until 948. In the manuscripts
of this translation, the work is unequivocally ascribed to Symeon
Logothete25. Again, the fragments of the source referring to Peter and
Maria Lekapene were rendered particularly faithfully, free from abbreviations or editorial interpolations26.
The Bulgarian translation of the Chronicle of John Zonaras (from the
second half of the 12th century) and especially the 14th century Serbian
redaction can hardly be considered complete. In the manuscripts containing the most extensive version of the Slavic text, we encounter a lacuna
between the reign of Leo VI (886–912) and that of Basil II (976–1025)27.
Looking for direct references to Peter’s times, therefore, we would be
searching them in vain. Interestingly, some information about Peter
and Maria was included into the synopsis of John Zonaras’ work by the
anonymous author of the manuscript РНБ, F.IV.307, containing a fourteenth-century Slavic translation of the chronicle of Symeon Logothetes28.
Remarks about Maria Lekapene and Peter can also be found in several Old Russian historiographical sources which were dependent content-wise, and sometimes even textologically, on Slavic translations
of Byzantine chronicles. Thus, the highly detailed description of the
events of 927 as well as the passage on Maria’s later visits to Constantinople
– de facto re-edited fragments of the Continuation of George the Monk
Г. О с т р о г о р с к и й, Славянский перевод хроники Симеона Логофета,
SK 5, 1932, pp. 17–37; А.П. К а ж д а н, Хроника…, p. 130; W. S w o b o d a, Symeon
Logotheta, [in:] SSS, vol. V, pp. 506–507; М. К а й м а к а м о в а, Българска…,
pp. 187–188; Т. То д о р о в, България…, pp. 155–156; i d e m, Владетелският…, p. 98;
A. B r z ó s t k o w s k a, Kroniki…, p. 66.
26
S y m e o n L o g o t h e t e (Slavic), pp. 136–137, 140.
27
О.В. Тв о р о г о в, Паралипомен Зонары: текст и комментарий, [in:] Летописи
и хроники. Новые исследования. 2009–2010, ed. О.Л. Н о в и к о в а, Москва–Санкт-Петербург 2010, pp. 3–101.
28
J o h n Z o n a r a s (Slavic), pp. 146, 156, 159.
25
14
The Bulgarian State in 927–969. The Epoch of Tsar Peter I
– were weaved into the text of the Hellenic and Roman Chronicle of the
second redaction29. The latter is a monumental relic of Rus’ historiography of the late Middle Ages, compiled prior to 1453 on the basis of native
accounts as well as Byzantine sources acquired in the East Slavic area
(e.g. the Chronicle of George the Monk and the Chronicle of John Malalas)30.
Three short notes about Lekapene and her husband, based i.a. on the
Bulgarian glosses to the Slavic translation of the Chronicle of Constantine
Manasses (14th century)31, can also be found in two (interrelated) 16th-century Russian compilations which contain an extensive history of the world:
the Russian Chronograph of 1512 and the Nikon Chronicle32 .
In the context of examining the titulature of Peter and Maria, as well as
of the position of the tsaritsa at the Preslavian court, the sphragistic material may provide us with important information. It is beyond any doubt
that, during the period 927–945, tsar Peter was depicted on official seals
accompanied by his spouse. A relatively high number of artifacts of this
kind have survived to our times. Ivan Yordanov, a specialist in medieval
Bulgarian and Byzantine sigillography, divided them into three types33:
I. Peter and Maria – basileis/emperors of the Bulgarians (after 927)
– a depiction of Peter and Maria is found on the reverse. The tsar
is shown on the left-hand side of the composition, the tsaritsa
29
Hellenic and Roman Chronicle, pp. 497–498, 501; Z.A. B r z o z o w s k a, The
Image of Maria Lekapene, Peter and the Byzantine-Bulgarian Relations Between 927 and
969 in the Light of Old Russian Sources, Pbg 41.1, 2017, pp. 50–51.
30
Т.В. А н и с и м о в а, Хроника Георгия Амартола в древнерусских списках
XIV–XVII вв., Москва 2009, pp. 9–10, 235–253; Т. В и л к у л, Літопис і хронограф.
Студії з домонгольського київського літописання, Київ 2015, pp. 372–387.
31
Среднеболгарский перевод Хроники Константина Манассии в славянских литературах, ed. Д.С. Л и х а ч е в, И.С. Д у й ч е в, София 1988, pp. 232, 237.
32
М.А. С а л м и н а, Хроника Константина Манассии как источник Русского
хронографа, ТОДРЛ 32, 1978, pp. 279–287; А.А. Т у р и л о в, К вопросу о болгарских источниках Русского хронографа, [in:] Летописи и хроники. Сборник статей,
Москва 1984, pp. 20–24 [= Межславянские культурные связи эпохи Средневековья
и источниковедение истории и культуры славян. Этюды и характеристики, Москва
2012, pp. 704–708].
33
There are also some atypical artefacts. Cf. И. Й о р д а н о в, Корпус на средновековните български печати, София 2016, pp. 269–271.
Sources and Modern Scholarship
15
on the right (from the viewer’s perspective). Both are portrayed
in the official court dress of Byzantine emperors: Peter wearing
stemma and divitision, Maria wearing stemma of female type, divitision and loros. The Bulgarian rulers are holding between them
a double-crossed patriarchal cross, which ends with a small globe
at the lower end. They are grasping it at the same height. The
inscription presents them as the basileis of the Bulgarians: Πέτρος
καὶ Μαρίας βασιλεῖς τῶν Βουλγάρων34.
II. Peter and Maria – autocrators/augusti and basileis of the Bulgarians (940s) – the depiction of the tsar and his spouse on the
reverse does not differ fundamentally from the one described
above. Peter’s crown has clearly visible plates on the front hoop
and pendants; the divitisions are different; the hands of two rulers
are represented below the globe at the end of the patriarchal cross.
Because of the poor state of preservation of all specimens of this
type, the accompanying writing can be reconstructed in several
ways: Πέτρος καὶ Μαρίας ἐν Χριστῷ αὐτοκράτορες Βουλγάρων (Peter
and Maria in Christ Autocrators of the Bulgarians); Πέτρος καὶ
Μαρίας ἐν Χριστῷ αὔγουστοι βασιλεῖς (Peter and Maria in Christ
augusti and basileis); Πέτρος καὶ Μαρίας ἐν Χριστῷ αὐτοκράτορες
βασιλεῖς Βουλγάρων (Peter and Maria in Christ autocrators and
basileis of the Bulgarians). According to numerous scholars, the
second interpretation should be considered correct; on the other
hand, in his most recent publications, Ivan Yordanov is inclined
to accept the third reading35.
34
И. Й о р д а н о в, Корпус на печатите на Средновековна България, София 2001,
pp. 58–59; В. Гю з е л е в, Значението…, p. 27; И. Б о ж и л о в, В. Гю з е л е в, История
на средновековна България. VII–XIV в., София 2006, p. 275; И. Й о р д а н о в, Корпус
на средновековните…, pp. 86–89. All seal inscriptions in this book quoted as reconstructed by Ivan Yordanov.
35
J. S h e p a r d, A marriage…, pp. 141–143; Г. А т а н а с о в, Инсигниите на средновековните български владетели. Корони, скиптри, сфери, оръжия, костюми, накити, Плевен 1999, pp. 98–99; И. Й о р д а н о в, Корпус на печатите…, pp. 59–60;
В. Гю з е л е в, Значението…, p. 27; И. Б о ж и л о в, В. Гю з е л е в, История…,
pp. 275–276; Т. То д о р о в, България…, pp. 156–159; i d e m, Владетелският
16
The Bulgarian State in 927–969. The Epoch of Tsar Peter I
III. Peter and Maria, pious basileis/emperors (940–50s) – on the
reverse of the sigillum, we find a depiction of Peter and Maria,
portrayed similarly as in the previous types. There are also certain
differences: in Peter’s crown, which has pendants again; in the
details of the divitisions. The couple is holding a cross – the tsar
from the left, the tsaritsa from the right side. However, contrary
to the seal images of type I and II, the hands of the monarchs are
placed at different heights. In the majority of cases, the tsar’s hand
is higher; however, there are also examples in which it is Maria who
is holding the cross above her husband’s hand. This is the largest
group of seals of a Bulgarian ruler. Over eighty-eight specimens
struck with unknown number of boulloteria, but in any case more
than a dozen, are documented. One of specimens (No 142) in the
blank is silver and therefore the seal is an argyrobulla. The most
characteristic feature of this group is that Peter and Maria are
represented, but the inscription refers only to Peter, calling him
a pious emperor: Πέτρος βασι[λεὺς] εὐσ[εβ]ής36.
Three other types of seals exist (IV–VI); these depict and mention
in the inscription the tsar alone. According to some scholars, the sphragistic material of this type was created already after Maria Lekapene’s
death, i.e. during the 963–969 period:
IV. Peter, emperor of the Bulgarians (Πέτρος βασιλεὺς Βουλγάρων) – bust
of the ruler facing. On his head, a low crown (stemma) surmounted
with a cross and pendants hanging from it ending with three large
pearls. He wears divitision and loros and holds (r. hand) a globus
cruciger.
статут…, pp. 99–101; С. Ге о р г и е в а, Жената в българското средновековие, Пловдив 2011, pp. 313–315; M.J. L e s z k a, K. M a r i n o w, Carstwo bułgarskie.
Polityka – społeczeństwo – gospodarka – kultura, 866–971, Warszawa 2015, pp. 159–160;
И. Й о р д а н о в, Корпус на средновековните…, pp. 90–95.
36
J. S h e p a r d, A marriage…, pp. 143–146; И. Й о р д а н о в, Корпус на печатите…, pp. 60–63; В. Гю з е л е в, Значението…, p. 27; И. Й о р д а н о в, Корпус на
средновековните…, pp. 95–110.
Sources and Modern Scholarship
17
V. Peter, despotes (Πέτρος δεσπότης) – facing bust of the ruler. On his
head, a low crown surmounted with a cross and pendants hanging
at either side. All facial features are visible. The ruler has a rounded
beard and wears divitision and loros. The new unusual elements
in this type of seals are the mirror-reversed inscription, the incomplete (abbreviated) name of the ruler and his title despotes. This
type fails into two groups.
VI. Peter, tsesar [i.e. emperor] of the Bulgarians (Петръ цıсаръ
Блъгаромъ) – facing bust of the ruler. On his head, stemma
surmounted with cross and pendants hanging at either side of his
face. He wears divitision and loros and holds (r. hand) globus
surmounted with double-crossed patriarchal cross. The seals fall
in two groups: an original bronze die and lead seals37.
The relics characterised above do not exhaust the source material
in which we may find information about our protagonists. Other, not
yet mentioned here accounts and artefacts will be presented later in this
volume.
2. Literature on the Subject
Due to lack of space, we will omit the overview of the academic literature,
and only draw attention to several works that have been particularly
useful in writing of this monograph. Among these, the works of Todor
R. Todorov38 occupy a special place, as the newest and the most original
take on the political history of Bulgaria in Peter’s times. Of considerable
И. Й о р д а н о в, Корпус на средновековните…, pp. 110–119.
Т. То д о р о в, България… (regrettably, this work is not available in print); i d e m,
Владетелският…, passim; i d e m, Вътрешнодинастичният проблем в България от
края на 20-те–началото на 30-те години на Х в., Истор 3, 2008, pp. 263–279.
37
38
18
The Bulgarian State in 927–969. The Epoch of Tsar Peter I
interest are the works of Vassil N. Zlatarski39, Vassil Gyuzelev and Ivan
Bozhilov40, Plamen Pavlov41, Angel Nikolov42, Ivan Yordanov43 or John
V.A. Fine44. The texts of Jonathan Shepard45 and Vassil Gyuzelev46 in particular are of fundamental importance for the study of the history and role
of Maria Lekapene. Regarding the religious matters, including ecclesiastical organisation, the most crucial were the works of Bistra Nikolova47.
Regarding matters of culture, one should point at the very least to the
works of Riccardo Picchio 48 , Dimitri Obolensky 49 , Miliana
Kaymakamova50, and the monumental works Кирило-Методиевска
енциклопедия51 and the История на българската средновековна
литература52, which include papers by the most outstanding scholars;
39
В.И. З л а т а р с к и, История на българската държава през средните векове,
vol. I/2, Първо българско Царство. От славянизацията на държавата до падането
на Първото царство (852–1018), София 1927.
40
И. Б о ж и л о в, В. Гю з е л е в, История…, passim.
41
П. П а в л о в, Векът на цар Самуил, София 2014; idem, Години на мир и “ратни
беди” (927–1018), [in:] Г. А т а н а с о в, В. В а ч к о в а, П. П а в л о в, Българска национална история, vol. III, Първо българско царство (680–1018), Велико Търново 2015,
pp. 403–479.
42
А. Н и к о л о в, Политическа…, passim.
43
И. Й о р д а н о в, Корпус на средновековните…, passim.
44
J.V.A. F i n e, A Fresh Look at Bulgaria under Tsar Peter I (927–69), ByzS 5, 1978,
pp. 88–95; i d e m, The Early Medieval Balkans: a Critical Survey from the Sixth to the
Late Twelfth Century, Ann Arbor 1983.
45
J. S h e p a r d, A marriage…, passim.
46
В. Гю з е л е в, Значението…, passim.
47
Б. Н и к о л о в а, Православните църкви през българското средновековие
(IX–XIV), София 2002; e a d e m, Монашество, манастири и манастирски живот
в средновековна България, vol. I, Манастирите, vol. II, Монаcите, София 2010;
e a d e m, Устройство и управление на българската православна църква (IX–XIV в.),
2
София 2017.
48
See the collected papers of this author in a Bulgarian translation: Православното Славянство и старобългарската културна традициция, transl.
A. Д ж а м б е л у к а-К о с с о в а, София 1993.
49
D. O b o l e n s k y, Byzantine Commonwealth: Eastern Europe, 500–1453, New
York 1971.
50
M. К а й м а к а м о в а, Българска…
51
Кирило-методиевска енциклопедия, vol. I–IV, София 1985–2003.
52
История на българската средновековна литература, ed. А. М и л т е н о в а,
София 2009.
Sources and Modern Scholarship
19
for military matters, the books of Dimitar Angelov, Stephan Kashev and
Boris Cholpanov are of the greatest interest53. Regarding the characterisation of the geographic location and the resulting conditions for the development of the historical Bulgarian state during the discussed period, we
relied on the two largest monographs devoted to the physical geography
of Bulgaria: the work edited by Kiril Mishev54, and the newest encyclopaedia by Svetlin Kiradzhiev55. Where the matters of economy and relics
of material culture are concerned, we have made use of the numerous studies presenting the results of archaeological research56. We will limit ourselves to mentioning only the general works – multi-author monograph
edited by Dimitar Angelov57 and Lyuben Berov58, and the works by Nikola
Mavrodinov59, Krastyu Miyatev60, Stancho Vaklinov61, Totyu Totev62 ,
53
Д. А н г е л о в, С. К а ш е в, Б. Ч о л п а н о в, Българска военна история от античността до втората четвърт на X в., София 1983; Д. А н г е л о в,
Б. Ч о л п а н о в, Българска военна история през средновековието (X–XV в.), 2София
1994.
54
География на България в три тома, vol. III, Физико-географско и социално-икономическо, ed. К. М и ш е в, София 1989.
55
С. К и р а д ж и е в, Енциклопедичен географски речник на България, София
2013.
56
See also some of the general works – Т. То т е в, Тридесет години археологически
разкопки в Преслав, Aрхе 16.3, 1974, pp. 48–60; С. В а к л и н о в, Плиска за тридесет
години, Aрхе 16.3, 1974, pp. 28–38; Г. Д ж и н г о в, Археологически проучвания на
поселищния живот в средновековна България, Век 8.3, 1979, pp. 48–56; Р. В а с и л е в,
Проучванията на славянските археологически паметници от Северна България от
края на VI до края на X в., Aрхе 21.3, 1979, pp. 12–22; Д. О в ч а р о в, Българската
средновековна археология през последните десет години (1974–1984), Aрхе 26.4, 1984,
pp. 46–61; A. P o p o v, La ville médiévale bulgare d’après les recherches archéologiques,
BHR 12.1, 1984, pp. 63–73, specifically pp. 63–66.
57
История на България в четиринадесет тома, t. II: Първа българска държава,
ed. Д. А н г е л о в, София 1981.
58
Стопанска история на България 681–1981, ed. Л. Б е р о в et al., София 1981.
59
Н. М а в р о д и н о в, Старобългарското изкуство. Изкуството на Първото
българско царство, София 2013 (a new edition of the 1959 book).
60
К. М и я т е в, Архитектурата в средновековна България, София 1965.
61
S. Wa k l i n o w, Kultura starobułgarska (VI–XI w.), transl. K. W i e r z b i c k a,
Warszawa 1984.
62
Т. То т е в, Преславската култура и изкуство през IX–X век. Студии и статии,
София 2000; i d e m, Great Preslav, Sofia 2001.
20
The Bulgarian State in 927–969. The Epoch of Tsar Peter I
Liliana Simeonova63, Rasho Rashev64, and Deyan Rabovyanov65, or the
newest take on the development of the Bulgarian economy in the early
mediaeval period by Ivan Biliarsky and Plamen Pavlov66. The research
series Pliska–Preslav, Corpus Preslav and Preslavian Literary School 67 are
also of great importance.
63
Л. С и м е о н о в а, Пътуване към Константинопол. Търговия и комуникации
в Средиземноморския свят (края на IX – 70-те години на XI с.), София 2006.
64
Р. Р а ш е в, Българската езическа култура VII–IX в., София 2009.
65
Д. Р а б о в я н о в, Извънстоличните каменни крепости на Първото българско
царство (IX – началото на XI век), София 2011.
66
И. Б и л я р с к и, Фискална система на средновековна България, Пловдив
2010; П. П а в л о в, Стопанско развитие на Първото българско царство,
[in:] И. Тю т ю н д ж и е в, М. П а л а н г у р с к и, А, К о с т о в, И. Л а з а р о в,
П. П а в л о в, И. Р у с е в, Стопанска история на България, Велико Търново
2011, pp. 14–21.
67
ППре 1–12; Пр.Сб 1–7; ПКШ 1–17.