Journal of Construction Project Management and Innovation, 9 (2): 83-104, 2019
ISSN 2223-7852
© Sustainable Human Settlement and Construction Research Centre
A COMPREHENSIVE BIM IMPLEMENTATION
MODEL FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Oluseye OLUGBOYEGA1 and Abimbola WINDAPO2
1&2 Faculty
of Engineering and Built Environment, Department of Construction Economics
& Management, Level 5, Snape Building, University of Cape Town, Upper Campus,
Rondebosch, Cape Town, 7701, South Africa
Email: OLGOLU005@myuct.ac.za1, Abimbola.windapo@uct.ac.za2
ABSTRACT
BIM implementation in the construction industry can be used to build the quality and
competitiveness of AEC practices in the construction industry. However, to ensure significant
and sustained BIM implementation in developing countries, it becomes important to
investigate the appropriate models for significant and sustained BIM implementation in
developing countries. Therefore, this study investigated the strengths and shortcomings of
the BIM implementation models in use in the developed countries so as to identify a
comprehensive set of BIM implementation model that will bring about a significant and
sustained BIM implementation in the developing countries. The study developed a
comprehensive BIM implementation model based on a theoretical background that was built
from a meta-synthesis of studies on BIM adoption and theoretical perspectives from
Implementation Process Theory. The model features top management commitment
strategies, motivation strategies, capacity development strategies, and application strategies
as the constructs for achieving a successful and sustained BIM implementation. The findings
of the study are useful for stimulating the growth and technological development of
construction industries in developing countries.
Keywords: BIM; BIM in the developing countries; BIM implementation; BIM
implementation model; BIM adoption; BIM implementation strategies.
1.
INTRODUCTION
The efficient construction industry is a pre-requisite to effective national development
(Oyewobi and Ogunsemi, 2010). However, construction industries in developing countries
are not efficient and not globally competitive (Isa et al., 2013). This ineffectiveness is
substantiated by the presence of international firms and expatriates who dominate over the
indigenous construction firms and professionals in the developing countries. As a way to
neutralize the negative effects of globalization and domination of indigenous construction
firms and professionals, Mbamali and Okotie (2012) recommend that strategies should be
developed for enhancing the global competitiveness of indigenous construction firms and
professionals in the developing countries. BIM implementation provides the opportunity for
the enhancement of global competitiveness of indigenous construction firms and
professionals in the developing countries. According to Yori (2011) and Yussuf et al. (2016),
BIM implementation determines the quality, efficiency, and competitiveness of a
construction industry which makes it the best way to ensure quality works, workers
efficiencies, and competitiveness of firms and professionals in the developing countries. In
addition, the potentials of BIM in addressing the needs of construction industry has made
BIM the international standard of project design, construction and management systems;
and its implementation in a construction industry can be used to build the quality and
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competitiveness of architectural, engineering and construction practices in the construction
industry (Bryde et al., 2013; Jung and Joo, 2011).
BIM implementation is the process of ensuring BIM adoption in the construction industry
(that is, the process of mandating or making BIM a formal or acceptable working system in
the construction industry) (Arayici et al., 2011; Eadie et al., 2013; Smith, 2014). While BIM
adoption is an act carried out by organizations or construction project supply chain (CPSC)
networks operating in particular construction industry, to take up or follow the provisions
and guidelines of BIM as given in a BIM implementation requirement (Gu and London, 2010;
Succar and Kassem, 2015). BIM adoption also refers to the formal acceptance of BIM by
organizations and CPSC as a working system (technology, process, and management) in the
construction industry (Newton and Chileshe, 2012).
BIM awareness is rapidly increasing in the developing countries on account of BIM
implementation being touted as having the potentials to meet the needs of the construction
industry (Rogers et al., 2015; Enshassi et al., 2016). Recently, pockets of BIM adoption have
been reported among the large and international firms that are operating in the developing
countries (Mehran, 2016; Gray et al., 2013). The pockets of BIM adoption for projects by
large and international firms in developing countries is as a result of abundant resources and
availability of BIM competent professionals in these firms, but it could suppress the growth
of the indigenous firms in the developing countries (Mehran, 2016; Bensalah et al., 2018).
Similarly, this form of BIM adoption is an apparition and unworthy of celebration because it
doesn’t translate to BIM implementation, nor does it give a true representation of the local
market in the developing countries. Additionally, the adoption of BIM for projects by large
and international firms in the developing countries, if not curbed may force the indigenous
small and medium organizations to imitate the large and international organizations which
could frustrate the growth of these small and medium organizations, as well as the growth
and development of the construction industry (Olatunji, 2011). This implies that there are
no significant BIM implementation initiatives in developing countries.
Nonetheless, several attempts have been made to investigate the current state of BIM
implementation in the developing countries (Bui et al., 2016; Bensalah et al., 2018; Wong et
al., 2010; Mohd-Nor and Grant, 2014; Rogers et al., 2015; Olugboyega and Aina, 2018;
Gerges et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2015; Usman et al., 2016; Kekana et al., 2015; Hamma-adama
et al., 2018; Akintola et al., 2017; Hosseini et al., 2016; Froise and Shakantu, 2014). Studies
have also reported the barriers to BIM implementation in developing countries (Ahmed et
al., 2014; Olugboyega and Aina, 2016; Kiani et al., 2015; Kekana and Aigbavboa, 2015; Saleh,
2015; Hamada et al., 2017) and the facilitators and benefits of BIM implementation in the
developing countries (Mehran, 2016; Olugboyega and Aina, 2016; Ozorhon and Karahan,
2016; Masood et al., 2014; Enegbuma et al., 2014; Ezeokoi et al., 2016; Hatem et al., 2018).
These previous studies have provided information on awareness, readiness, and BIM
adoption efforts in developing countries. However, ensuring a significant and sustained BIM
implementation in developing countries requires more than the investigation of BIM
awareness and readiness for BIM adoption in developing countries. To ensure significant and
sustained BIM implementation in the developing countries, it becomes important to
investigate the appropriate models for significant and sustained BIM implementation in the
developing countries (Nagalingam et al., 2013; Chan et al., 2018). Therefore, this study seeks
to understand the strengths and shortcomings of the existing BIM implementation models
and establish whether this will lead to the identification of a comprehensive set of BIM
implementation model that will bring about a significant and sustained BIM implementation
in the developing countries.
This study provides an important opportunity to advance BIM implementation in the
developing countries because BIM implementation has become a necessity for any
construction industry that wants to be effective, efficient and globally relevant (Arayici et al.,
2011). However, BIM implementation becomes meaningless and onerous, if it is not
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successful and effective, hence it becomes imperative to investigate the strategies and
theoretical approaches to BIM implementation models across the world with a view to
drawing lessons and making recommendations for BIM implementation models in the
developing countries. The strengths and shortcomings of the existing BIM implementation
models serve as sources of recommendations for creating BIM implementation models in
developing countries. This will enable the industry leaders and national policymakers in the
developing construction industries to implement BIM for derivable benefits and development
in their respective countries.
Developing a specific BIM implementation model for developing countries is important
because of the strong urge to comply with the BIM implementation trends which might lead
to the imitation of the BIM implementation initiatives that have been put in place in the
developed countries. Imitation of BIM implementation initiatives of the developed countries
is not a practical way of implementing BIM in developing countries because of the differences
in the structure, culture and market context of developed and developing countries (Gu and
London, 2010; Miller et al., 2013; Silva et al., 2016; Cao et al., 2017). In addition, it is
important to learn from the strengths and shortcomings of the existing BIM implementation
models because of the need to maximize the scarce resources in developing countries.
2.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Meta-synthesis of BIM implementation studies was selected for this study. This was done in
order to achieve a better comprehension and interpretation of BIM implementation
initiatives and strategies in the construction industry. The choice of meta-synthesis was
informed by its usefulness in compiling qualitative evidence for achieving research objectives
and gaining deeper insights into a phenomenon that might not be available in a single study
(Walsh and Soo, 2005). According to Zimmer (2006), meta-synthesis research approach will
generate a more complete understanding of the phenomenon because it offers an appropriate
balance between a rigorous scientific approach to data analysis and the researcher’s
subjectivity. The meta-synthesis approach in this study consists of five main stages: (1)
selecting of relevant journals and articles; (2) identifying key concepts and themes; (3)
establishing relationships that exist between the identified concepts and themes; (4)
categorising the identified concepts and themes into major themes; and (5) summarising and
ensuring the credibility of the major themes. The meta-synthesis procedure used in this study
is outlined in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Meta-synthesis procedure for this study
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2.1 Selecting relevant journals and articles
BIM implementation is a broad concept that includes a large number of related constructs
and themes. Therefore, a robust search of database provided by Scopus, Google Scholar,
JSTOR, EBSCO, Mendeley, Elsevier, PubMed, Science Open, and Springer was undertaken
using the following combination of search terms to match the focus of the study to the
literature search:
• BIM implementation/adoption in North America
• BIM implementation/adoption in Europe
• BIM implementation/adoption in South America
• BIM implementation/adoption in Asia
• BIM implementation adoption in Australia
• BIM implementation/adoption in Oceania
• BIM implementation/adoption in Africa
• BIM implementation strategies/initiatives/theories
The search generates 419 articles from the databases. Screening of the articles was done by
reviewing their relevance using criteria such as the use of English Language, a reference to
BIM implementation/adoption, and peer-reviewed articles and conference proceedings. At
the end of this screening stage, 178 articles remained. Further screening of the articles for
relevance was conducted by reviewing the titles and abstracts of these articles for specific
relevance to the aim of this study. A total of 114 articles were screened out, which gives 64
relevant articles.
2.2 Identifying key concepts and themes
The aim of this study is to identify BIM implementation strategies and initiatives so as to
develop a comprehensive BIM implementation model for developing countries. BIM
implementation efforts have been initiated in the developed countries, and there are several
studies that have reported these initiatives. At this stage, the objective of the meta-synthesis
is to identify the key concepts and themes that relate to BIM implementation strategies and
initiatives in these studies. This stage is important because different studies employ different
theoretical perspectives and methodologies to explain and report their findings. The key
concepts and themes relating to BIM implementation strategies were identified from the
selected relevant studies by setting apart phrases, concepts, and ideas that describe BIM
implementation efforts or initiatives.
2.3 Establishing relationships that exist between the identified concepts and
themes
Meta-synthesis enables the understanding and identification of relationships among the
concepts and themes in a group of similar studies (Lee, 2010). At this stage of the metasynthesis, comparing and contrasting of the identified concepts and themes to each other was
done in order to examine the relationships between them.
2.4 Categorising the identified concepts and themes into major themes
Major themes were determined by identifying and generating themes that apply to or explain
two or more concepts. The major themes were generated by comprehending the similarities
between the concepts and themes. Similar concepts and themes were linked so as to enable
the generation of different categories or components for BIM implementation strategies.
This procedure follows the recommendations by Jensen and Allen (1996) for capturing
homogeneity among concepts.
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2.5 Summarising and ensuring the credibility of the major themes
Dimensions were assigned to summarise the various categories of the major themes (BIM
implementation strategies) for BIM implementation. The dimensions were defined based on
new concepts that emerged from the categories. The summary of the synthesis is illustrated
in Figure 2. The summary of the synthesis was reviewed independently by the authors in
order to facilitate an accurate interpretation of the studies and ensure the credibility of the
major themes.
3.
MODELS OF BIM IMPLEMENTATION IN THE DEVELOPED
COUNTRIES
3.1 motivation model for BIM adoption
Diffusion of Innovation (DOI) Theory is a popular approach to planning the adoption of
Information Technology (IT) innovations. The theory predicts the diffusion phenomenon of
IT innovations among IT innovations adopters by conceptualizing diffusion phenomenon as
consisting of diffusion arena, diffusion forces, IT innovators and IT innovation adopters. IT
innovation adopters are classified into forerunners and followers, while diffusion forces are
classified into communicating force and imitative force. The postulation explains that IT
innovators and IT innovation adopters interact in a homogeneous diffusion arena, where
communicating force allows IT innovators to transfer new IT innovations to the forerunners.
The transfer leads to the forerunners adopting the new IT innovations, while imitative force
spreads the IT innovations to the followers (Lyytinen and Damsgaard, 2001; Miettinen and
Paavola, 2014; Cao et al., 2015). Several countries have developed BIM implementation
strategies based on the presumptions of DOI Theory (Succar and Kumar, 2015; Cao et al.,
2015; Papadonikolaki, 2017). This model of BIM implementation relates to motivation
strategies. Motivation strategies give reasons and inducements for BIM adoption by making
use of imitative and coercive forces to set BIM adoption goals for the construction industry
and to create internal competition among the organisations in the industry towards BIM
adoption. According to Papadonikolaki (2017), this model of BIM implementation will create
an institutional requirement that will provide a long-term inducement for BIM adoption and
would contribute to the competitive advantage of the organisations in the construction
industry. The general motivation strategies for BIM implementation include BIM pilot
projects (Mihindu and Arayici, 2008; Sebastian et al., 2009; Silva et al., 2016; Cheng and Lu,
2015; McAuley et al., 2017), BIM guidelines and standards (Papadonikolaki, 2017; Wong et
al., 2010; Silva et al., 2016; Cheng and Lu, 2015; McAuley et al., 2017; Shou et al., 2015), and
mandatory requirement of BIM in contractor selection process and application for building
permit (Silva et al., 2016; Cheng and Lu, 2015; McAuley et al., 2017; Ho and Rajabifard, 2016;
Wong et al., 2010; Hermund, 2009; Adillah et al., 2015). However, the power of this model
of BIM implementation in driving BIM adoption is limited due to the use of a theoretical
perspective that treats BIM as technology and employs the use of imitation and coercion to
drive its adoption (Miettinen and Paavola, 2014; Cao et al., 2017).
3.2 Motivation – Education model for BIM adoption
The principles of DOI theory are not adequate for the development of BIM implementation
strategies because the theory did not put the characteristics of diffusion arena, IT innovators
and IT innovation adopters into consideration (Cao et al., 2017). According to Lyytinen and
Damsgaard (2001) diffusion arena, innovation, and adopter decisions are influenced by
industry structure, cultural structures, economic (macro, meso, and micro) constraint, market
context, technological constraints, and technical constraints. There are different kinds of
activities, professionals, projects, clients, and firms in the construction industry that make
the industry a complex arena for IT innovation diffusion. As a result of the inadequacy of
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DOI Theory to drive BIM implementation, authors like Kassem and Succar (2017) and Cao
et al. (2017) suggested the use of Institutional Theory or the combination of DOI Theory
and Institutional Theory to extend the scope of BIM implementation strategies. Ho and
Rajabifard (2016) describe Institutional Theory as the use of legal, social and cultural
structures to control the thinking, actions, and behaviours of individuals, groups, and
organizations. The compelling forces available in Institutional Theory include coercive,
imitative and normative force. Coercive force compels individuals, groups, and organizations
to act in line with the expectations spelt out in guidelines and regulations, imitative force
makes small organizations to follow the examples of large firms; while normative force causes
them to strive for identity, survival, and legitimacy in the society. The combination of DOI
and Institutional theory pilots a BIM implementation model that features the blend of
motivation strategies and education strategies for driving BIM adoption in the construction
industry. This form of BIM implementation model employs the use of communicating force
(BIM awareness), imitative force (adoption of BIM by large and international firms), coercive
force (government institutions mandating the use of BIM), normative force (development of
BIM guidelines and standards), and knowledge or literacy force (acquisition of BIM-related
skills by ensuring the access to BIM knowledge and technologies) to drive BIM adoption in
the construction industry (Forsythe et al., 2011; Wu and Issa, 2013; Chan, 2014; Yusuf et al.,
2016). The main advantage of this form of BIM implementation model is that it has prompted
some universities across the globe to update existing courses using BIM education or create
discrete BIM education courses (Abbas et al., 2016; Abdirad and Dossick, 2016). However,
the shortcoming is that the theoretical perspectives provided by the combination of DOI and
Institutional Theory are inadequate for developing the strategies to address the legal,
cultural, and social dimension of BIM implementation (Cao et al., 2014; Miettinen and
Paavola, 2014; Succar and Kassem, 2015; Kassem and Succer, 2017; Cao et al., 2017). Hence,
a theory that provides multi-dimensional perspectives to the implementation process is
required for a comprehensive BIM implementation.
4. CONCEPTUALISING A COMPREHENSIVE BIM IMPLEMENTATION
MODEL
4.1 Theoretical insights
This study employs the Implementation Process Theory modified with postulations on BIM
adoption requirements and challenges to facilitate the understanding of the concepts and
variables associated with ensuring a successful and sustained BIM implementation.
Implementation Process Theory (IPT) describes the efforts required to initiate and sustain
adoption decision by individuals and organizations that operate in an industry. These efforts
are affected by the influence of the organizations’ top management and cover the
organizational and managerial resources to be expended to meet the implementation strategy
requirements (Yetton et al., 1999; Al-Mashari and Zain, 1999; Jackson, 1997; Proctor et al.,
2013). According to Klein and Knight (2005), achieving a successful and sustained
implementation of innovation or practice, individuals and organisations that operate in the
industry must possess the skills, competence, and training that are consistent with the
innovation or practice. Fixsen et al. (2005), Aarons et al. (2011), Klein and Sorra (1996), and
Khalfan et al. (2015) posit that while the skills, competence, and training will enable the
adoption of an innovation or a practice by an individual; the adoption of an innovation or a
practice in an organisation depends on the commitment and culture that will be established
by the top management of the organisation towards the continued use of the innovation or
the continuity of the practice.
Similarly, studies on BIM adoption have shown that BIM adoption in organisations
requires hefty investments of time and money in technology, training, and structural change
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(Andres et al., 2017; Usman et al., 2016; Bryde et al., 2013). In addition, a number of BIMrelated studies have postulated that BIM implementation is a complex process and that the
justification for and the effectiveness of BIM implementation strategies depend on their
capabilities in addressing a wide range of issues (Gu and London, 2010; Barlish and Sullivan,
2012; Love et al., 2013; Eadie et al., 2013; Cao et al., 2017; Zhu and Mostafavi, 2017). The
implication of this is that BIM implementation process will not be successful and sustainable
without putting in place measures that will bring about motivations for BIM adoption (Ding
et al., 2015; Hong et al., 2016), BIM-enabled competitive edge for organisations (Arayici et
al., 2011; Olatunji and Sher, 2014), and efficiency and effectiveness in the application of BIM
on construction projects (Arayici et al., 2012; Arayici et al., 2011). Based on these
perspectives, it is clear that a multi-dimensional approach is required to conceptualise a
model that will adequately explain the driving forces required for BIM implementation,
strategies required to achieve the driving forces and the outcome of these strategies. This is
important for ensuring a successful and sustained BIM implementation in the construction
industry. The insights from these perspectives also highlights the importance of the
following dimensions to the success and sustainability of BIM implementation in the
construction industry: (1) commitment, (2) motivation, (3) culture, (4) education and training,
(5) skills and competence, (6) competitiveness, (7) efficiency, and (8) effectiveness. The
theoretical perspectives from IPT and postulations on BIM adoption requirements and
challenges are summarised in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Theoretical framework for a successful and sustained BIM implementation
4.2
Theoretical grounding for a comprehensive BIM implementation
4.2.1 Strength of the BIM implementation models in the developed countries
In countries such as the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Singapore, Spain, Portugal,
and Sweden; BIM implementation models have manifested in form of the establishment of a
national BIM program, mandatory use of BIM for spatial program validation of projects in
2007, development of a national BIM standard, development of BIM protocol and Integrated
Project Delivery documents, and development of BIM guidelines (Cheng and Lu, 2015). BIM
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institute has been established, BIM guidelines and standards have been developed, and BIM
has become a mandatory requirement in the contractor selection process (Powal and Hewage,
2013; Silva et al., 2016; Chew and Riley, 2013; Andres et al., 2017). BIM implementation
initiatives in the United States and Canada relied heavily on BIM awareness, BIM adoption
by government agencies, a mandatory requirement of BIM, BIM guidelines, and BIM
standards to drive BIM adoption. The development of BIM library, the establishment of BIM
centre and steering committee, mandatory BIM e-submissions for new projects, and BIM
fund, with Industry Foundation Classes development and BIM classification standard
initiatives.
In addition, BIM Task Group, BIM academic forum, and Construction Industry Council
have been established to drive BIM implementation in some countries such as the United
Kingdom, Finland, and Norway. These groups and committees have developed specification
framework for BIM commissioning, BS 1192 for collaborative working, BS 1192-4 for
interoperability, Uniclass 2015 for classification systems, PAS 1192-5 for security, and BIM
use specifications (Cheng and Lu, 2015; Jensen and Johannesson, 2013; Lindblad and Vass,
2015). The use of these BIM implementation strategies has contributed significantly to BIM
adoption in these countries based on the number of reports on the application of BIM on
various types of projects in these countries (Gledson and Greenwood, 2016; Kiviniemi and
Codinhoto, 2014).
4.2.2 Shortcomings of the BIM implementation models in the developed
countries
The BIM implementation models in use in the developed countries are not all-inclusive and
have brought about some setbacks such as non-realization of BIM benefits, lack of full-scale
BIM projects, adoption bottlenecks, and economic liability to small and medium
organizations (Porwal and Hewage, 2013; Kassem and Succar, 2017). The grounds for these
shortcomings are discussed in the following sub-sections:
BIM implementation model must be multi-dimensional
A multi-dimensional BIM implementation approach is vital to ensuring the success of BIM
implementation (Migilinskas et al., 2013; Miettinen and Paavola, 2014; Bui et al., 2016). BIM
implementation model in use in the developed countries has been drawn primarily from the
theoretical perspectives of Technology Acceptance and Diffusion of Innovation Theory.
These theoretical perspectives provide strategies that are irrelevant to the capacity, macro
and micro-economic dimensions of BIM implementation (Lyytinen and Damsgaard, 2001;
Miettinen and Paavola, 2014; Cao et al., 2015; Cao et al., 2017). As noted by Succar et al.
(2013) and Papadonikolaki (2017), capacity development and economic performance of
organizations are key to the success of BIM implementation in the construction industry.
Likewise, Jung and Joo (2011), Porwal and Hewage (2013), Morlhon et al. (2014), Cao et al.
(2015), and Succar and Kumar (2015) concur that BIM implementation will be successful if
BIM capability and applications, legal frameworks, as well as the macro, meso and microeconomy of the construction industry are considered in the BIM implementation strategies.
BIM implementation model must drive BIM adoption at the industry,
organisation, and project level
The requirements for BIM implementation at the industry and organizational levels are not
the same. There are three distinct levels in the construction industry, namely: macro, meso,
and micro levels. The macro-level represents the industry level, meso level represents the
organizational level, while project level is represented by the micro-level (Poirier et al.
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(2015); Papadonikolaki, 2017). Poirier et al. (2015) noted that BIM implementation should
be active at three levels. BIM implementation initiative is a national issue (Liu et al., 2015),
therefore it depicts formal acceptance of BIM by the industry leaders and policymakers in
order to be globally relevant and competitive. BIM adoption, on the other hand, depicts
initiatives at the level of organizations or projects based on the expectations of the
organizations or the clients and within the provisions of BIM implementation initiative. This
shows that BIM implementation is a product of political will or legislation and it requires
strategies, plans, decisions, regulations, and guidelines to bring it into effect; while BIM
adoption is a product of requirements by clients or organizational vision. Without BIM
implementation, BIM adoption is not legally binding on organizations or construction
project supply chains (CPSC), except it was demanded by clients. Even with BIM
implementation, BIM adoption is still not legally binding on organizations or CPSC if the
clients (public or private) do not mandate it.
Mandatory BIM submission and development of national BIM standards, as found in
the developed countries have provided the resources, authority, and control that are required
to implement BIM at the industry level (Silva et al., 2016). However, this approach has
limited the focus of BIM implementation to the industry level with little or no concerns for
the cultural, structural, and economic impacts of mandatory BIM submission at the meso and
micro levels. As a result, there are complications with BIM implementation strategies that
are based on this approach. For example, Migilinskas et al. (2013) identified cost of
investment, unavailability of BIM implementation framework, and structure of the industry
as challenges of BIM implementation in Lithuania. In Sweden, Isaksson et al. (2016) reported
a shortage of internal and external demands for BIM by team members and clients as
obstacles to BIM implementation; and that reliance on coercive force alone won't drive BIM
adoption among in the Swedish construction industry. Also, United Kingdom BIM
implementation in the United Kingdom is experiencing complications such as resistance to
change, BIM training and competency issues, BIM applications and tools problems,
collaboration and integration issues, BIM workflow adaptation challenges, lack of client
demand, cultural resistance, and reluctance of team members to share information (Arayici
et al., 2011; Eadie et al., 2013).
BIM implementation model must cater to the small and medium construction
organisations
The economic viability of small and medium firms is an important consideration in BIM
implementation because the adoption of BIM by small and medium organizations is very
important for the industry (Miller et al., 2013), and because not all the small and medium
firms could survive economic liability of BIM adoption owing to poor financial base (Liu et
al., 2017). This is because more than 96% of organizations in the industry are small and
medium organizations which make the economic performances of small and medium firms
vital to the macroeconomic performance of the construction industry (Olatunji, 2011; Miller
et al., 2013). According to Barlish and Sullivan (2012), Miettinen and Paavola (2014),
Isaksson et al. (2016), and Zhu and Mostafavi (2017), different organizations require different
motivation for BIM adoption based on their respective organizational characteristics.
However, nearly all the existing BIM implementation models lack supportive regulations,
capacity development frameworks, and economic considerations such as financial support
towards BIM adoption for small and medium firms in the construction industry. This has
been a major challenge of BIM implementation in the developed countries (Yusuf et al., 2016;
Cheng and Lu, 2015).
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BIM implementation model must have contextual, theoretical and empirical
justification.
A BIM implementation model becomes effective and provides multifaceted insights into BIM
adoption when it has a contextual, theoretical and empirical justification. This will be
achieved by incorporating considerations for organizational differences, culture,
contingencies, commitment and capacities to sustain BIM adoption (Jung and Joo, 2011; Kim
et al., 2005; Migilinskas et al., 2013; Miettinen and Paavola, 2014; Bui et al., 2016; Gu and
London, 2010; Silva et al., 2016; Cao et al., 2017; Morlhon et al., 2014; Succar and Kumar,
2015; Cao et al. 2015; Zhu and Mostafari, 2017). It becomes important to justify the
consensus of organizational perceptions of a BIM implementation model contextually,
theoretically and empirically since the implementation process requires organizations to
make adoption decisions; and since the willingness of the organizations to assume
responsibilities for implementation strategies depend on their understanding and
contributions to the choice of implementation strategies (Rapert et al., 2002).
The consensus of organizational perceptions is important in the choice of
implementation strategies in order to ensure cooperation from the organizations and to
ensure harmony between the requirements of implementation strategies, as well as the efforts
of the organization towards adoption (Rapert et al., 2002; Zmud and Cox, 1979). In the same
way, the consideration of organizational differences, culture, contingencies, commitment and
capacities in developing BIM implementation strategies is vital to ensuring the success of
BIM implementation owing to the complexity of BIM adoption barriers, the complexity of
the construction projects, and the requirements of project participants (Proctor et al. 2013;
Migilinskas et al. 2013; Miettinen and Paavola, 2014; Bui et al. 2016; Kassem and Succar,
2017). This will enable organisations and project participants to strategically plan (that is,
address the issues of economic liability, BIM competency, BIM value, and BIM workflow
adaptation challenges) BIM adoption on construction projects (Porwal and Hewage, 2013;
Arayici et al., 2011; Eadie et al., 2013; Migilinskas et al., 2013; Isaksson et al., 2016; Enshassi
and Abuhamra, 2017; Btoush and Harun, 2017; Yusuf et al., 2016; Smith, 2014; Cheng and
Lu, 2015; Succar, 2009; Cao et al., 2014; Cao et al., 2015).
However, the BIM implementation strategies in use in the developed countries lack an
operational structure that could strategically guide the utilization of BIM and the assessment
of BIM performance on projects and in organisations in relation to the achievement of
integration and collaboration as the ultimate benefit of BIM adoption, as well as economically
justify investment in BIM and demand for BIM by clients on their projects (Aranda-Mena et
al., 2009; Shusheng and Min, 2010; Barlish and Sullivan, 2012; Bryde et al., 2013; Succar et
al., 2013; Miettinen and Paavola, 2014; Cao et al., 2015; Beaumont and Underwood, 2015;
Abdirad and Dossick, 2016; Abbas et al., 2016; Ghaffarianhoseini et al. 2017; Sawhney et al.,
2017; Liu et al., 2017).
4.3
Synthesis and Discussion: A comprehensive BIM implementation model
4.3.1 The driving forces required for a comprehensive BIM implementation
model
The construction industry is a dynamic, diverse, complex sector owing to the interplay
between market structure (macro, meso, and microstructures), socio-cultural structure,
technical and legal contract structures (Tennant and Fernie, 2014). The complexity of the
construction industry increases in developing countries because of the prevailing
inefficiencies and ineffectiveness (Isa et al., 2013; Mbamali and Okotie, 2012). Hence, a
comprehensive BIM implementation model is required for a successful and sustained BIM
implementation in developing countries. A comprehensive BIM implementation model must
complement the strengths and deficiencies of the existing BIM implementation models
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(Porwal and Hewage, 2013; Miettinen and Paavola, 2014; Cao et al., 2015; Zhu and Mostafari,
2017; Cao et al., 2017). This implies that the BIM implementation model to be initiated in
the developing countries must be multi-dimensional; must be capable of driving BIM
adoption at the industry, organisation, and project level; must cater to the small and medium
construction organisations; and must have contextual, theoretical and empirical justifications
(Miettinen and Paavola, 2014; Bui et al., 2016).
A multi-dimensional approach to BIM implementation means that regulatory
frameworks should be considered for economic viability of construction firms (small and
medium firms in particular) to adopt BIM, BIM awareness and maturity, demand for BIM
by both public and private clients, BIM standards and collaborative procurement guidelines,
BIM capability of firms and professionals, BIM benefits and industry needs alignment. The
demand for BIM by both public and private clients, most especially private clients is a
function of the BIM value (that is, the business sense of BIM adoption on projects in relation
to the cost implications of BIM adoption on projects) (Love et al., 2013; Lu et al., 2014. Eadie
et al., (2013) observe that the fact that clients benefit the most from BIM adoption does not
necessarily mean that clients should be made to bear the cost of BIM adoption alone; because
BIM adoption also serves as competitive advantage and marketing opportunities for firms.
Preferably, an acceptable BIM cost-benefit sharing framework should be developed as part
of BIM implementation strategies (Liu et al., 2017). The BIM cost-benefit sharing framework
must relate costs and benefits of BIM to BIM application levels, types and sizes of projects,
and types and sizes of organizations; as this will provide flexibility in demands for BIM to
suit the needs of the clients, project complexity and size, and BIM capacity of firms (Gu and
London, 2010; Barlish and Sullivan, 2012; Love et al., 2013; Eadie et al., 2013).
4.3.2 BIM implementation strategies that are required to provide the driving
forces for a comprehensive BIM implementation
The strengths and shortcomings of the existing BIM implementation models in the
developed countries have shown that BIM implementation becomes impactful at the project
level. This implies that a comprehensive BIM implementation model must entail strategies
for motivating organisations, professionals, and clients to adopt BIM; strategies for
developing the BIM capacity of the present and future construction professionals and
organisations; strategies for applying BIM effectively and efficiently on construction
projects; and strategies for securing the commitment of top management of construction
organisations to BIM adoption. Based on the theoretical framework and theoretical
grounding, this study presents a comprehensive BIM implementation model for ensuring a
successful and sustained BIM implementation in developing countries. The detailed
description of the constructs and sub-constructs of the model is provided in Figure 3, Table
1 - 4, and in the following sub-sections.
Capacity development strategies
BIM implementation strategies require more than BIM education at the higher institutions
to develop the BIM capacity of the present and future construction professionals and
organisations (Succar et al., 2013; Abdirad and Dossick, 2016; Liu et al., 2017; Eadie et al.,
2013; Sawhney et al., 2017). This is because education merely develops knowledge and skills
(Hiton, 2010); while capacity development deals with the development of knowledge, skills,
competence, and competitive edge for the reason that it enables individuals and organisations
to strengthen and maintain their education (Browne-Ferrigno and Muth, 2004). Butcher et
al., (2011) concurs that capacity development is the process through which individuals and
organisations obtain, strengthen, and maintain the capacities to set and achieve their own
development objectives over time. Therefore, developing the BIM capacity of organisations
and professionals towards a successful and sustained BIM implementation in the
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construction industry requires BIM education, BIM experience, and BIM training (Sawhney
et al., 2017; Peterson et al., 2011; Becerik-Gerber et al., 2011; Succar et al., 2013; Miller et
al., 2013; Abdirad and Dossick, 2016; Eadie et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2017; Eadie et al., 2013).
The use of BIM education, BIM experience, and BIM training for BIM capacity development
will ensure the availability of BIM competent construction professionals and organisations
for the present and future needs of BIM implementation (Mahamadu et al., 2017). In addition,
these strategies will reduce the cost of BIM adoption and increasing the benefits of BIM
adoption (Azhar, 2011).
Figure 3: A comprehensive BIM implementation model
Table 1. Capacity development strategies for a comprehensive BIM implementation in the
developing countries
BIM CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES
BIM EDUCATION
BIM TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE
2D and 3D CAD education in the secondary school
Upbringing by BIM proficient parents
BIM education at an undergraduate programme at
Pre-labour market-influenced BIM training
the university
BIM technology educational programme in colleges, Self-initiated BIM training
technical and vocational institutes
BIM application and management programme at BIM workshops
post-graduate level in the university
BIM seminars
BIM research and development
On-the-job BIM training for the employees
Corporate BIM training partners
Peer-group-influenced BIM training
Source: (Succar et al., 2013; Abdirad and Dossick, 2016; Peterson et al., 2011; Badrinath et al., 2016;
Abbas et al., 2016; Miller et al., 2013; Becerik-Gerber et al., 2011; Hon et al., 2015)
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Top management commitment strategies
Several studies have reported the importance of top management commitment regarding the
initiation and sustenance of adoption decision in an organization (Mumford, 1995; Bashein
et al., 1994; Al-Mashari and Zain, 1999; Jackson, 1997; Hammer and Stanton, 1995; El Sawy,
1997; Kettinger et al., 1997). For example, Al-Mashari and Zain (1999) suggest that top
management is required to manage the transition, resistance, competency, organizational
structure, and resources in the course of the implementation process. Mumford (1995)
submits that top management are required to promote collaborative teamwork culture. Based
on this understanding, it becomes clear that the total dedication of the top management of
construction organisations to BIM adoption an adaptation is crucial to the success of BIM
implementation (Chien et al., 2014). The implication of this is that the top management of
construction organisations must be willing to allocate and commit organisational and
managerial resources such as time, money, visions, culture, and structure to the process of
BIM adoption in their organisations (Khosorowshahi and Arayici, 2012). The outcome of
such a commitment is a successful and sustained BIM implementation.
Table 2. Top management commitment strategies for a comprehensive BIM
implementation in the developing countries
TOP MANAGEMENT COMMITMENT STRATEGIES
ORGANISATION STRUCTURE
ORGANISATION CULTURE
Coordination of the BIM process in the
Sanctions (queries & demotion) for resistance towards
organization
BIM usage
Provision of incentives (bonus & allowance) for
Adaptation of BIM concepts to the organizational
BIM usage
culture
Provision of incentives for BIM capacity
Exploration of the usage of BIM on pilot projects
development
Provision of in-house BIM training
Provision of infrastructures (BIM environment) for
BIM
Provision of technical support services in the
Incorporation of BIM into the vision of the organization
organization
BIM consultant’s engagement
Facilitate solutions to projects contingencies (incidents
& challenges) brought about by BIM adoption
Revision of the reward system
Facilitate solutions to client’s contingencies (incidents
& challenges) brought about by BIM adoption
Revision of wage structure
Facilitate solutions to organizations contingencies
(incidents & challenges) brought about by BIM
adoption
Effective communication between stakeholders
Documentation of the proceedings of BIM-based
projects
Stimulating BIM adoption with investments
Introduction of collaborative teamwork culture in the
organization
Introduction of new roles and job titles
Educating staff on the potentials of BIM
Allowing staff members to participate in the
Development of new values
work process redesign process
Increment in the staff development budget
Development of management processes
Creation of new organizational structure
Development of communication styles
Appointing BIM champions
Development of performance measures for BIM
adoption
Appointing BIM managers
Identification of business opportunities in BIM adoption
Anticipating and planning for BIM adoption risk
Ensuring effective use of BIM tools
Adherence to BIM protocols
management
Adherence to the BIM process
Source: (Ho and Rajabifard, 2016; Liu et al., 2017; Adillah et al., 2015; Cao et al., 2017; Hermund, 2009;
Son et al., 2015; Jung and Joo, 2011)
Application strategies
The use of different construction management systems for project delivery will provide
better project performance if the projects’ characteristics are the basis for selecting the
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management systems. The selection of project process is determined by the project
characteristics such as clients’ expectations, project size, project complexity, team size and
capability, and project expectations (Sauser et al., 2009; Howell et al., 2010). Several authors
have argued that BIM is a construction management system and that its application on
projects should be linked to projects characteristics and project expectations (Gu and
London, 2010; Barlish and Sullivan, 2012; Porwal and Hewage, 2013; Miettinen and Paavola,
2014; Isaksson et al., 2016; Zhu and Mostafavi, 2017). The use of projects characteristics and
project expectations in determining the extent of BIM application on construction projects
describes a contingent and strategic BIM application and indicates an efficient and effective
BIM application on construction projects (Lu et al., 2014).
Table 3. BIM application strategies for a comprehensive BIM implementation in the
developing countries
BIM APPLICATION STRATEGIES
EFFICIENT/STRATEGIC BIM APPLICATION
EFFECTIVE/CONTINGENT BIM
APPLICATION
Sharing BIM cost and benefits between the client and Determining the extent of BIM application based on
the supply chain members
the level of project complexity
Determining the appropriate level of development of Determining the appropriate types of professionals to
building information models for different types of
form the construction project supply chain network
project complexities
Assessing the performance of BIM adoption on
Determining the required BIM capacity of the
construction projects
construction project supply chain members based on
the types of project
Determining the appropriate form of collaboration
Determining
the
appropriate
collaborative
required for different types of project complexities
procurement system for different types of project
complexities
Determining the appropriate intensity of
Determining the appropriate import and export file
collaboration required for different types of project
format for different types of project complexities
complexities
Developing digital object identifiers for building
materials manufacturers
Developing digital object identifiers for supply chain
Source: (Howard and Bjork, 2007; Son et al., 2015; Gerges et al., 2017; Lu et al., 2014; Linderoth, 2010;
Barlish and Sullivan, 2012)
Motivation strategies
Motivation strategies are those initiatives that are targeted at stimulating the efforts and
energy in construction professionals and organisations to adopt BIM (Coates et al., 2010;
Memon et al., 2014). A number of initiatives that relate to motivation strategies for BIM
adoption in the developed countries have been reported by studies such as Ho et al., (2016)
and Ding et al., (2015). Table 4 provides a detailed description of motivation strategies for
BIM implementation.
4.3.3 The outcomes of BIM implementation strategies
BIM implementation model with strategies that provide the driving forces that are required
for BIM implementation will be useful in addressing the complexity of BIM implementation,
the complexity of BIM adoption decisions, and the complexity of the construction industry.
The adoption of a comprehensive BIM implementation model will free the developing
countries from the bottlenecks that are being experienced in BIM implementation models in
the developed countries (Succar, 2009; Cao et al., 2014; Cao et al., 2015; Gu and London,
2010; Miller et al., 2013; Lyytinen and Damsgaard, 2001; Miettinen and Paavola, 2014;
Morlhon et al., 2014; Succar and Kumar, 2015).
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Table 4. Motivation strategies for a comprehensive BIM implementation in the developing
countries
MOTIVATION STRATEGIES FOR BIM ADOPTION/IMPLEMENTATION
BIM ADOPTION BY OTHER
MANDATORY USE OF BIM
DEVELOPMENT OF BIM
FIRMS
GUIDELINES AND
STANDARDS
Prevalent BIM adoption among
BIM adoption as conformity to Availability of legalities and
the top and successful firms
regulations and rules
copyright ownership of BIM
BIM adoption by rival firms
BIM adoption as part of clients’
Availability of guidelines on BIM
requirement
protocols
BIM adoption among peer firms
BIM adoption as part of project
Availability of fund to assist small
team requirement
and medium firms to adopt BIM
BIM adoption as a corporate
Government-sponsored
BIM- Availability of guidelines on BIM
social responsibility strategy
based pilot projects
roles and responsibilities (BIM
supply chain)
BIM adoption as a way of
Mandatory requirement of BIM Availability of information on
encouraging development in the
for building permit application
BIM concepts
construction industry
BIM adoption as a marketing
Mandatory requirement of BIM
Advocacy and campaign for BIM
strategy
in the contractor selection process
Report of BIM usage on a widely
BIM adoption as a requirement in Advertisement and programs for
acclaimed successful projects
the company’s supply chain
BIM awareness
Marketing of BIM as professional network
Availability of national BIM
services
standards
Availability of BIM proficient
graduates
Need to be seen as being up-todate and technologically
sophisticated
Need to be socially acceptable to
the clients
Need to adapt to global best
practices and trends
Need to improve organizational
performance and efficiency in
short and long terms
Need to improve competitiveness
in project bidding
Source: (Cao et al., 2017; Ciribini et al., 2016; Silva et al., 2016; Adillah et al., 2015; Cheng and Lu,
2015; McAuley et al., 2017; Ho and Rajabifard, 2016; Papadonikolaki, 2017; Shou et al., 2015)
5.
CONCLUSIONS
The prevalent implementation of BIM all over the world makes it a revolution that
construction industries in the developing countries cannot afford to abstain from, nor commit
to the private sector. In the same way, BIM implementation in the developing countries must
avoid the complications of the BIM implementation models in the developed countries by
learning from the strengths and shortcomings of BIM implementation in the developed
countries. The Complications that resulted from the BIM implementation models in the
developed countries have shown that the models were not comprehensive enough as some
dimensions of the construction industry were not accorded their due importance in these
BIM implementation models. The complications have also shown that BIM implementation
process is not a linear phenomenon but a complex one and that if the appropriate strategies
are not employed, the process will further widen the gap between the large and small firms,
will fail to provide the necessary support, legitimacy, incentives, resources, and guidelines
for BIM implementation. One of the reasons why BIM implementation process is complex is
because the Construction industry is not a homogeneous arena but a complex and multidimensional industry with complicated activities, characteristics, relationships, and
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management requirements. This makes it clear why the capacity development and economic
performance of organizations in the industry, as well as the growth of the industry, are some
of the important considerations that must be incorporated into the development of BIM
implementation models.
The purpose of this study was to understand the strengths and shortcomings of the
BIM implementation models in use in the developed countries and establish whether this will
lead to the identification of a comprehensive set of BIM implementation strategies that will
bring about a significant and sustained BIM implementation in the developing countries. The
findings of the study informed the development of a comprehensive BIM implementation
model based on the theoretical framework and theoretical background that come from
Implementation Process Theory and postulations on BIM adoption. The model features four
main constructs (top management commitment strategies, motivation strategies, capacity
development strategies, and application strategies) and eleven sub-constructs (see Figure 3).
In the model, the objective of the constructs is to achieve a successful and sustained BIM
implementation. The model explains that a successful and sustained BIM implementation
will be achieved when there is a significant reduction in BIM adoption barriers, a widespread
application of BIM on construction projects, and integration and collaboration among
construction project participants. The strategies to achieve a successful and sustained BIM
implementation are illustrated in Figure 3 and outlined in Table 1. Top management
commitment explains that change in organisation structure and culture are required in order
to adopt and adapt BIM to the organisational work process. Motivation strategies are
associated with efforts by industry regulators and leaders such as mandatory use of BIM in
the industry and development of BIM guidelines and standards. The availability of these
strategies will create an enabling environment and impetus for BIM adoption in the industry.
Capacity development strategies as a construct define the capabilities that are required to
function in a BIM environment or to participate effectively in a BIM-based construction
project. As illustrated in the model, BIM-related capabilities of an organisation or a
professional entail the skills, knowledge, and competence to participate on BIM-based
projects, as well as bestow a competitive edge on the organisation and the professionals.
Application strategies explain that an efficient and effective application of BIM on
construction projects is important to the success of BIM implementation in the construction
industry.
Implications of this study include the possibility of developing the financial and
production capabilities of the indigenous small and medium firms to reach the level of the
large and international firms that are operating in the developing countries through the use
of appropriate motivation strategies for BIM adoption. Furthermore, the evidence from this
study has suggestions for stimulating the growth and technological development of
construction industries in the developing countries. Further research needs to contextualize
and investigate the applicability of the model to the needs and peculiarities of each of the
developing countries.
6.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the University of Cape Town,
National Research Foundation, and Tertiary Education Trust Fund.
7.
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