Osteoarchaeology
Dedication
To Dimitris
Osteoarchaeology
A Guide to the Macroscopic Study of Human
Skeletal Remains
Efthymia Nikita
AMSTERDAM l BOSTON l HEIDELBERG l LONDON l NEW YORK
SAN DIEGO l SAN FRANCISCO l SINGAPORE l SYDNEY
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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OXFORD
TOKYO
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PARIS
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Contents
Preface
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1. The Human Skeleton
1
1.1 Bone Function
1.2 Bone Classification
1.3 Bone Structure
1.3.1 Gross Anatomy
1.3.2 Microscopic Anatomy
1.4 Bone Composition and Cells
1.5 Bone Growth and Development
1.6 Planes of Reference and Directional
Terms
1.7 Bone Identification
1.7.1 Axial Skeleton
1.7.2 Appendicular Skeleton
1.8 Teeth
1.8.1 Tooth Types and Dental
Numbering Systems
1.8.2 Dental Directional Terms
1.8.3 Tooth Anatomy and Composition
1.8.4 Tooth Formation and Development
1.8.5 Tooth Identification
References
Suggested Readings
Appendices
Appendix 1.I: Bone Inventory
Appendix 1.II: Tooth Inventory
Appendix 1.III: Bone and Tooth Inventory
Using Osteoware
2. Taphonomy
2.1 Taphonomy in Archaeological
and Forensic Contexts
2.2 Decomposition Process
2.3 Scavengers
2.3.1 Insects
2.3.2 Carnivores
2.3.3 Rodents
2.3.4 Pigs
2.3.5 Marine Predators
2.3.6 Avian Predators
2.4 Human Agents
2.4.1 Tool Marks
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2.4.2 Fire
2.4.3 Mortuary Practices
2.5 Natural Environment
2.5.1 Plant Activity
2.5.2 Soil
2.5.3 Aquatic Environments
2.6 Intrinsic Preservation Factors
2.7 Commingling
References
Appendices
Appendix 2.I: Assessment of the Degree
of Preservation of the Skeleton
Appendix 2.II: Recording Taphonomic
Alterations
Appendix 2.III: Recording Taphonomic
Alterations Using Osteoware
3. Sex and Ancestry Assessment
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3.1 Sex Assessment
3.1.1 Morphological Methods
3.1.2 Metric Methods
3.1.3 Sex Assessment in Juveniles
3.2 Ancestry
3.2.1 Morphological Methods
3.2.2 Metric Methods
3.2.3 Ancestry Assessment in Juveniles
References
Appendices
Appendix 3.I: Sex Assessment Recording
Protocol
Appendix 3.II: Case Study for Sex
Assessment
Appendix 3.III: Ancestry Assessment
Recording Protocol
Appendix 3.IV: Recording Sex and
Ancestry Markers in Osteoware
4. Age Estimation
4.1 Age Estimation
4.2 Juveniles
4.2.1 Appearance and Union
of Ossification Centers
4.2.2 Long-Bone Length
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Contents
4.2.3 Other Bone Dimensions
4.2.4 Dentition
4.3 Adults
4.3.1 Fusion of Primary and Secondary
Ossification Centers
4.3.2 Morphology of the Pubic Symphysis
4.3.3 Morphology of the Auricular
Surface
4.3.4 Suture Closure
4.3.5 Morphology of the Sternal
Rib End
4.3.6 Dentition
4.3.7 Other Age Markers
4.3.8 Multifactorial Age Estimation:
Transition Analysis
References
Appendices
Appendix 4.I: Age Estimation Recording
Protocol: Juveniles
Appendix 4.II: Age Estimation Recording
Protocol: Adults
Appendix 4.III: Recording Age Markers
in Osteoware
Appendix 4.IV: Case Study for Age
Estimation
5. Biological Distance
5.1 Metric Methods
5.1.1 Cranial Shape and Size as a Proxy
for Genotypic Variation
5.1.2 Cranial Digitization
5.1.3 Cranial Linear Measurements
5.1.4 Dental Measurements
5.1.5 Euclidean and Mahalanobis
Distances
5.1.6 Statistical Analysis
5.2 Nonmetric Traits
5.2.1 Genetic Information and
Confounding Factors
5.2.2 Recording Cranial Nonmetric Traits
5.2.3 Recording Dental Nonmetric Traits
5.2.4 The Mean Measure of Divergence
5.2.5 Nonmetric Mahalanobis Distances
5.2.6 Data Analysis
5.3 R-Matrix Analysis
5.3.1 Continuous Data
5.3.2 Binary Data
References
Appendices
Appendix 5.I: Definitions of Cranial
Landmarks
Appendix 5.II: Definitions of Cranial
Linear Measurements
Appendix 5.III: Recording Protocol for
Cranial Landmarks
Appendix 5.IV: Combining the Two
Digitized Halves of a Cranium Into
One Single Configuration Using
Morpheus et al.
Appendix 5.V: Computing the Coordinates
of Missing Landmarks Using
Mirror-Imaging
Appendix 5.VI: Performing Generalized
Procrustes Analysis in PAST
Appendix 5.VII: Calculating the Centroid
Size
Appendix 5.VIII: A Case Study on
Calculating Mahalanobis Distances
Using Continuous Data
Appendix 5.IX: Definitions of Cranial
Nonmetric Traits
Appendix 5.X: Definitions of Dental
Nonmetric Traits
Appendix 5.XI: A Case Study of the
Treatment of Nonmetric Traits
Appendix 5.XII: Recording Nonmetric
Traits and Craniometrics in
Osteoware
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6. Growth Patterns
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
Growth in Human Populations
Growth Patterns as a Stress Marker
Catch-Up and Catch-Down Growth
Osteoarchaeological Applications
Methodological Approaches
6.5.1 Skeletal Expressions of Stress With
Regard to Growth Patterns
6.5.2 Practical Considerations
6.5.3 Comparative Material
6.6 Limitations of Growth Pattern Studies
6.7 Stature Estimation
6.7.1 Anatomical Methods
6.7.2 Mathematical Methods
6.7.3 Special Considerations in Stature
Estimation
6.8 Body Mass Estimation
References
Appendices
Appendix 6.I: Postcranial Measurements
Appendix 6.II: Recording Postcranial
Metrics in Osteoware
7. Activity Patterns
7.1 Entheseal Changes
7.1.1 Anatomical Information
7.1.2 Factors Affecting Entheseal Change
Expression
7.1.3 Recording Schemes and
Statistical Analysis
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7.2 Long-Bone Cross-Sectional Geometric
Properties
7.2.1 Impact of Mechanical Loading
on Long-Bone Cross-Sectional
Geometric Properties
7.2.2 Data Collection
7.2.3 Standardization
7.2.4 Statistical Analysis
7.3 Dental Wear
7.3.1 Mechanisms That Underline
Dental Wear
7.3.2 Recording Schemes and
Statistical Analysis
References
Appendices
Appendix 7.I: Recording Schemes
for Entheseal Changes
Appendix 7.II: Estimating Cross-Sectional
Geometric Properties From Periosteal
Molds
Appendix 7.III: Ordinal Recording
Schemes for Dental Wear
Appendix 7.IV: Calculating the Area of
Exposed Dentine as a Ratio to the
Occlusal Surface Area
Appendix 7.V: Dental Wear
Recording in Osteoware
8. Pathological Conditions
8.1 The Osteological Paradox
8.2 Macroscopic Paleopathological
Examination
8.3 Developmental Anomalies
8.3.1 Cranium
8.3.2 Spine and Thorax
8.3.3 Conditions Affecting Multiple
Anatomical Regions
8.4 Metabolic Diseases
8.4.1 Scurvy
8.4.2 Rickets and Osteomalacia
8.4.3 Osteoporosis
8.4.4 Paget’s Disease of Bone
8.5 Hematopoietic Diseases
8.5.1 General Skeletal Manifestations:
Cribra Orbitalia and Porotic
Hyperostosis
8.5.2 Thalassemia
8.5.3 Sickle-Cell Anemia
8.5.4 Iron-Deficiency Anemia
8.6 Endocrine Disorders
8.6.1 Pituitary Disturbances
8.6.2 Thyroid Disturbances
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Contents
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8.7 Infectious Diseases
8.7.1 Osteomyelitis
8.7.2 Tuberculosis
8.7.3 Leprosy
8.7.4 Treponemal Diseases
8.7.5 Nonspecific Infections
8.8 Tumors
8.8.1 Benign Tumors of Bone
8.8.2 Primary Malignant
Neoplasms
8.9 Trauma
8.9.1 Fractures
8.9.2 Dislocations
8.9.3 Surgical Procedures and Mutilation
8.9.4 Forensic Distinction of Trauma
8.9.5 Identifying Perimortem Trauma
8.10 Joint Disease
8.10.1 Proliferative Arthropathies
8.10.2 Erosive Arthropathies
8.11 Dental Diseases
8.11.1 Periodontal Disease
8.11.2 Caries
8.11.3 Dental Calculus
8.11.4 Periapical Cavities
8.11.5 Antemortem Tooth Loss
8.11.6 Enamel Hypoplasia
8.12 Calculation of Disease Prevalence
and Statistical Analysis
References
Appendices
Appendix 8.I: Recording Schemes
for Common Pathological Conditions
Appendix 8.II: Recording Pathological
Conditions in Osteoware
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9. Statistical Methods in Human
Osteology
9.1 Basic Statistical Concepts
9.2 Descriptive Statistics
9.2.1 Summary Statistics
9.2.2 Boxplots and Histograms
9.2.3 Contingency Tables
9.2.4 Case Studies on the Calculation of
Summary Statistics
9.3 Inferential Statistics: Statistical
Hypothesis Testing
9.3.1 Introductory Concepts
9.3.2 One- and Two-Tailed Tests
9.3.3 The Concept of Distribution
9.3.4 Testing the Null Hypothesis:
The p-value
9.3.5 Parametric and Nonparametric Tests
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Contents
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.3.6 Test of Normality
9.3.7 Point and Interval Estimation
Tests of Significance Between Two
Samples
9.4.1 Independent Samples Tests
9.4.2 Paired Samples Tests
9.4.3 Case Studies on Statistical Tests
Between Two Samples
Statistical Tests Among Many Samples
9.5.1 The Multiple Comparisons Problem
9.5.2 Independent Samples: One-Way
Analysis of Variance
9.5.3 Independent Samples:
KruskaleWallis Test
9.5.4 Dependent Samples:
Repeated-Measures ANOVA
9.5.5 Dependent Samples:
Friedman Test
9.5.6 Case Studies on the Comparison
of Many Samples
Tests for Categorical Data
9.6.1 Chi-Square and Fisher’s Exact Tests
9.6.2 Correspondence Analysis
9.6.3 Case Studies on Categorical Data
Analysis
Data Modeling
9.7.1 Models Adopted in the
Least-Squares Method
9.7.2 Number of Adjustable Parameters
9.7.3 General Linear Models (Analysis of
Covariance)
9.7.4 Generalized Linear Models (GLM)
and Generalized Estimating
Equations (GEE)
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9.7.5 Logistic Regression
9.7.6 Reduced Major Axis Regression
9.7.7 Case Studies on Data Modeling
and Applications
9.8 Correlation
9.8.1 Bivariate Correlation
9.8.2 Partial Correlation
9.8.3 Correlation of Symmetrical
Matrices
9.8.4 Case Studies on Correlations
9.9 Multivariate Analysis
9.9.1 Multivariate Normality Test and
Outliers
9.9.2 Principal Component Analysis
9.9.3 Multiple Correspondence Analysis
9.9.4 Linear Discriminant Analysis
9.9.5 Multivariate Analysis of Variance
9.9.6 Hierarchical Cluster Analysis
9.9.7 Metric and Nonmetric
Multidimensional Scaling
9.9.8 Case Studies on Multivariate
Analyses
References
Suggested Readings
Appendices
Appendix 9.I: IBM SPSS Interface
Appendix 9.II: Excel 2010e2016
Configuration for Data Analysis
and Macros
Index
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