http://dx.doi.org/10.15446/proile.v19n1.54184
Comparing the Internet Usage of Pre-service
Language Teachers With Teachers of Other Subjects:
Distance Learning vs. On-Campus Learning
Comparación del uso de Internet entre docentes de idiomas en formación y
docentes de otras áreas: educación a distancia frente a presencial
Mehmet Firat *
Harun Serpil **
1
2
Anadolu University, Yunusemre, Turkey
Teachers play a crucial role in helping individuals gain adequate Internet competency, which requires
teachers themselves to be Internet-literate. he purpose of this study is to investigate the Internet use of the
distance and on-campus pre-service teachers of language and other disciplines by multiple parameters. A
total of 789 teacher candidates participated in this survey. he indings show that the candidate teachers
in on-campus and distance-learning programs have an average level of Internet usage adequacy and that
the younger candidate teachers and those in higher classes use the Internet more frequently. Pre-service
foreign language teachers have been found to have a moderate level of Internet usage frequency, adequacy
and technology ownership in comparison with the other preservice teacher groups.
Key words: Internet in education, open and distance education, pre-service language teachers.
Los maestros juegan un papel crucial para facilitar que las personas adquieran competencias adecuadas
para el uso de Internet. Esto requiere que los maestros mismos sean diestros en dichas competencias.
El propósito de este estudio es investigar el uso de Internet, a distancia y dentro del campus, de los
futuros profesores. Un total de 789 docentes en formación participaron en este estudio-encuesta. Los
resultados muestran que los docentes, tanto dentro del campus como en los programas de aprendizaje
a distancia, tienen un nivel medio en lo que respecta al uso de Internet. Los docentes más jóvenes y los
mayores utilizan Internet con más frecuencia. Se ha encontrado que la suiciencia y la apropiación de
la tecnología, así como la frecuencia de uso de Internet por parte de los futuros profesores de idiomas,
son moderadas en comparación con docentes en formación de otras áreas.
Palabras clave: educación abierta y a distancia, Internet en la educación, profesores de idiomas en formación.
* E-mail: mirat@anadolu.edu.tr
** E-mail: hserpil@anadolu.edu.tr
How to cite this article (apa 6th ed.): Firat, M., & Serpil, H. (2017). Comparing the Internet usage of pre-service language teachers with
teachers of other subjects: Distance learning vs. on-campus learning. PROFILE Issues in Teachers’ Professional Development, 19(1), 55-72.
http://dx.doi.org/10.15446/proile.v19n1.54184.
his article was received on November 13, 2015, and accepted on July 21, 2016.
his is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons license Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
4.0 International License. Consultation is possible at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
PROFILE Vol. 19, No. 1, January-June 2017. ISSN 1657-0790 (printed) 2256-5760 (online). Bogotá, Colombia. Pages 55-72
55
Firat & Serpil
Introduction
he Information Technology (it) trend has taken
over the world with the rapid popularization of the
Internet, leading to its ubiquitous use in education and
bringing out important innovations in the ield (Becker,
1999). he Internet has helped improve the speed and
scale of the development of today’s technology and
allowed it to acquire new dimensions. As a result, the
need for Internet-literate individuals has grown (Coiro,
Knobel, Lankshear, & Leu, 2014). To date, various
studies have been conducted regarding media literacy,
information literacy, computer literacy, technology
literacy, and Internet literacy (Leu, Kinzer, Coiro, Castek,
& Henry, 2013) and, more speciically, regarding the
digital literacy of foreign language teachers (Guikema
& Menke, 2014), and the internet literacy of English as a
foreign language (efl) teachers (Bolandifar, 2013; Cakir
& Atmaca, 2015; Çelik, 2013; Cirit, 2015; Dashtestani,
2014; Dias & Bocorny, 2014; Khany & Boghayeri, 2013;
Khassawneh, 2012; Kia Heirati & Ahmadi Alashti, 2015;
Shin & Son, 2007). Providing numerous opportunities
for using authentic materials, unlimited learning, and
synchronous or asynchronous communication styles,
foreign language teachers in their teaching have greatly
benefited from the Web 2.0 tools like blogs, wikis,
podcasts, and social networking (Sturm, Kennell,
McBride, & Kelly, 2009).
Internet literacy is closely related to computer
literacy, which is now of great importance in our
everyday life (Dinev & Hart, 2005). A skills-based
deinition of Internet literacy includes viable research
strategy, semiotics, and political debates (Livingstone,
2004). Livingstone and Helsper (2010) defined
Internet literacy as a multidimensional construct that
encompasses the abilities to access, analyze, evaluate,
and create online content. Internet literacy can be
considered to be a type of media literacy (Livingstone,
2004). Basically, media literacy can be deined as the
ability and skill to analyze, evaluate, communicate, and
56
access unwritten and written messages in various digital
formats. On the other hand, Internet literacy can be
deined as the skill of inding, editing, understanding,
analyzing, evaluating, and producing information
through the Internet. Internet literacy has become
an essential competency for people today. Helping
individuals gain this competency is socially accepted
as a teacher’s duty and responsibility (Kurbanoğlu
& Akkoyunlu, 2002). Most of the research on the
Internet literacy of preservice language teachers and
their views and experiences of using the Internet in
language teaching so far has found that these teachers
are positive towards using the Internet in language
teaching (Cirit, 2015; Eyyam, Meneviş, & Doğruer,
2010; Khany & Boghayeri, 2013; Khassawneh, 2012;
Kia Heirati & Ahmadi Alashti, 2015; Kuo, 2008; Shin &
Son, 2007), with the notable exception of Hismanoglu
(2012) who reported some negative attitutes toward
information and communication technologies (ict) by
preservice efl teachers studying in distance education
programs.
Related Research
Various Internet literacy research has focused
on different target groups (Sinha, Bhattacharjee,
& Bhattacharjee, 2013; Wulandari, 2013), including
the Internet literacy of children and young people
(Eagleton, Guinee, & Langlais, 2003; Livingstone,
Bober, & Helsper, 2005; Livingstone, 2007; Chang,
2013). However, currently the available research on
the Internet usage of teachers is very limited, and no
study is available regarding the Internet usage status of
pre-service teachers studying in on-campus education
faculties and open education faculties. However, some
relevant studies are noteworthy. Caywood and Duckett
(2003) compared online vs. on-campus learning in
teacher education. One hundred and forty students
participated in the study, half of these online and the
other half on-campus. Students self-selected the format
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas, Departamento de Lenguas Extranjeras
Comparing the Internet Usage of Pre-service Language Teachers with Teachers of Other Subjects...
in which they took the course. According to the results
of the study, no signiicant diferences between these
two groups were found in the measurement of initial
learning or follow-up performance.
In 1998, 2,250 teachers in the usa participated in
a national survey concerning the Internet usage of
4th grade to 12th grade teachers (Becker, 1999). It was
determined that 39% of the teachers had Internet
connection in the class, 59% had Internet connection
at home, and 27% had no Internet connection at all.
Also, it was found that mathematics teachers used
the Internet the least, at 9%. It was shown that the
teachers had average Internet usage adequacy and
those under 30 used the Internet more frequently
compared to those above 30. Additionally, teachers
adopting constructivist approaches were also using
the Internet more oten compared to those with an
objectivist approach.
Another study conducted by Liang and Chao
(2002) aimed to determine the Internet literacy of
primary and secondary school teachers in Taiwan.
Nine hundred and seventy-ive primary and secondary
school teachers participated in the study. At the end
of the study, it was found that the male teachers were
more Internet literate than the female teachers and
the younger teachers were more literate than the
older teachers. It was also observed that the Internet
literacy of the managers and teachers did not difer
signiicantly. It was also concluded that the Internet
literacy of teachers did not depend on the city or rural
area they were living in. In a study by Mohamed Zaki
(2013), the ict and Internet usage of 236 pre-school
teachers in Australia and Malaysia was examined. It
was determined that there was no Internet access in the
schools of more than half of the teachers and that the
older teachers’ Internet usage was low. Livingstone and
Helsper (2010) examined the role of selected measures
of Internet literacy in relation to teenagers’ online
experience. Data were collected from 789 uk teenagers
through a national survey. Internet usage was found
to positively correlate with Internet literacy, online
opportunities, and risks. Smarkola (2008) conducted
research on technology literacy in education, examining
160 students and 158 experienced teachers, and found
signiicant diferences in technology use across grade
levels. he indings showed that the lower grades meet
the national technology literacy standards better than
the upper grades.
Various studies have been conducted regarding
the Internet usage of teachers in Turkey. In a study
conducted by Akkoyunlu (2002), the purpose of Internet
usage and the teachers’ opinions on Internet usage were
analyzed. For this purpose, a survey was developed by
the researcher. It was concluded that only 9% of the
teachers were not using the Internet, and among the
rest of the teachers, the Internet was used mostly for
communication. In another study by Akkoyunlu and
Yılmaz (2005), pre-service teachers’ information literacy
levels, Internet usage frequency, and purpose of Internet
usage were investigated. According to the results, the
higher the information literacy levels of teachers, the
higher was the Internet usage frequency. Additionally,
pre-service teachers were found to use the Internet
primarily to access information. In another study
conducted by Atav, Akkoyunlu, and Sağlam (2006),
Internet access opportunities and the Internet usage
purposes of the pre-service teachers were discussed.
Two hundred and ity-nine students from the irst and
inal years of the Faculty of Education, the Department
of Secondary School Science, and the Department of
Mathematics of Hacettepe University participated in
the study. A survey form was developed as a datacollection tool. hey found that 86.9% of the pre-service
teachers used the Internet and 41.3% accessed Internet
via Internet cafes. he Internet was used by the majority
of the pre-service teachers for multiple purposes, such as
accessing information, homework, performing projects,
and for communication (e-mails, chat).
PROFILE Vol. 19, No. 1, January-June 2017. ISSN 1657-0790 (printed) 2256-5760 (online). Bogotá, Colombia. Pages 55-72
57
Firat & Serpil
here have also been some studies conducted to
analyze the usage of the Internet and application of
Internet-assisted language teaching (ialt) by Turkish
efl teachers. Çelik (2013) found that Turkish efl
instructors were not fully aware of the latest technologies
available to them and that they mostly use the Internet
to teach structural rather than communicative aspects
of language. hese instructors were also found not
to rate themselves highly concerning their skill at
fostering learner autonomy and interactivity by using
the Internet. Bozdoğan and Özen (2014) concluded that
the majority of the Turkish pre-service efl teachers
were found to be self-efficacious in the use of ict,
and while higher experience and conidence correlate
positively with using ict, lack of knowledge, skills,
or confidence has the opposite effect. Focusing on
the Facebook use of pre-service efl teachers, Cakir
and Atmaca (2015) found that the participants were
favorable towards the use of Facebook as an educational
tool in English language classes and they thought that
adolescents at the intermediate English level were the
most appropriate group to teach via Facebook. hey
also thought that this medium it self-study purposes
best. he researchers recommended teacher education
programs to be properly upgraded to meet the current
ict demands and help student teachers to gain the
needed “teachnology” skills towards successful synthesis
of the latest technology and appropriate teaching styles
into their future classes. Cirit (2015) found that almost all
the pre-service efl teachers in her study were motivated
to adapt Internet tools for assessment, although they
were challenged by the lack of guidelines and necessary
training to help them use such web-based assessment
technologies. A very recent mixed-method study (Merc,
2015) found that Turkish pre-service efl teachers did
not adequately beneit from ict tools mainly due to the
clear misalignment between teacher training programs
and actual instructional environments regarding ict
integration; also, the author points out the need for “a
stronger link” between the two.
58
As shown in this brief review of related research,
although there are many studies regarding media
literacy, information literacy, technology literacy,
Internet literacy, and the Internet use by different
groups, a very limited number of studies are available
on the Internet usage status of pre-service teachers
from both on-campus and distance-learning programs.
herefore, this study is considered to ill in this gap
in the research and become a useful sample research
for future studies in this direction. In this study, the
Internet usage of pre-service teachers was studied
based on the parameters of Internet usage frequency,
adequacy, and experience.
Purpose
he purpose of this study is to investigate the
Internet usage of the pre-service teachers in the Faculty
of Education and the Faculty of Open Education in
Anadolu University including terms of Internet usage
frequency, Internet usage adequacy, and Internet usage
experience. In this context, answers to the following
questions are sought:
1. What is the Internet usage status of pre-service
teachers in on-campus and distance-learning
programs?
2. Does the Internet usage situation of on-campus
and distance-learning pre-service teachers difer
depending on their department, class, or gender?
Method
his study is a form of survey research aiming
to ascertain the Internet usage status of off- and
on-campus pre-service teachers. his section comprises
the subsections of participants, data-collection tool,
data collection processes, and data collection analysis.
Participants
The participants consisted of 472 pre-service
teachers from the Faculty of Education from the
academic year 2012-2013 and 317 pre-service teachers
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas, Departamento de Lenguas Extranjeras
Comparing the Internet Usage of Pre-service Language Teachers with Teachers of Other Subjects...
Figure 1. Programs of Teacher Candidates
Program in Social
Studies Education
Program in German
Language Teaching
7%
11%
Program in Primary
School Education
18%
Program in Arts and
Crafts Education
Program in Guidance and
Psychological Counseling
4%
37%
Program in
Computer
Education and
Inst. Tech.
4%
Program in
Pre-school Education
3%
10%
Program in English
Language Teaching
2% 4%
Prog. in
Program in French
Primary
Language Teaching
School
Mathematics
Teaching
from the Faculty of Open Education from the academic
year 2013-2014. A total of 789 pre-service teachers
participated in the study. Convenience sampling was
performed in the study. he research was performed
by contacting students from each department, for
which contact permission was obtained, and those
who it was possible to reach were given this survey.
Information regarding the programs that pre-service
teachers were registered for in the Faculty of Education
is given in Figure 1.
As seen in Figure 1, the number of participants
is quite high in some programs (37%), whereas this
number falls as low as 2% in others. Sub-factors were
combined because the number of students per sub-factor
regarding their departments varied substantially. As
a result, sub-factors with close participant numbers
were ascertained. As a result, participating students
from English teaching, French language teaching, and
German language teaching classes were combined under
Foreign Language Education and students from primary
school mathematics teaching, pre-school teaching,
and classroom teaching classes were combined under
Primary Education. Since the number of students from
the information technology (it) department was high,
these students were categorized under the it label.
Demographical information of pre-service teachers
from the Faculty of Education who participated in the
study in the academic year 2012-2013 is given in Table 1.
PROFILE Vol. 19, No. 1, January-June 2017. ISSN 1657-0790 (printed) 2256-5760 (online). Bogotá, Colombia. Pages 55-72
59
Firat & Serpil
Table 1. Demographic Information of Pre-Service Teachers of the Education Faculty
Characteristics
Departments
Information Technologies
Primary Education
Foreign Language Education
Classes
st
1 Grade
2nd Grade
3rd Grade
4th Grade
Gender
Female
Male
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
174
184
114
36.9
39.0
24.2
71
131
113
157
15.0
27.8
23.9
33.3
272
200
57.6
42.4
Table 2. Demographic Information of Pre-Service Teachers of the Open Education Faculty
Characteristics
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
97
220
30.6
69.4
2
272
41
2
.6
85.8
12.9
.6
314
3
99.1
.9
Classes
rd
3 Grade
4th Grade
Age
< 20
20-29
30-39
> 40
Gender
Female
Male
As can be seen in Table 1, the numbers of participants
from each group became more evenly distributed by
combining the departments of pre-service teachers.
However, candidates from the upper classes were
observed as having more participation in the studyplus
there were a greater number of female candidates than
male candidates. Besides the Faculty of Education, 317
pre-service teachers from the undergraduate pre-school
teaching program of the Faculty of Open Education also
60
participated in the research. Demographics for these
pre-service teachers are presented in Table 2.
As seen in Table 2, candidates from the Faculty of
Open Education that participated in the investigation
were mostly from higher classes. On the other hand, it can
be seen that the dominant age group is 20-29, reaching
85%, the age variable provided for Open Education
students. he age distribution of distance education
students shows a wide variety of diference compared
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas, Departamento de Lenguas Extranjeras
Comparing the Internet Usage of Pre-service Language Teachers with Teachers of Other Subjects...
to students of face-to-face programs. Since this is from
the undergraduate pre-school teaching program, almost
all of the participants are female.
Data-Collection Tools
In this study, two diferent survey forms were used
as data-collection tools. he survey for the Faculty of
Education programs consists of two sections. In the irst
section, pre-service teachers were asked three questions
regarding their department, class, and gender. In the
second section of the survey, they were asked three
questions regarding their Internet usage.
A new survey was developed for the pre-service
teachers from the Faculty of Open Education. As the
target population and the age range were very large
and the type of education was diferent, another datacollection tool was developed. Unlike the initial survey,
this new survey collected information regarding the
technology used by participants. As the Faculty of Open
Education’s pre-service teachers access the content of
the classes online, the technology they use varies. Also,
the question from the irst survey “How long have you
been using the Internet?” was not asked in this survey,
considering the extensive age range of those with formal
education.
In the process of developing survey forms, drats
were created using the literature review. hese drats
were then presented to four ield experts in the irst
survey and to six experts in the second survey. hey
were then edited in light of the feedback received. For
the irst survey, survey forms were administered to 10
pre-service teachers from the target population, and
to 12 pre-service teachers for the second survey. hus,
the pilot application was performed and surveys were
inalized.
Data-Collection Process
As this study was conducted to reveal the Internet
usage status of pre-service teachers, data were collected
using two separate data-collection tools in two diferent
faculties over two years. In the academic year 20122013, data from diferent departments of the Faculty of
Education were collected. he data-collection tool was
printed and distributed to the departments with the
permission of the respective management. Feedback
from 472 pre-service teachers was received during
this period. A similar procedure was followed for the
pre-service teachers in the Faculty of Open Education.
Permission was obtained from the faculty dean of the
pre-school teaching program and the data-collection
tool was transferred to an electronic medium in order
to allow it to be distributed to the students via e-mail.
In this way, feedback was received from 317 students.
Data Analysis
Independent two-sample t-tests and one-way anova
parametric tests were used in the analysis of data from
the investigation. he Bonferoni test, one of the most
common post-hoc tests, was used to determine groups
that showed signiicant diferences in terms of anova. he
Bonferroni method is a common multiple comparison
test and it does not require the equal sample number
principle (Miller, 1977). Descriptive statistics such as
percent (%), medium (), and frequency (f) were also
used along with the parametric tests. Parametric statistics
require the assumption of the normality of distribution
(McMillan & Schumacher, 2001). Experimental studies
are oten conducted in social sciences as well. he use
of a parametric statistic does not cause a signiicant
deviation if the size of each of the sample subgroups is
15 or larger (Büyüköztürk, 2007).
Findings
he results are shown under two titles as “Internet
Usage of Pre-Service Teachers From the Faculty of
Education” and “Internet Usage of Pre-Service Teachers
From the Faculty of Open Education.” he data regarding
these two groups were not analyzed together because
they were collected in diferent years, the items of surveys
varied, and education models difered.
PROFILE Vol. 19, No. 1, January-June 2017. ISSN 1657-0790 (printed) 2256-5760 (online). Bogotá, Colombia. Pages 55-72
61
Firat & Serpil
Internet Usage of
Pre-Service Teachers from
the Faculty of Education
Internet usage frequency, duration in years of
Internet use, and Internet usage adequacy were reviewed
in research that was performed to determine the Internet
usage status of 472 pre-service teachers from the Faculty
of Education during the academic year 2012-2013.
Information regarding the daily average Internet use
frequency of candidates in relation to their departments
is given in Figure 2.
he coding is as follows: 1 = “less than 1 hour,” 2 =
“between 1-3 hours,” 3 = “between 4-6 hours”, 4 = “between
7-9 hours,” and 5 = “10 or more hours.” According to
these results, pre-service teachers were found to use the
Internet 1-3 hours a day, with the average value regarding
the Internet usage frequency ( = 2.14). it pre-service
teachers were found to be the program that uses the
Internet the most, at approximately 4-6 hours a day,
while primary school mathematics pre-service teachers
were found to be the group that uses the Internet the
least, with an average of one hour a day. Other programs
that use the Internet the most are Preschool, Painting,
English, and French. Information regarding the Internet
usage adequacy of pre-service teachers according to their
departments is given in Figure 3.
In the survey, there was a question as to how well
the pre-service teachers perceived themselves in terms
of Internet usage. his was expressed through: 1 = “Basic
Level,” 2 = “Average Level,” 3 = “Advanced Level.” Preservice teachers declared themselves as having average
Internet usage adequacy with an = 2.11 average. As can
be seen in Figure 3, the pre-service teachers in the French
Teaching program are those who regard themselves as
the most adequate with an = 2.41 average. it followed
the French Teaching program with = 2.18. he program
with the most people regarding themselves as the least
adequate is the Primary Mathematics teaching program
with an = 1.9 average. Information regarding how many
years the pre-service teachers had been using the Internet
in relation to their departments is given in Figure 4.
In Figure 4, 1 = “less than one year,” 2= “between
1-3 years,” 3 = “between 4-6 years,” 4 = “between 7-9
years,” 5 = “10 or more years.” As can be seen in Figure
Figure 2. Daily Average Internet Use Frequency of Pre-Service Teachers
Program in Social Studies Education
1,84
Program in Primary School Education
1,65
Program in Arts and Crafts Education
2,29
1,79
Program in Guidance and Psychological Counseling
2,31
Program in Pre-school Education
Program in English Language Teaching
2,15
1,45
Program in Primary School Mathematics Teaching
Program in French Language Teaching
2,12
Program in Computer Education and Inst. Tech.
2,61
1,72
Program in German Language Teaching
0
62
1
2
3
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas, Departamento de Lenguas Extranjeras
Comparing the Internet Usage of Pre-service Language Teachers with Teachers of Other Subjects...
Figure 3. Internet Usage Adequacy of Pre-Service Teachers according to their Departments
Program in Social Studies Education
2,1
Program in Primary School Education
2,01
Program in Arts and Crafts Education
2,19
Program in Guidance and Psychological Counseling
1,95
Program in Pre-school Education
2
Program in English Language Teaching
2,09
Program in Primary School Mathematics Teaching
1,91
Program in French Language Teaching
2,41
Program in Computer Education and Inst. Tech.
2,19
Program in German Language Teaching
2,04
0
1
2
3
Figure 4. Internet Usage Years of Pre-Service Teachers
Program in Social Studies Education
3,32
3,26
Program in Primary School Education
3,48
Program in Arts and Crafts Education
3,26
Program in Guidance and Psychological Counseling
3
Program in Pre-school Education
3,13
Program in English Language Teaching
Program in Primary School Mathematics Teaching
3
Program in French Language Teaching
3,24
Program in Computer Education and Inst. Tech.
3,28
Program in German Language Teaching
2,86
0
4, the highest average belongs to Painting Teachers (
= 3.48), while Social Sciences ( = 3.32), it Teaching
( = 3.28), and Class Teaching ( = 3.26) follow. It can
be concluded that generally all departments are close
to 3, meaning that they have been using the Internet
actively for 4-6 years.
1
2
3
Internet Usage in Relation to Department
A one-way anova test was conducted in order to
determine if the Internet usage of pre-service teachers
displays a significant difference in relation to their
departments. he results of the anova test are given
in Table 3.
PROFILE Vol. 19, No. 1, January-June 2017. ISSN 1657-0790 (printed) 2256-5760 (online). Bogotá, Colombia. Pages 55-72
63
Firat & Serpil
As can be seen in Table 3, a signiicant diference
between it pre-service teachers and primary and
language teaching pre-service teachers was found
regarding the “daily average Internet usage frequency”
in relation to their respective departments. According
to the results, it pre-service teachers use the Internet
more frequently on a daily basis than both primary
school pre-service teachers and language teaching
pre-service teachers, at a signiicance level of p < 0.01.
The reason for this may be that the it department
regularly uses the Internet in the course of its duties.
No significant difference was found when Internet
usage years and Internet usage adequacy of pre-service
teachers were compared. his indicates the comparability
of the Internet usage experiences and Internet usage
adequacies of these pre-service teachers.
Internet Usage According to Classes
A one-way anova test was used to determine
whether the Internet usage of pre-service teachers in
relation to their classes shows a signiicant diference.
he results of the anova test are given in Table 4. he
table only includes the statistics of the groups with
signiicant diferences.
Table 3. ANOVA Multiple Comparison Test Results
Dependent Variable
Frequency
of Internet use per day
Internet
usage year
Internet usage adequacy
Groups
MD
p (2-way)
it–Primary Education
.79973
.0001
it–Foreign Language Education
.65880
.0001
Primary Education–Foreign
Language Education
-.14092
.529
it–Primary Education
.02043
.987
it–Foreign Language Education
.24955
.057
Primary Education–Foreign
Language Education
.22912
.088
it–Primary Education
.15705
.068
it–Foreign Language Education
.07562
.998
Primary Education–Foreign
Language Education
-.08143
.881
Table 4. Comparison of Internet Usage of Pre-Service Teachers According to Their Classes
Dependent Variable
Groups
MD
p (2-way)
1 Year–2 Year
-.39920
.024
1 Year–3 Year
-.46466
.007
1 Year–2 Year
-.34695
.043
1 Year–3 Year
-.37093
.031
1st Year–4th Year
-.49116
.001
st
Frequency of Internet Use Per Day
st
st
Internet Usage Year
64
st
nd
rd
nd
rd
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas, Departamento de Lenguas Extranjeras
Comparing the Internet Usage of Pre-service Language Teachers with Teachers of Other Subjects...
Table 5. Independent Sample t-test Regarding Technology Scores of the Students Based on their Schools
Frequency of Internet Use per Day
Internet Usage Year
Internet Usage Adequacy
Groups
N
Ss
t
p (2way)
Female
272
2.0368
.91246
-2.901
.004
Male
200
2.2900
.96985
Female
272
3.1434
.85780
-1.847
.065
Male
200
3.2950
.91221
Female
272
2.0478
.63239
-2.436
.015
Male
200
2.1950
.67024
As seen in Table 4, signiicant diferences were found
between the Internet usage frequency and Internet usage
years of pre-service teachers. It was determined in relation
to Internet usage frequency that junior candidates used
the Internet most frequently, at a signiicance level of p
= 0.007, and sophomore candidates used Internet more
frequently than the freshmen candidates, at a signiicance
level of p = 0.024. Similarly, senior candidates were found
to have more Internet usage experience than freshmen,
at a signiicance level of p = 0.001, junior year students,
at p = 0.031, and sophomore students, at p = 0.043. hese
indings show that higher class students generally use the
Internet more frequently than lower class students and
that they have more Internet experience. his diference
seems to work against the irst-year students. he reason
for this might be because the freshmen have inadequate
access to the Internet as a result of the fact that they
have recently begun university and because they are
younger. On the other hand, it is noticeable that there
is no signiicant diference between the Internet usage
adequacies of pre-service teachers.
Internet Usage According to Gender
Independent two-sample t-tests were used to
determine if there are signiicant diferences between
Internet usage statuses in relation to the gender of preservice teachers. Results of the t-test are given in Table 5.
As a result of the dependent two-sample t-test,
a signiicant diference was found between the daily
average Internet usage frequency and Internet usage
adequacy of the pre-service teachers in relation to their
genders. According to this, male pre-service teachers
were found to have a signiicantly higher Internet usage
frequency ( = 2.29) than female pre-service teachers
( = 2.03), [t(470) = 2.901, p = 0.004 < 0.05]. Furthermore,
male candidates were found to have signiicantly higher
Internet usage adequacy ( = 2.19) than female candidates
( = 2.04), [t(470) = 2.436, p = 0.015 < 0.05]. However, no
signiicant diference was found between Internet usage
years based on gender. hese indings show that male
pre-service teachers use the Internet more frequently
than female pre-service teachers and that they perceive
themselves as more adequate than female candidates.
Internet Usage of Pre-Service
Teachers From the Faculty
of Open Education
Acquired technologies, Internet usage frequency,
and Internet usage adequacy were considered in order
to determine the Internet usage status of pre-service
teachers in the Open Faculty of Education. he data
regarding the technological device ownership by 317
Preschool Teaching Program pre-service teachers are
given in Figure 5.
PROFILE Vol. 19, No. 1, January-June 2017. ISSN 1657-0790 (printed) 2256-5760 (online). Bogotá, Colombia. Pages 55-72
65
Firat & Serpil
Figure 5. Technologies Owned by Distance Pre-Service Teachers
f
59
PC + Smart Phone + Tablet PC
Tablet + Smart Phone
18,6
1
0,3
10
PC + Tablet PC
3,2
107
PC + Smart Phone
Only Tablet PC
33,8
3
0,9
19
Only Smart Phone
6
118
Only PC
37,2
In Figure 5, it can be seen that 37.2% of pre-service
teachers own only a computer, 33.8% a computer and a
smartphone, and 18.6% own a computer, a smartphone,
and a tablet. On the other hand, tablet usage is observed
to be as low as 0.9%. In general, it is determined that preservice teachers from the Faculty of Open Education own
at least one of these three tools. Information regarding the
Internet usage frequency and Internet usage adequacy of
pre-service teachers from the Faculty of Open Education
is summarized in Figure 6.
Figure 6. Internet Usage Frequency and Adequacy
of Distance Pre-Service Teachers
1,6
1,7
1,8
1,9
2
2,1
Internet Usage Adequacy
Internet Usage Frequency
In Figure 6, the coding is as follows: 1 = “between
0-2 hours,” 2 = “between 2-4 hours,” 3 = “between 4-6
hours,” 4 = “between 6-8 hours” and 5 = “8 or more
66
%
hours.” Internet usage adequacy was coded as: 1 =
“Basic level,” 2 = “Average level,” and 3 = “Advanced
Level.” According to this, we can say that Internet usage
frequency is between 2-4 hours a day and that Internet
usage adequacy is at an average level considering the
average for pre-service teachers from the Faculty of
Open Education.
he Internet usage status of pre-service teachers
based on demographics was analyzed. In this, the Internet
usage status of pre-service teachers from the Faculty of
Open Education was analyzed or broken down according
to their classes and ages. he comparisons were not
made according to gender or department. he reason
for this was because the students participating were from
only one program and only three of these were male.
Internet Usage According to Class
hree hundred and seventeen pre-service teachers
from the 3 rd and 4 th years of the Faculty of Open
Education’s Preschool Teaching Program participated
in the study. Independent two-sample t-tests were used
to determine the Internet usage status of candidates in
relation to their classes. Results of independent twosample t-test are given in Table 6.
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas, Departamento de Lenguas Extranjeras
Comparing the Internet Usage of Pre-service Language Teachers with Teachers of Other Subjects...
Table 6. Internet Usage According to Independent Sample t-test Results
Frequency of Internet Use Per Day
Internet Usage Adequacy
Groups
3rd Year4th Year
3rd Year4th Year
N
Ss
t
97
220
97
220
1.5876
1.8864
1.9691
2.0773
.86304
1.11887
.60301
.54767
-2.34
p (2-way)
.019
-1.571
.117
Table 7. Results of Independent Sample t-test by Age
Group
Frequency of Internet Use Per Day
<30–>30
years old
Internet Usage Adequacy
<30–>30
years old
As a result of the two independent sample t-tests,
a signiicant diference was found between the daily
average Internet usage frequency of candidates in relation
to their departments, and no signiicant diference was
found between Internet usage adequacies As a result,
the Internet usage frequency of candidates in the 4th
year was found to be ( = 1.88), which is signiicantly
higher than of those in the 3rd year ( = 1.58), [t(315) =
2.34, p = 0.019 < 0.05]. However, the Internet usage
adequacy of 4th year candidates ( = 2.07) was not
found to have a signiicant diference in comparison to
the Internet usage adequacy of the 3rd year pre-service
teachers ( = 1.96), [t(315) = 1.57, p = 0.117 < 0.05]. hese
indings suggest that the Internet usage frequency of
pre-service teachers in upper classes is signiicantly
higher statistically, and Internet usage adequacy is also
higher, although not signiicantly higher in a statistical
sense. his inding is similar to the Internet usage status
of candidates in the Faculty of Education in relation
to their class.
Internet Usage According to Age
Independent two sample t-tests were used to
compare the Internet usage frequencies and Internet
usage adequacies of pre-service teachers from the Faculty
N
274
43
274
43
Ss
t
1.8102
1.04851
.650
p (2-way)
.516
1.6977
1.10270
2.0949
.55316
4.126
.000047
1.7209
.54883
of Open Education. he test revealed that there were
no signiicant diferences in terms of Internet usage
frequency, whereas signiicant diferences were found
in Internet usage adequacy. Since there were two people
under 20 and two people over 40, these ranges were
combined with the closest ranges. As a result, age ranges
were transformed into two groups: “under 30” and
“over 30.” he results of the independent two-sample
t-tests are given in Table 7.
When examining the Internet usage frequency of the
pre-service teachers from the Faculty of Open Education,
one can see that those under 30 use the Internet more
frequently than those over 30. However, this situation
did not cause a signiicant diference. As can be seen in
Table 7, the Internet usage adequacy of the candidates
from the Faculty of Open Education shows a signiicant
diference. he Internet usage adequacy of candidates
under 30 ( = 2.09) is signiicantly higher than that
of the candidates over 30 ( = 1.72), [t(315) = 4.126, p =
0.000047 < 0.001]. his inding indicates that younger
pre-service teachers see themselves as more adequate in
terms of Internet usage. Findings regarding the Internet
usage status of pre-service teachers from the Faculty of
Open Education are parallel to those of the pre-service
teachers of the Faculty of Education.
PROFILE Vol. 19, No. 1, January-June 2017. ISSN 1657-0790 (printed) 2256-5760 (online). Bogotá, Colombia. Pages 55-72
67
Firat & Serpil
Table 8. Results of Independent Sample t-test of Internet Usage Adequacies
N
Ss
t
p (2-way)
Open Education
317
2.0442
.56642
-1.468
.142
Formal Education
472
2.1102
.65208
Group
Internet Usage Frequency
Comparison of the Internet
Usage Adequacies of
On-Campus and Distance
Pre-Service Teachers
Independent two-sample t-tests were used to compare
the Internet usage adequacies of on-campus and distance
pre-service teachers. Results of the independent twosample t-tests are given in Table 8.
No signiicant diference between the Internet usage
adequacies of pre-service teachers of formal programs
( = 2.11) and the pre-service teachers at the Faculty
of Open Education ( = 2.04) were found as a result
of independent two-sample t-tests[t(787) = 1.468, p =
0.142 > 0.05]. his inding suggests that the opinions
of pre-service teachers in formal or open education
regarding Internet usage adequacy is similarly at above
the average level.
Discussion
In this study, Internet usage of pre-service teachers is
studied and compared or analyzed in terms of three basic
dimensions: Internet usage frequency, Internet usage
adequacy, and Internet usage experience. Regarding
the indings about the Internet usage of 472 pre-service
teachers in the Faculty of Education, it was found that
they use the Internet for 1-3 hours per day, have an
average level of Internet usage adequacy, and have
been active Internet users for 4-6 years. Pre-service
teachers from the it and French teaching programs
perceive themselves as the most adequate in Internet
usage. he it program uses the Internet the most while
the Primary School Mathematics program uses the
Internet the least, conirming Becker’s (1999) inding
68
on mathematics teachers. The daily Internet use of
it pre-service teachers is signiicantly more frequent
than both primary school pre-service teachers and
language teaching pre-service teachers. The reason
for this might be the fact that the it program requires
Internet usage in its courses.
Regarding the Internet usage of candidates according
to their classes, generally the older (higher year)
students use the Internet more frequently and have
more experience with the Internet. he reason for this
may be because having just begun university; freshmen
have limited access to the Internet. On the other hand,
no signiicant diferences are observed between the
Internet usage adequacies of candidates based on their
class year. his might be because candidates from all
programs perceive themselves as having an average
level in terms of Internet usage.
Male pre-service teachers have a signiicantly higher
Internet usage frequency and adequacy level than female
candidates. However, there is no signiicant diference
among Internet usage years according to gender. hese
indings show that male pre-service teachers use the
Internet more frequently than female pre-service teachers
and regard themselves as more adequate in terms of
Internet usage, which supports Tekerek and Ercan’s
(2012) inding that male teachers have a more positive
attitude than their female colleagues towards using the
Internet in their teaching.
Regarding the technology owned by the pre-service
teachers in the Faculty of Open Education, the results
indicate that 37.2% of candidates own a computer only,
33.8% own a computer and a smartphone, and 18.6%
own a computer, a smartphone, and a tablet. This
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas, Departamento de Lenguas Extranjeras
Comparing the Internet Usage of Pre-service Language Teachers with Teachers of Other Subjects...
inding shows that the pre-service teachers from the
Faculty of Open Education generally use computers
and smartphones. Furthermore, it was determined that
pre-service teachers from the Faculty of Open Education
own at least one of these three tools. his shows that the
pre-service teachers from the Faculty of Open Education
own suicient technology for Internet access.
According to the findings, the Internet usage
frequency of Faculty of Open Education’s pre-service
teachers is between 2-4 hours per day and their Internet
usage adequacy is at an average level. hese indings
correspond to those of the candidates from the Faculty
of Education. he indings from analyses in relation
to classes show that the Internet usage frequencies of
the higher-class pre-service teachers are signiicantly
higher. Higher classes are also found to have higher
Internet usage adequacy; however, this is not statistically
signiicant. his inding corresponds to the Internet
usage status of Faculty of Education candidates based
on their class.
he analysis of the Internet usage frequency of the
Faculty of Open Education’s pre-service teachers in
relation to their ages has revealed that candidates under
30 used the Internet more frequently than those over
30. his inding corresponds to that of Becker (1999)
who found that teachers under 30 use the Internet
more frequently. Concurrently, it also corresponds to
the inding of Mohamed Zaki (2013), who determined
older teachers’ Internet usage to be lower. Additionally,
the Internet usage adequacy of the candidates under 30
was found to be signiicantly higher than that of those
over 30. his inding is also in line with the Faculty of
Education pre-service teachers’ Internet usage adequacy.
No signiicant diference has been identiied between
the Internet usage adequacy of pre-service teachers in
on-campus and in distance-learning programs. he
reason for this may be because the opinions of the preservice teachers concerning their levels in on-campus
and distance-learning programs are similarly above
average. Furthermore, even though their Internet usage
frequency and the number of technologies they own
is high, pre-service teachers from the Faculty of Open
Education regard themselves as moderately adequate.
Conclusion and Suggestions
A total of 789 pre-service teachers participated in the
research, which was conducted in order to investigate
the Internet usage of pre-service teachers at the Faculty
of Education and the Faculty of Open Education. he
indings indicate that the Internet usage status of preservice teachers at both the Faculty of Education and
the Faculty of Open Education is quite similar. Overall,
the pre-service teachers use the Internet for 2.5 hours on
average per day. Also, it has been concluded that their
Internet usage adequacy is average. Furthermore, the preservice teachers from the Faculty of Open Education own
at least one of the following: a computer, a smartphone,
and a tablet.
Within the limits of the study, the analysis of the
Internet usage of the pre-service teachers by various
parameters has determined that the Internet usage
frequency of pre-service teachers from more senior
classes is higher than that of the junior classes. he
younger pre-service teachers perceive themselves as
more adequate and use the Internet more frequently.
According to Becker (1999), the reason for this is because
young people grow up with technology and have a
higher tendency to use technology.
In relation to Internet literacy, pre-service teachers
from the Faculty of Open Education regard themselves
as being adequate and having an average level, although
their Internet usage frequency is high and the technology
they own is suicient. Considering that the Internet
is frequently used in the services provided for the
Faculty of Open Education, students from the Faculty
of Open Education need to improve their Internet-usage
adequacy. To this end, open lessons or courses teaching
how the Internet can be used efficiently need to be
ofered and guidelines and reference sources need to be
increased. Teachers can also be helped to gain Internet
PROFILE Vol. 19, No. 1, January-June 2017. ISSN 1657-0790 (printed) 2256-5760 (online). Bogotá, Colombia. Pages 55-72
69
Firat & Serpil
and information literacy skills through in-service or
pre-service training (Akkoyunlu & Yılmaz, 2005). By
using the Internet more efficiently, teachers can be
encouraged to increase their communication with others,
interactions within the school, interactions outside
the school, participation in professional development
activities, and their computer and Internet knowledge
(Schoield & Davidson, 2000).
Whereas the Internet use frequency has been
found to be the highest for the French teachers, overall,
language teachers’ frequency of using the Internet and
their adequacy of Internet usage are at moderate level
and do not difer signiicantly from other pre-service
teacher groups. This adequacy level supports Yu’s
(2014) inding that the majority of the Taiwanese preservice efl teachers perceived that they have “adequate”
computer literacy. Pre-service language teachers also
seem to have a suicient number of technological tools
at their disposal.
Future experimental and descriptive studies can
be conducted with regard to other factors affecting
pre-service teachers’ Internet literacy/usage. Similar
research from diferent countries with higher numbers
of participants will contribute to the indings in this
ield as well. Larger scale studies on Internet literacy
will further improve the currently available study results
by augmenting their scientiic validity and reliability.
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About the Authors
Mehmet Firat holds a phd in Educational Technology, Anadolu University (Turkey). He is Assistant Professor
at Anadolu University, Open Education Faculty, Department of Distance Education.
Harun Serpil is currently working as the interpreter-translator and pa for the Rector of Anadolu
University. He earned his undergraduate degree from the Department of Education in Teaching English as
a Foreign Language (tefl) at Anadolu University in 1996 and his phd in Curriculum and Instruction from
the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
72
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas, Departamento de Lenguas Extranjeras