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Increasing the Involvement of Culturally and
Linguistically Diverse Students in Special
Education 2015
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I NCREASING THE I NVOLVEMENT OF C ULTURALLY AND L INGUISTICALLY D IVERSE
S TUDENTS IN S PECIAL E DUCATION R ESEARCH 2015
A WHITE PAPER BY THE DIVERSITY AND RESEARCH AND FAMILIES SUBCOMMITTEES OF THE
COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN’S DIVISION FOR RESEARCH
Terese C. Aceves, Ph.D., Loyola Marymount University
Tachelle Banks, Ph.D., Cleveland State University
Kavita Rao, Ph.D., University of Hawaii
Insoon Han, Ph.D., University of Minnesota Duluth
Jennifer Diliberto, Ph.D., University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Katharine Shepherd, Ed.D., University of Vermont
Introduction
The call for dissemination and use of research and evidence‐based practices (EBPs) is
stronger than ever, yet challenges remain including ensuring that available practices have been
empirically tested with students of all disability types and backgrounds. Of particular concern to the
Council for Exceptional Children’s Division for Research (CEC‐DR) is the absence of research and
evidence‐based practices that have been validated with children and youth from diverse
backgrounds. Unless we can be sure that instructional practices with demonstrated effectiveness
for students from diverse backgrounds and abilities are appropriately and rigorously investigated,
we cannot be certain that the field is providing the best possible education to a critical and growing
segment of our school population.
Diversity can be broadly defined from multiple vantage points as indicated in the CEC‐DR’s
2003 position statement. Diversity can include students from nondominant cultural, racial/ethnic,
and linguistic groups and have various perceived abilities and disabilities. Diversity can also serve
as a generic term to include individuals perceived as different from some defined mainstream. For
the purposes of this white paper, we focus on those students from culturally and linguistically
diverse (CLD) backgrounds. Students from CLD backgrounds are inherently heterogeneous with
culturally bound expectations about learning and behavior. According to an ecological framework
(Bronfenbrenner, 1994), CLD students’ interaction with and response to the various and
interconnected contexts of schools, families, cultures, and communities may vary greatly. The DR
indicated a concern in their 2003 position statement regarding the omission of this population in
special education research. This lack of representation has subsequently been reported in notable
reviews within special education literature (Artiles, Trent, & Kuan, 1997; Vasquez et al., 2011).
Given ongoing concerns about the need to ensure that CLD students are adequately
represented in special education research, the purpose of this white paper, therefore, is to: (a)
describe the growth of CLD students in U.S. schools and need for appropriate evidence‐based
practices, (b) examine previous and current literature to determine the inclusion of CLD children
and youth in special education research studies, and (c) provide recommendations for enhancing
evidence‐based special education research for children and youth from diverse CLD backgrounds
and communicating this research with diverse families.
1
Increasing Diversity and Need for Evidence‐
Based Practices
The growth of CLD students in urban
and rural schools is well documented. The
percentage of racially and ethnically diverse
students enrolled in kindergarten through high
school increased from 22% in 1972 to 44% in
2007 (National Center for Education Statistics,
2009). Latinos constituted the fastest growing
population of diverse students during that
period and represented 24% of public school
enrollment in 2011 (National Center for
Education Statistics, 2014). They are projected
to represent 30% of this enrollment by 2023
(National Center for Education Statistics,
2014). The number of English learners (EL) in
the schools has also increased dramatically in
recent years. The National Center for Education
Statistics reported that the number of students
identified as EL and receiving English as a
second language (ESL) services increased from
2 to 3 million between 1994 and 2000. By
2012, the number of EL increased to 4.4 million
students (National Center for Education
Statistics, 2014). In 2012, slightly more than
22.3% of students between the ages of 5 and
17 spoke a language other than English at
home (Federal Interagency Forum on Child and
Family Statistics, 2014). Moreover, children
from CLD backgrounds also include students
identified with disabilities living in urban and
rural areas across the nation (Harry, 2008).
The percentage of children served in special
education public school programs in 2011–
2012 was highest for American Indians/Alaska
Natives (16%) and Blacks (15%) (National
Center for Education Statistics, 2014). While
approximately 23% of the nation’s public
school students are rural CLD students, 14% of
these students have been identified as having
disabilities and receive services through
Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) (Johnson
& Strange, 2009).
In order to support the educational
achievement of a more diverse student
population, national policies and initiatives
have been drafted with the intent of improving
the educational system for all children and
youth. Specifically, the No Child Left Behind Act
(NCLB) (2002) articulated the notion that all
children can and should be learning in the
public education system. Under NCLB (2002),
school districts are required to document
student achievement or “Annual Yearly
Progress” (AYP) toward meeting these
standards and report AYP data by
race/ethnicity, language proficiency, socio‐
economic status (SES), and disability (Ortiz &
Yates, 2008). The latter requirement
acknowledges that CLD students and students
with disabilities are among those most likely to
experience school failure and that school
improvement plans must specifically target
these populations. To that end, NCLB (2002)
includes specific provisions governing
educational services for economically
disadvantaged children and youth, EL, and
immigrant students.
The Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA) (2004) and NCLB (2002)
include similar accountability guiding
principles for learners with disabilities. The
IDEA (2004) and NCLB (2002) seek to reduce
achievement gaps between students in specific
subgroups, including those with disabilities,
linguistic and cultural diversity, and economic
disadvantages. In addition, both acts mandated
the use of evidence‐based strategies to address
concerns associated with the over‐
identification of CLD students, students from
low‐income families, and students in certain
disability categories. The combination of IDEA
(2004) and NCLB (2002) acknowledges the
inequities of our present educational system
and calls for a need to identify EBPs for all
learners and ensure that all students, including
CLD learners and learners with disabilities, are
making gains and meeting standards.
The alignment of NCLB (2002) and
IDEA (2004) puts strong emphasis on
achievement for all students including those
from low‐income and CLD backgrounds.
Included in IDEA (2004) is the suggested use of
Response to Intervention (RtI) to increase the
likelihood that all students will receive high‐
quality instruction and subsequent progress
monitoring before referral for special
education services. RtI has the potential to
affect clinical intervention for children and
youth who are CLD by requiring the use of
EBPs based on individual children’s specific
needs. The caveat is that instruction and
interventions must consider a student’s
cultural background and experiences as well as
English and native language proficiencies in
order for instruction to be appropriate before
determining that the child requires special
education and related services as a child with a
disability. In addition, RtI considers the context
in which students are taught when developing
early intervention programs in order to be
effective for all students.
Review of Cultural and Linguistic Diversity in
Special Education Research
In their 2003 position statement, the
CEC DR Diversity Committee emphasized
“…the importance of integrating diversity
considerations into the ways qualitative,
quantitative, and single subject research
studies are designed, carried out, and
evaluated” (p. 2). Furthermore, the
committee argued that variables reflecting
the diversity of students with disabilities
have historically been inadequately described
and studied. In the following section, we
briefly summarize published empirical
studies investigating the inclusion of CLD
participants in research involving students
with disabilities and those at risk for
academic failure. In order to further enhance
this review, we report on the results of a
snapshot analysis conducted by the authors
of this white paper of more recent empirical
studies examining the inclusion of CLD
populations, descriptions of the population,
and types of empirical research design
implemented in these studies (e.g.,
quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods,
single subject, and correlational studies).
Given the need for schools to better
understand how to adequately support an
increasingly diverse student population,
policymakers and educators alike will look to
educational research to identify effective EBPs
for these students. However, when considering
existing special education research, it is
unclear whether this research base includes or
adequately takes into account the needs of CLD
learners. Before discussing how special
education research can further improve the
involvement of diverse learners, we first
review how well published studies in special
education have included CLD students.
Findings from Prior Literature Reviews
Artiles, Trent, and Kuan (1997), in
their initial investigation of empirical articles
within four special education journals (Journal
of Learning Disabilities, Learning Disabilities
Quarterly, Exceptional Children, and Journal of
Special Education), found only 58 of 2,378
(2.4%) articles reviewed included students
from diverse backgrounds across 22 years
(1972–1994). Vasquez et al.’s (2011)
replication of Artiles et al.’s seminal review
extended this original study of the same
publications from 1995 to 2009. This more
recent review identified an almost 7%
increase in empirical articles during this
subsequent 15‐year period (a total of 117
articles from 1,169 reviewed). Notable
differences in the more recent analysis found
gains in authors reporting information
regarding CLD participants and disaggregating
data for analysis by subgroups. Studies
reporting no ethnic information decreased
from 94.2% in the 1997 review to 51.8% in
2011. The differences in the proportion of
publications including CLD students between
the two reviews were statistically significant
[x2 (1, N = 145) = 5.93, p = .014].
Methodological differences of the articles
reviewed between the two studies were also
evident. Quasi‐experimental designs
represented 88% of studies in the earlier
3
review, with 7% of studies using qualitative
methods. Vasquez et al. identified greater
diversity in research methods, finding 25%
representing quasi‐experimental and
correlational designs (which reflected 50% of
research methods), 16% reporting qualitative
methods, and 5% or more for methods
including experimental, causal‐comparative,
descriptive, and single case design research,
respectively.
In a review focusing on the inclusion
of African‐American students in reading
intervention research, Lindo (2006)
examined three leading peer‐reviewed
journals. The review included the last 10
years of articles from Reading Research
Quarterly and the Journal of Educational
Psychology (1994–2004), and the last eight
years of articles within Scientific Study of
Reading (1997–2004). Only 8.14% (n = 971)
of articles reviewed were reading
intervention studies using school‐age
participants. Of these studies, 6.5% (n = 63)
included African‐American student
participants while only 14 studies included
more than 50% African‐American students
with nine studies employing randomized
assignment. No study reviewed reported
disaggregated data. Furthermore, 55.6% (n =
35) of reading intervention studies provided
racial demographic information for study
participants. No study reviewed reported
disaggregated data by race. These findings
highlight not only the scarcity of research
with diverse populations but specifically the
omission of African‐American students from
this research.
Moore and Klingner (2012) examined
small group reading intervention studies
involving elementary school participants
between the years 2001 to 2010. These
studies included experimental and quasi‐
experimental research designs. Their analysis
involved an extensive multi‐step process
reviewing numerous top‐tier peer‐reviewed
journals. This analysis revealed a total of 67
reading intervention studies targeting at‐risk,
struggling students in the area of reading. Of
the studies reviewed, 22.4% reported
adequate demographic data regarding
race/ethnicity and EL, with 25.4% providing
some information, and 52.2% reporting no
information. The authors found overall that
this research lacked participant descriptions
and failed to disaggregate findings according
to subpopulations included in the studies.
Failing to provide such information makes it
difficult to critique or extend findings
investigating the effectiveness or
appropriateness of certain instructional
practices to other populations. Overall, these
reviews demonstrate a continued lack of
sufficient published, empirical special
education and related research where diverse
populations have been included and their
cultural and linguistic background reported.
Division for Research – Snapshot Review
In order to provide a more recent
gauge of the inclusion of CLD student
participants specifically within special
education research, the Diversity and
Families subcommittees from CEC’s DR
examined six prominent special education
journals: Journal of Special Education,
Exceptional Children, Journal of Early
Intervention, Journal of Special Education
Technology, Career Development and
Transition for Exceptional Individuals, and
Remedial and Special Education. These
publications represented reputable special
education research journals and a sampling of
CEC publications. The review of articles
allowed us to create a “snapshot” sampling a
set of prominent journals to determine how
CLD students are currently included in special
education empirical research.
Specifically, we reviewed empirical
studies in the six journals over a three‐year
period (2010–2012) to gain an understanding
of current practices. For the purpose of this
paper, we excluded essays, literature reviews,
policy, and opinion papers. We recognize the
importance of other forms of research but we
limited our scope to include only empirical
studies. Of the subset of research studies
examined, we focused on those studies
including student outcome variables. The
4
inclusion criteria for this review were
studies:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Published in the selected journal
between January 2010 and December
2012;
Conducted in the U.S. and affiliated
territories;
Conducted with K‐12 student outcomes
as the dependent variable(s);
Employing empirical methods, including
a quantitative, qualitative, single subject
or mixed methods research design; and
Including children and youth in
kindergarten through 12th grade.
We developed a coding sheet that
included the following categories and coded
designations: (a) empirical study (yes or no);
(b) research method (group quantitative,
qualitative, single subject, mixed methods,
meta‐analysis); (c) if group quantitative, type
of method (experimental, quasi‐experimental,
correlational, descriptive); (d) inclusion of
CLD participants, which was defined by
ethnic minorities (yes/no); (e) percentage of
CLD students included in study reported
(yes/no); and (f) proportion of ethnicity
(Caucasian, African American, Latino,
Asian/Pacific Islander, Native American,
Other). Four of the authors of this white
paper acted as coders, each individually
coding all the articles in one journal. An
author not involved in the initial coding
process acted as a second rater of all the
articles, in order to calculate reliability. The
percent of agreement between two raters was
calculated with the 351 articles included by
the first raters. They were 99.7% for
empirical study, 97.4% for research method,
96.3% for type of quantitative method, 100%
for inclusion of CLD participants, and 97.7%
for reporting the CLD percentage (Trochim &
Donnelly, 2008). Thus, overall, the agreement
was quite high and very strong. The
disagreement was due to undifferentiated
coding in the research methods and type of
group quantitative method categories; for
example, some raters did not code for meta‐
analysis and did not differentiate
correlational and descriptive, but coded as
survey.
Inclusion of CLD populations. Table 1
presents data produced by the six journals in
which 350 articles had published within the
three‐year period under review. Of the 350
articles, 254 (72.6%) studies met the
inclusion criteria of being an empirical study.
Of the empirical studies, 156 (61.4%) studies
reported that they included students from
CLD backgrounds. Over the three years, the
number of studies including CLD students
increased from 51.2% in 2010 to 64.5% in
2011, and to 68.4% in 2012, but the increase
rate was not significant statistically (Chi‐
square = 5.58, p = .06). Among the six
journals, Career Development and Transition
for Exceptional Individuals had the highest
percentage of articles reporting on the
inclusion of CLD students (86.5%), followed
by Journal of Special Education (74.1%),
Exceptional Children (72.7%), Journal of Early
Intervention (64.3%), Journal of Special
Education Technology (59.1%), and Remedial
and Special Education (42.7%). Of 254
empirical studies, 25 (9.8%) specifically
reported that they did not include CLD
students, and 73 (28.7%) provided no
demographic information on CLD
backgrounds.
Specific CLD information. Table 2
displays the summary of the studies that
specified CLD backgrounds of K–12
participants. Of the 156 studies that reported
including CLD students, 133 (85.3%)
reported the specific ethnicity of the students
with its proportion. Overall, those studies
reported 54.6% of participants were
Caucasian and 45.4% were CLD students.
Specific ethnic backgrounds for the 45.4%
CLD participants were African Americans
(22.0%), followed by Latino (15.2%),
Asian/Pacific Islanders (3.5%), Native
Americans (1.3%), and Others/Multi‐ethnic
(3.4%). Of 156 studies that reported
5
Table 1
Empirical Research with K-12 Students with Disabilities and Proportion of Studies including CLD Students
Empirical Study
NonGroup
Single
Mixed
Meta
g
Quan.
Qual.
Subject
Methods Analysis Total
CLDh
Study Empirical
Journal Year n
n
n (%)
n (%)
n (%)
n (%)
n (%)
n
n (%)
a
4
5 (100.0) 0 (0.0)
0 (0.0)
0 (0.0)
0 (0.0)
5
3 (60.0)
JSE 2010 9
2011 14
0
11 (78.6) 1 (7.1)
1 (7.1)
0 (0.0)
1 (7.1)
14
11 (78.6)
2012 9
1
6 (75.0) 0 (0.0)
1 (12.5) 0 (0.0)
1 (12.5) 8
6 (75.0)
Total 32
5
22 (81.5) 1 (3.7)
2 (7.4)
0 (0.0)
2 (7.4)
27
20 (74.1)
ECb
2010
2011
2012
Total
23
23
17
63
10
5
4
19
9
16
8
33
(69.2)
(88.9)
(61.5)
(75.0)
0
1
1
2
(0.0)
(4.3)
(7.7)
(4.5)
4
1
3
8
(30.8)
(4.3)
(23.1)
(12.7)
0
0
1
1
(0.0)
(0.0)
(7.7)
(2.3)
0
0
0
0
(0.0)
(0.0)
(0.0)
(0.0)
13
18
13
44
8
15
9
32
(61.5)
(83.3)
(69.2)
(72.7)
JEIc
2010
2011
2012
Total
20
24
13
57
8
17
4
29
9
6
8
23
(75.0)
(85.7)
(88.9)
(82.1)
1
1
0
2
(8.3)
(4.2)
(0.0)
(7.1)
1
0
0
1
(8.3)
(0.0)
(0.0)
(3.6)
1
0
0
1
(8.3)
(0.0)
(0.0)
(3.6)
0
0
1
1
(0.0)
(0.0)
(11.1)
(3.6)
12
7
9
28
7
4
7
18
(58.3)
(57.1)
(77.8)
(64.3)
JSETd 2010
2011
2012
Total
15
12
11
38
9
2
5
16
3
3
0
6
(50.0)
(30.0)
(0.0)
(27.3)
0
0
0
0
(0.0)
(0.0)
(0.0)
(0.0)
3
7
6
16
(50.0)
(70.0)
(72.7)
0
0
0
0
(0.0)
(0.0)
(0.0)
(0.0)
0
0
0
0
(0.0)
(0.0)
(0.0)
(0.0)
6
10
6
22
4
4
5
13
(66.7)
(40.0)
(83.3)
(59.1)
14
15
16
45
3
3
2
8
9
8
10
27
(81.8)
(66.7)
(71.4)
(73.0)
2
2
2
6
(18.2)
(16.7)
(14.3)
(16.2)
0
0
0
0
(0.0)
(0.0)
(0.0)
(0.0)
0
2
2
4
(0.0)
(13.3)
(14.3)
(10.8)
0
0
0
0
(0.0)
(0.0)
(0.0)
(0.0)
11
12
14
37
8
12
12
32
(72.7)
(85.7)
(86.5)
2010 40
2011 42
2012 33
Total 115
5
10
4
19
18
21
24
63
(51.4) 6
(65.6) 5
(82.8) 0
(65.6) 11
(17.1)
(15.6)
(0.0)
(11.5)
0
0
0
0
(0.0)
(0.0)
(0.0)
(0.0)
6
5
4
15
(17.1)
(0.0)
(12.1)
(15.6)
5
1
1
7
(14.3)
(2.4)
(3.0)
(7.3)
35
32
29
96
12
14
15
41
(34.3)
(43.8)
(51.7)
(42.7)
Total 2010 121
2011 130
2012 99
Total 350
39
37
20
96
(8.5)
(7.5)
(8.9)
(8.3)
5
2
3
10
(6.1)
(2.2)
(3.8)
(3.9)
82 42
93 60
79 54
254 156
e
CDT
RSEf
2010
2011
2012
Total
a
(100.0)
53 (64.6) 9 (11.0) 8 (9.8)
7
65 (69.9) 10 (10.8) 9 (9.7)
7
56 (70.9) 3 (3.8) 10 (12.7) 7
174 (68.5) 22 (8.7) 27 (10.6) 21
b
c
(100.0)
(51.2)
(64.5)
(68.4)
(61.4)
d
Note . Journal of Special Education; Exceptional Children; Journal of Early Intervention; Journal of Special
Education Technology; eCareer Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals; fRemedial and Special
Education; gincludes essay, commentary, and literature review, not including meta-analysis; h Number of studies
that include culturally liguistically diverse students, and its proportion in empirical studies.
Table 2
Number of Studies Specified the Ethnicity of K-12 Students and Proportion of Ethnicity
Study n Study n
Proportion of Ethnicity (%)
Included Reported
African Hispanic/ Asian/Pacific Native
h
g
Journal Year CLD CLDPCT Caucasian American Latino
Islander American Other
JSEa
2010
2011
2012
Total
3
11
6
20
2
10
5
17
56.5
59.5
57.1
58.5
22.4
13.6
8.6
13.2
11.3
21.7
13.5
18.0
2.9
3.2
18.7
7.7
2.1
1.1
0.0
0.9
4.9
0.9
2.0
1.7
b
2010
2011
2012
Total
8
15
9
32
8
13
7
28
62.4
46.9
53.8
53.0
19.2
31.4
25.9
26.5
14.6
16.6
11.5
14.8
1.2
1.2
0.9
1.1
1.7
1.0
0.1
1.0
0.9
2.9
7.8
3.6
JEIc
2010
2011
2012
Total
7
4
7
18
7
3
6
16
53.3
46.6
53.7
52.2
15.4
12.0
20.1
16.6
24.3
14.7
5.9
15.6
0.9
11.1
16.5
8.6
4.6
0.0
0.2
2.1
1.5
15.7
3.7
5.0
JSETd 2010
2011
2012
Total
4
4
5
13
4
2
4
10
39.4
85.6
35.8
47.2
25.3
11.4
10.0
16.4
34.1
0.0
39.6
29.5
1.3
0.0
6.3
3.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.0
8.3
3.9
EC
e
CDT
2010
2011
2012
Total
8
12
12
32
5
7
11
23
46.8
71.0
63.9
62.4
21.0
15.9
22.1
20.0
23.5
5.3
5.8
9.5
0.4
4.7
0.6
1.8
4.8
0.6
3.0
2.7
3.5
2.4
4.7
3.8
RSEf
2010
2011
2012
Total
12
14
15
41
12
13
14
39
48.8
44.5
62.9
52.4
31.8
29.4
22.1
27.5
15.0
14.1
12.5
13.8
0.6
6.1
0.9
2.5
1.2
1.4
0.3
0.9
2.7
4.6
1.4
2.8
Total
2010
42
38
51.6
23.5
19.6
0.9
2.3
2.0
2011
60
48
54.0
22.9
14.5
4.0
1.0
3.7
2012
54
47
57.7
19.9
12.3
5.2
0.8
4.0
Total 156
133
54.6
22.0
15.2
3.5
1.3
3.4
a
b
c
d
Note . Journal of Special Education; Exceptional Children; Journal of Early Intervention; Journal
of Special Education Technology; eCareer Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals;
f
Remedial and Special Education; gNumber of studies that included divers k-12 students; h Number
of studies that specified ethnicity of the diverse k-12 students.
including CLD students, 13 (8.3%) studies did
not provide specific information on ethnicity,
and 10 (6.4%) studies listed ethnic groups
represented in the sample without specifying
their proportions.
According to data from the National
Center for Education Statistics (2012a), the
percentage distribution of children 6‐ to 21‐
years‐old served under IDEA (2004), Part B,
by race/ethnicity for year 2010–20111 is
54.3% Caucasian and 45.7% CLD. Specific
ethnic backgrounds for the CLD children
included Latinos (20.3%), followed by African
Americans (19.5%), Asian/Pacific Islanders
(2.5%), Native Americans (1.4%), and
Others/Multi‐ethnic (2.0%). Thus, the
proportion of ethnicity between our review of
studies and special service population
appears to align well; only one exception was
the underrepresentation of Latinos (15.2%)
in empirical research, compared to their
proportion in special education (20.3%). The
percentage distribution of enrollment in
public elementary and secondary schools by
race/ethnicity for year 2010–20122 is 51.9%
Caucasian and 48.1% CLD (National Center
for Education Statistics, 2012b). Specific
ethnic backgrounds for the 48.1% CLD
included Latinos (23.5%), followed by African
Americans (15.9%), Asian/Pacific Islanders
(5.1%), Native Americans (1.2%), and
Others/Multi‐ethnic (2.4%). Notably, Latinos
were slightly underrepresented in special
education (20.3%) (National Center for
Education Statistics, 2012a), but substantially
underrepresented in our review of empirical
studies (15.2%).
Research designs. The types of
research design coded as group quantitative
research is shown in Table 3. Among 174
research studies coded as group quantitative
in Table 1, the designs included experimental
(n = 28, 16.1%), quasi‐experimental (n = 50,
1
2010 data are the most recent data available, which
was prepared in February 2013
2
2010 data are actual data, and 2011 and 2012 data are
projected
28.7%), correlational (n = 64, 36.8%), and
descriptive (n = 32, 18.4%). These
proportions were relatively consistent over
the three years.
Snapshot summary. Although the reviews
described earlier employed varying criteria
for the inclusion and coding of empirical
studies, these snapshot findings confirm an
increase in the inclusion of CLD students in
special education empirical research. These
results also demonstrate a decrease in the
number of published empirical special
education studies reporting no racial/ethnic
or demographic information regarding
participants, specifically, 94.2% in 1997
(Artiles et al., 1997), 44.4% in 2006 (Lindo,
2006), 51.8% in 2011 (Vasquez et al., 2011),
52.2% in 2012 (Moore & Klingner, 2012), and
28.7% in the current snapshot review. Like
Vasquez et al. (2011), our informal review
found greater variability in research designs
in comparison to Artiles et al.’s (1997) earlier
review. Although some improvements were
noted (Vasquez et al., 2011), earlier reviews
found the research lacking in studies
reporting disaggregated findings.
Unfortunately, determining whether
researchers in our snapshot review were or
were not able to disaggregate and analyze
results according to CLD differences was
beyond the scope of this white paper. It is
possible that researchers were unable to
analyze data by CLD due to a lack of
participants in a particular subpopulation.
Determining whether the quality of research
methodology has changed substantially in
more recent special education empirical
research involving CLD students requires
further study.
Table 3
Type of Design in Group Quantitative Research with K-12 Students with Disabilities
Type of Group Quantitative Research Design
Total
Experimental Quasi-Exp.
Correlational Descriptive
Journal Year
n (%)
n (%)
n (%)
n (%)
n
JSEa
2010
2011
2012
Total
2
0
2
4
(40.0)
(0.0)
(33.3)
(18.2)
2
9
0
11
(40.0)
(81.8)
(0.0)
(50.0)
1
0
2
3
(20.0)
(0.0)
(33.3)
(13.6)
0
2
2
4
(0.0)
(18.2)
(33.3)
(18.2)
5
11
6
22
b
2010
2011
2012
Total
3
4
2
9
(33.3)
(25.0)
(25.0)
(27.3)
0
0
2
2
(0.0)
(0.0)
(25.0)
(6.1)
2
4
4
10
(22.2)
(25.0)
(50.0)
(30.3)
4
8
0
12
(44.4)
(50.0)
(0.0)
(36.4)
9
16
8
33
JEIc
2010
2011
2012
Total
0
0
0
0
(0.0)
(0.0)
(0.0)
(0.0)
2
1
3
6
(22.2)
(16.7)
(37.5)
(26.1)
6
4
3
13
(66.7)
(66.7)
(37.5)
(56.5)
1
1
2
4
(11.1)
(16.7)
(25.0)
(17.4)
9
6
8
23
JSET
d
2010
2011
2012
Total
0
2
0
2
(0.0)
(66.7)
(0.0)
(33.3)
2
0
0
2
(66.7)
(0.0)
(0.0)
(33.3)
1
1
0
2
(33.3)
(33.3)
(0.0)
(33.3)
0
0
0
0
(0.0)
(0.0)
(0.0)
(0.0)
3
3
0
6
CDTe
2010
2011
2012
Total
2
2
1
5
(22.2)
(25.0)
(10.0)
(18.5)
2
2
1
5
(22.2)
(25.0)
(10.0)
(18.5)
4
1
7
12
(28.6)
(12.5)
(70.0)
(44.4)
1
3
1
5
(11.1)
(37.5)
(10.0)
(18.5)
9
8
10
27
RSEf
2010
2011
2012
Total
0
4
4
8
(0.0)
(19.0)
(16.7)
(7.7)
4
9
11
24
(22.2)
(42.9)
(45.8)
(38.1)
11
6
7
24
(61.1)
(28.6)
(29.2)
(38.1)
3
2
2
7
(16.7)
(9.5)
(8.3)
(6.1)
18
21
24
63
EC
Total
2010
7 (13.2)
12 (22.6)
25 (47.2)
9 (17.0)
53
2011
12 (18.5)
21 (32.3)
16 (24.6)
16 (24.3)
65
2012
9 (16.1)
17 (30.4)
23 (41.1)
7 (12.5)
56
Total
28 (16.1)
50 (28.7)
64 (36.8)
32 (18.4)
174
a
b
c
Note . Journal of Special Education; Exceptional Children; Journal of Early Intervention;
d
e
Journal of Special Education Technology; Career Development and Transition for
f
Exceptional Individuals; Remedial and Special Education.
Recommendations
In this section, we address
considerations for including CLD populations
in special education research, while also
focusing on issues related to the recruitment
of CLD students, research methods, and
considerations for data analysis, reporting,
and communicating findings. Historically,
special education research has not adequately
represented CLD students or examined issues
related to diversity. In more recent years,
although still lacking, this landscape has
begun to shift with more research within
special education and related publications,
including more diverse participant
populations (Moore & Klingner, 2012;
Vasquez et al., 2011). The findings of our
snapshot review of recent research illustrate
that CLD students were included in 61% of
the empirical studies published in six
prominent special education and related
journals from 2010 to 2012. While it is
commendable that over half of the studies
reviewed included CLD students, we
recognize that this increased inclusion alone
is insufficient. We therefore provide specific
recommendations to increase the inclusion of
CLD students within special education
research studies and strengthen the manner
in which this research is conducted. We
present six recommendations for
consideration related to research in special
education and dissemination efforts.
Recommendation 1: Develop protocols and
procedures to strategically recruit, inform,
and support diverse students and families.
Issues of recruitment are an
important consideration for researchers who
wish to include CLD students in their
research. Diverse families may avoid
participating in research studies due to
difficulties with transportation, childcare, or
having a general feeling of mistrust with
professionals due to previous negative
interactions or conflicting cultural views
regarding disability and services (Harry,
2008; Ortiz & Yates, 2008). Moreover,
research consent forms and other material
sent home to parents regarding projects may
be confusing, not only due to language
differences but also because parents may be
unfamiliar with the scientific language and
terminology of education research.
Recruitment of CLD students as
research participants requires a deliberate
and well‐considered outreach effort by
researchers. Moreover, diverse students with
disabilities and their families may need
additional supports to understand the
benefits and risks of participating, as well as
the content of consent forms and related
research tools and protocols. We recommend
that researchers consider the backgrounds of
CLD students and families they are recruiting
to participate in research and develop
protocols and materials accordingly. This may
include adding research team members who
have specialized knowledge and experience
in the CLD background of intended
participants. For example, for immigrant
families for whom English is a foreign
language, it is useful to make available
bilingual/bicultural researchers to review
project goals, benefits, and risks at the onset,
and prepare materials in multiple languages,
including consent forms and protocols, for
data collection. Research projects
incorporating online surveys may need to
provide access to computers and the support
necessary to assist CLD families to participate
in these research opportunities. Carefully
designed protocols (e.g., explaining purpose
and benefits of study) and procedures (e.g.,
minimizing intrusion and time required of
families and students) can serve to increase
participation and improve general
perceptions of research.
10
Recommendation 2: Involve individuals who
have unique knowledge and experience with
CLD populations to collaborate with research
teams.
Research questions, findings, and
interpretations do not always consider the
needs and perspectives of the CLD
populations involved in special education
research (Klingner & Boardman, 2011; Ortiz
& Yates, 2008). Researchers can bring to
scientific practice cultural presuppositions
that may affect their choices of problems to
study, theoretical frameworks to adopt,
methodologies to use, interpretations made,
and findings reported (Arzubiaga, Artiles,
King, & Harris‐Murri, 2008).
When considering recruitment
methods for encouraging participation of
families and students from diverse
backgrounds, it is important to include the
recommendations and insights of
representative members and leaders who
have specific knowledge, training, history,
and/or experience working or living with the
population being studied (American
Psychological Association, 2002; Ortiz &
Yates, 2008; Trainor, 2011; Trainor & Bal,
2014). Recruitment plans should also include
engaging community partners with access to
CLD families, such as churches and
community, school, and parent centers. The
Office of Special Education Programs funds
national, regional, and local parent centers,
including Parent Training and Information
Centers (PTIs) and Community Parent
Resource Centers (CPRCs), that provide
technical assistance, current information, and
various resources and materials for families.
Additionally, many states have multiple
privately funded organizations offering
assistance to families. These and other local,
religious, and educational community
organizations may be willing to assist
researchers in sending out recruitment
notices to parents of children with disabilities
who are from diverse backgrounds.
Community partners can help researchers
recruit families by posting information in
various languages and places accessible to
CLD families. Community partners can help
researchers recruit families by posting
information in various languages and places
accessible to CLD families.
Furthermore, being aware of the need
for cultural expertise in designing,
implementing, and interpreting research will
assist researchers to ask questions and
implement methods of specific relevance to
CLD populations (Ford, Moore, Whiting, &
Grantham, 2008; Ortiz & Yates, 2008).
Representative members and leaders can
assist with research methods and conclusions
that take into account specific cultural
perspectives or lenses (Trainor, 2011).
Sharing research protocols, surveys,
questionnaires, and other tools, for instance,
with community representatives in advance
may assist research teams in supplementing
and/or modifying procedures to ensure
sensitivity, relevance, and understanding and
improve participation. Community members
may share their perspectives regarding their
beliefs and suggest culturally specific
practices for consideration in research
activities (Ford et al., 2008). Similarly,
discussing findings with these groups for
their insight may allow researchers to
consider alternative reasons and theories for
preliminary findings, initial interpretations,
final recommendations, and culturally
responsive next steps.
As an example outside of special
education research, in order to strategically
address the chronic underrepresentation of
Latino families in biomedical research on
autism, Wheeler and colleagues (2013)
described two projects built on an
academic/community partnership. The team
field‐tested the utilization of Community
Research Ambassadors (CRAs) as a cultural
bridge between the research team and the
Latino community. CRAs were lay community
workers and parents of a child with a
disability who had funds of knowledge and
the trust of the community of interest. As
11
active members of the research team, CRAs
provided valuable insight into real‐life
conditions and concerns of participants,
resulting in modifications to outreach,
participation, and follow‐up procedures with
families. These steps contributed to the
study’s high mean participation rates during
the intervention and follow‐up activities five
months post‐intervention (Wheeler et al.,
2013). Collaborating with community
partners to identify and recruit diverse
families and improve research procedures
and implementation can promote
participation among these families who may
be interested but unaware or uncomfortable
with research opportunities.
Recommendation 3: Consider research
designs and methods that may reveal more
information about the complex issues of
equity, culture, language, and learning when
including CLD populations as participants.
When addressing issues for CLD
students with disabilities, researchers should
be aware of the pitfalls of privileging
particular research designs. While the design
of a study should be driven by the purpose
and nature of the inquiry, implications and
nuances related to cultural and linguistic
diversity may be obscured in the findings of
purely quantitative studies (Klingner &
Boardman, 2011; Rueda, 2007). This in turn
has implications for the relevance and
application of research findings to CLD
students.
In our informal snapshot review of
recent research, of 254 empirical studies,
68% used group quantitative designs (30.7%
were experimental and quasi‐experimental
designs and 37.8% were correlational and
descriptive designs), 11% used single‐subject
designs, 9% used qualitative designs, 8%
used mixed methods designs, and 4% used
meta‐analysis. Experimental and quasi‐
experimental designs establish causality and
effectiveness of interventions and are
therefore used to identify EBPs in special
education. Concerned about the primacy
given to experimental designs, especially to
random controlled trials as the gold standard
in educational research, researchers have
argued for the importance of qualitative and
mixed methods research that take into
account the multiple contexts of CLD learners
(American Psychological Association, 2002;
Arzubiaga et al., 2008; García & Ortiz, 2013;
Klingner & Boardman, 2011; Ortiz & Yates,
2008). The CEC‐DR (2003) has maintained a
position to “support a broad view of scientific
research in education” (p. 1).
To gain a more accurate and in‐depth
understanding of the outcomes of
interventions with CLD students, we
encourage researchers to select theoretical
frameworks and research designs that take
into account CLD students’ background and
culture, along with the context of their
learning, when interpreting research results
including, for example, an intersectionality
framework which considers multiple
variables representing students’ identity and
the practices that influence these variables
(refer to Artiles, 2009, 2011; Blanchett,
Klingner, & Harry, 2009; and García & Ortiz,
2013, for further discussion). Mixed methods
designs provide the opportunity for cultural
considerations to be taken into account when
analyzing and interpreting the results of
research. Combining qualitative components
along with quantitative research
methodologies can add breadth and depth to
the analysis of research results. Investigators
can study not just what works but why it
works and for whom it may be best (Klingner
& Edwards, 2006). In special education
research, adding contextual depth to studies
is especially important, given the inherently
heterogeneous nature of the children
participating in studies. To complement
quantitative data necessary to establish the
effects of educational interventions,
qualitative data can provide the thick
description that allows researchers and
practitioners to consider findings for other
similar students and settings and take into
consideration the part that culture and
12
context plays in the success of using and/or
modifying particular approaches or strategies
with diverse students (Rueda, 2007). Perhaps
considering an interdisciplinary approach to
special education research could provide
opportunities for researchers to integrate
theoretical frameworks and methods beyond
their own discipline (García & Ortiz, 2013).
Strengthening our research in this manner
may assist the field in acquiring “…new
knowledge and solutions that remove
barriers to the social and academic success of
students from nondominant cultural,
racial/ethnic, and linguistic groups” (García &
Ortiz, 2013, p. 40).
Recommendation 4: Include additional
background information about diverse
student participants in special education
research and the context of their learning.
There is great variability both within
and across groups of CLD students identified
with disabilities in U.S. schools. This
population includes students of color (e.g.,
African American and Native American
populations), students born in the U.S. from
immigrant families, and students with and
without formal schooling experiences in their
native language, along with other variations
related to social class, gender, disability
status, and access to resources. In order to
establish the relevance of research involving
CLD students, it is important to provide more
specific information regarding the students
involved in this research and the educational
practices surrounding their instruction and
support (American Psychological Association,
2002; García & Ortiz, 2013; Gersten et al.,
2005).
In our review of the literature, 85% of
156 studies reviewed included CLD students
and reported on the specific ethnicity of
participants, providing the proportion of the
sample represented by each ethnicity. While
this is a notable percentage, these published
studies could have included additional
relevant information related to participants’
individual and educational background such
as language status and instructional
programming. In reporting on CLD
populations in research studies, it is
important to provide detailed information on
the characteristics of a student that are
relevant to the intervention and
interpretation of results. We recommend that
researchers follow and further expand upon
the guidelines provided by Gersten et al.
(2005) related to reporting participant
characteristics including race, gender, EL
status, and special education status, amongst
other variables. Additionally, sufficient
information regarding institutional practices
(e.g., teacher referral, program placements,
assessment) and the relationship of these
practices with individual learner
characteristics (García & Ortiz, 2013) can
allow readers to better determine whether
research outcomes are relevant to other
similar student populations and contexts.
State policymakers, district administrators,
program coordinators, and teachers want to
be able to identify rigorously tested practices
with evidence of effectiveness that best suit
the population of students in their schools
and programs. Instructional practices should
be designed for and validated with those
students they are intended to support (CEC
Division for Learning Disabilities, 2014). To
do so requires researchers to provide greater
clarity when reporting research methods
when publishing their findings.
Recommendation 5: Develop specific plans for
communicating with CLD families about
special education research.
Families often face challenges when
obtaining appropriate and reliable
information to better understand their child’s
disability, and the supports needed to
improve their child’s learning, behavioral,
linguistic, and social outcomes. Research
publications are not necessarily accessible
resources for families or intended for non‐
English speakers with varying levels of
academic and daily literacy. Researchers,
educators, and administrators must work
together to provide access to information that
13
will help families make important decisions
regarding their children.
It is important to determine effective
approaches and avenues for communicating
important special education research findings
with diverse families. Specifically, researchers
can engage with families about what works
best, for whom, and under what conditions to
better inform the research and provide
families with useful information. Frameworks
are needed for translating research into
relevant experience‐based knowledge and
policy to support parents’ educational
decision‐making (Turnbull et al., 2010).
These and other resources could assist
researchers to organize and share their
findings with diverse families for further
discussion and understanding. Moreover,
researchers can work with community
partners to provide support for families to
obtain reputable and current research related
to their child’s disability and services. This
support could include creating opportunities
for families to access high quality resources
on the Internet as well as assisting families in
locating quality print, video, and audio
sources. Building relationships with diverse
families and community members can assist
in communicating findings as well as
promoting partnerships for future research.
Ultimately, research needs to be
communicated in various languages and
formats (e.g., summaries, outlines, graphic
organizers, podcasts, recordings, websites,
blogs, community meetings) to allow
widespread access and understanding. For
example, the CEC‐DR Committee on Families
is working on developing a resource on
research and EBPs. Resources and dialogue
regarding such information should be
straightforward, concrete, culturally and
linguistically relevant, credible, and tied to
families’ lived experiences (see also Cook,
Cook, & Landrum, 2013). This information
can empower families by providing
knowledge of terminology critical to
understanding published educational
research. Additionally, it may allow families
to better understand information often
presented by schools regarding current
practices. Increased availability of
abbreviated research reports and syntheses
in multiple languages will also make research
information accessible to more CLD families.
Recommendation 6: Improve the training of
educational professionals to implement and
discuss EBPs with CLD families.
Families look to educational
professionals for resources regarding what
works best for their children with special
needs. Educational professionals in turn
require families to help identify which of
these or other practices better support their
children’s specific needs. However, many
district administrators, principals, and special
education teachers do not possess a full
understanding of how to interpret research
or identify EBPs suitable for diverse learners.
If educational professionals do not
understand how to interpret special
education research appropriately, then they
will be unable to discuss this information
with families or know how to identify or
implement effective practices for diverse
students with disabilities.
Educational professionals can assist
with participant recruitment for research
studies, and the communication and
implementation of effective evidence‐based
special education practices through their day‐
to‐day interactions with CLD students and
families. Thus, to be proactive, programs that
prepare teachers and educational leaders
should include training in interpreting,
evaluating, and implementing special
education research. Furthermore, educational
professionals must know how to discuss this
research and EBPs with families from diverse
backgrounds. Resources exist in the literature
to aid faculty in preparing educators about
EBPs in special education (e.g., Cook,
Shepherd, Cook, & Cook, 2012; Torres, Farley,
& Cook, 2012). With knowledge of research
and EBPs, teachers and administrators can
assist CLD families in understanding the
language and terminology of research as well
14
as the procedures taken to conduct research
studies. Based on a teacher or administrator’s
experiences with specific CLD families,
research protocols and materials can be
further explained to support parents’
understanding.
To further support their ability to
discuss EBPs with diverse families,
educational professionals need more formal
professional development in understanding
research designs and methods appropriate
for CLD populations. Increasing their
knowledge of culturally responsive special
education research practices would make
discussing EBPs for diverse populations
easier due to their awareness of appropriate
research designs and methods.
Administrators and teachers would
understand the importance of proper
implementation with high fidelity and use of
culturally responsive EBPs in the classroom.
With this knowledge, both educational
professionals and parents would be better
equipped to evaluate current practices and
support effective practices and programs,
thereby bridging the gap between research
and practice for CLD students. Empowering
both parents and professionals with this level
of knowledge would substantially improve
educational programming for CLD children
and youth with disabilities.
demonstrate a shift in the methodology,
analysis, or overall quality of this work. As a
comparison, although including students with
disabilities in general education settings has
been encouraged, their mere placement in
general education classrooms does not
guarantee access to qualitatively appropriate
instruction, services, and experiences or
improved outcomes. The increase in the
inclusion of CLD students with disabilities in
special education and related research is
promising; however, it is important to
evaluate whether the research itself has
qualitatively improved for the benefit of CLD
students with disabilities and their families.
In this white paper, we followed this
review and discussion with recommendations
to facilitate the participation of children and
youth from diverse cultural and linguistic
backgrounds, enhance this research, and
share research findings with diverse families.
The six essential recommendations were to:
●
●
●
Conclusion
The primary purpose of this white
paper was twofold, to determine the inclusion
of CLD children and youth in empirical
studies and to provide recommendations to
the field to further increase their
participation and the strength of this research
base. Our examination of the literature and
snapshot review of empirical outcome‐based
studies indicates progress in our field’s
inclusion of CLD students in published special
education and related research. Specifically,
CLD students are more often involved now in
special education research than in previous
years. Our brief review, however, does not
necessarily document critical changes in
special education research that would
●
●
●
Develop protocols and procedures to
strategically recruit, inform, and
support diverse students and families;
Involve individuals who have unique
knowledge and experience with CLD
populations to collaborate with
research teams;
Consider research designs and
methods that may reveal more
information about the complex issues
of equity, culture, language, and
learning when including CLD
populations as participants;
Include additional background
information about diverse student
participants in special education
research and the context of their
learning;
Develop specific plans for
communicating with CLD families
about special education research; and
Improve the training of educational
professionals to implement and
discuss EBPs with CLD families.
15
The CEC’s DR acknowledges that
these recommendations are not exhaustive by
any means. Furthermore, we recognize the
need to expand on these points and
encourage those within and outside the field
of special education to engage in genuine and
ongoing dialogue regarding the inclusion of
CLD learners and other populations in
educational research. This being said, we
would like to conclude with some final
thoughts and considerations for future
discussion.
Final Thoughts
In the current white paper we suggest
that published special education empirical
research increasingly includes CLD
populations. However, this research may
require further transformation when
considering an ecological perspective
(Bronfenbrenner, 1994) that recognizes the
genuine complexity and influence of existing
micro‐ and macro‐factors on CLD students’
academic, social/emotional, and behavioral
development. To this end, we continue to
support research that examines
“…experiential variables (e.g., economic,
specific family background, community
environment and history) of students of color
and students from other diverse perspectives
and how those variables help explain
educational outcomes” (CEC‐DR, 2003, p. 2).
We also continue to emphasize the
importance of disaggregating quantitative
data and providing rich qualitative
descriptions to show how educational
practices and context may have differential
effects on students from diverse
backgrounds. Future special education
empirical research may require more
collaborative, interdisciplinary methods, and
research questions examined through
different theoretical lenses given multiple,
complex, and intersecting variables (e.g.,
disability, culture, language, SES, curriculum,
services) (see García & Ortiz, 2013 for further
discussion).
A second consideration involves
educational research training programs.
Institutions of higher education (IHEs) should
improve the training of future special
education researchers in order to help them
acquire the skills and knowledge necessary to
engage in appropriate research involving CLD
populations. Along these lines, IHEs should
actively encourage individuals from diverse
backgrounds to seek educational research
programs and engage in research with
diverse communities. This may require
additional federal and/or private funding
dedicated for these programs to significantly
transform and/or enhance their existing
training and recruitment efforts.
Finally, we encourage researchers and
practitioners in the field to engage in active
discussions regarding this topic and expand
on these recommendations in order to
develop further guidance for implementation.
We appreciate the voices and contributions of
parents, researchers, and professionals
within our field and their efforts at bringing
these issues to the forefront of research
practice involving CLD students. The authors
would like to thank DR’s board members and
others, including Dr. Alba Ortiz and Dr.
Federico Waitoller, for their careful and
insightful feedback during the drafting of this
paper. DR’s Diversity and Families
committees would like to dedicate this white
paper to Dr. Janette Klingner, a former CEC‐
DR member, for her invaluable contributions
to special education research and practice.
16
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