Clinical Consequences of Infection in Patients With
Acute Stroke
Is It Prime Time for Further Antibiotic Trials?
Martha Vargas; Juan P. Horcajada; Victor Obach; Marina Revilla; Álvaro Cervera; Ferrán Torres;
Anna M. Planas; Josep Mensa; Ángel Chamorro
Background and Purpose—It is unsettled whether stroke-associated infection (SAI) is an independent prognostic factor,
and a recent clinical trial failed to show that antibiotic prophylaxis prevented SAI. Contrarily, this trial suggested
that antibiotic prophylaxis impaired clinical recovery. We sought to evaluate the predisposing factors and clinical
consequences of SAI to gather additional insight on the need of exploring other antibiotics in acute stroke.
Methods—Between March 2001 and April 2002, 229 consecutive patients were admitted into the neurological wards
within 24 hours of stroke onset. Demographics, risk factors, National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) score,
vital data, imaging, and laboratory findings were prospectively evaluated. SAI was treated as early as possible.
Multivariate regression analyses assessed predisposing factors of SAI and the independent association between SAI and
poor stroke outcome at day 7 (Rankin ⬎2).
Results—Sixty (26%) patients developed SAI, most frequently chest infections, and within 3 days of stroke onset. Tube
feeding (odds ratio [OR], 3.2; 95% CI, 1.3, 7.8) was the strongest predisposing factor of SAI. Poor outcome at hospital
discharge was associated to baseline NIHSS score (OR, 10.0; 95% CI, 1.5, 100) and tube feeding (OR, 16.6; 95% CI,
2.9, 100.0), adjusted for confounders including antibiotic use. SAI was not independently associated to poor outcome
(OR, 0.9; 95% CI, 0.9, 1.0).
Conclusions—SAI is a marker of the severity of stroke without an independent outcome effect when it is promptly treated.
These results support current stroke guidelines that advise prompt treatment of infection and warn against antibiotic
prophylaxis. Yet, these recommendations should not prevent the performance of acute stroke trials assessing the value
of antibiotics with acknowledged neuroprotective properties. (Stroke. 2006;37:461-465.)
Key Words: infection 䡲 outcome assessment 䡲 stroke
T
he medical management of acute stroke includes measures aimed to prevent or treat systemic complications,
such as stroke-associated infection (SAI), which could affect
the course of the disease.1,2 Although SAI stands as one of
the most frequent medical problems in patients with acute
stroke,3,4 few studies5,6 have addressed the clinical consequences of septic complications. Theoretically, SAI could be
deleterious by mechanisms that include electrolytic unbalance, fever, or hypoxia.7 Under these conditions, neuronal
survival would be impaired within the ischemic penumbra,
and this would favor larger lesions, longer hospital stay,
additional costs, and delayed rehabilitation. Although current
data support that SAI predominate in the most disabled
patients, they do not allow to reach definite conclusions
whether there is an independent association between SAI and
the rate of recovery after stroke.3– 6 Clarification of this issue
in patients with acute stroke is determinant to recommend
when and how to use antiseptic measures, including the
prophylactic administration of antibiotics.
Current guidelines on acute stroke management advise
against prophylactic administration of antibiotics,1 and the
only randomized clinical trial of antibiotic prophylaxis recently provided evidence-based support to this recommendation because it showed that levofloxacin was not better than
placebo to prevent infections.8 Unexpectedly, the Early Systemic Prophylaxis of Infection After Stroke (ESPIAS) trial
also suggested that this approach might impair clinical
recovery, although the trial did not exclude that other antibiotic regimens might be beneficial.8 In light of these findings,
the value of prophylactic regimens in acute stroke seems
doubtful, although further testing would be justified if it were
convincingly shown that stroke recovery is impaired regard-
Received September 12, 2005; final revision received October 13, 2005; accepted November 2, 2005.
From the Stroke Unit, Hospital Clı́nic, and Institut d’ Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain (A.C., V.O., M.R.,
A.Ch.); Infectious Diseases Unit, Hospital Clı́nic, Barcelona, Spain (J.P.H., M.V., J.M.); Pharmacology and Toxicology Department, Consejo Superior
de Investigaciones Cientı́ficas (IIBB-CSIC), and IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain (A.M.P.); and Clinical Pharmacology Unit–Unitat d’Avaluació I Suport de
Projectes (UASP), Hospital, Clı́nic, Barcelona, Spain (F.T.).
Correspondence to Ángel Chamorro, MD, PhD, Stroke Unit, Hospital Clı́nic, Villarroel 170, 08036 Barcelona, Spain. E-mail achamorro@ub.edu
© 2006 American Heart Association, Inc.
Stroke is available at http://www.strokeaha.org
DOI: 10.1161/01.STR.0000199138.73365.b3
461
462
Stroke
February 2006
less of successful control of infections. In this study, we
sought to assess the independent association between SAI and
clinical outcome in stroke patients who received adequate
antibiotic therapy as soon as infection was suspected. These
patients were part of a prospective observational study designed
in preparation of the ESPIAS study reported recently.8
Methods
Study Population
From March 2001 through April 2002, we performed a prospective
evaluation of all incident infections occurring in patients with acute
stroke admitted consecutively to the Neurology Service within 24
hours of symptom onset. Patients with transient ischemic attack,
admission temperature ⱖ37.5°C, or patients who required admission
into an intensive care unit or mechanical intubation were not
included in the study. The study was approved by the local ethical
committee, and stroke neurologists, infectious disease specialists,
and research nurses worked in close collaboration to warrant a
harmonized application of diagnostic and therapeutic measures.
Patients had a brain computed tomography scan or brain MRI before
admission, as well as the diagnostic workup aimed to identify the cause
of ischemic or hemorrhagic strokes. Stroke syndromes were classified as
lacunar and nonlacunar, the former including pure motor hemiparesis,
sensorimotor stroke, ataxic hemiparesis, pure sensory syndrome, and
dysarthria clumsy hand syndrome. Daily neurological exams were
performed using the National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale
(NIHSS), and particular attention was given to the occurrence of
fever, vomiting, urinary retention, or swallowing abnormalities that
might favor infection. Swallowing function was assessed at the
bedside with the water swallowing test,9 and in patients with
abnormal tests, a nasogastric tube was immediately placed to initiate
feeding. Axillary temperature was assessed at least every 8 hours,
and oxygenation, heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory function,
serum glucose, and leukocyte count were frequently recorded in all
patients. Arterial hypertension, diabetes, active smoking, alcohol
intake, hypercholesterolemia, and coronary heart disease were assessed following conventional definitions. Additional historical data
included chronic pulmonary obstructive disease, infections in the
previous 3 months, previous strokes, cancer, and chronic renal
disease.
Fever was defined as axillary temperature ⱖ37.5°C in 2 separate
determinations or ⱖ37.8°C in 1 single determination. Nonseptic
fever was described as axillary temperature ⱖ37.5°C without symptoms or signs of infection and blood leukocyte count ⬍11.000
cell/mL or ⬎4.000 cell/mL. Acute bronchial infection included
fever, bronchial purulent secretions, blood leukocyte count ⬎11.000
cell/mL or ⬍4.000 cell/mL, and normal chest x-ray films. Pneumonia was described as pulmonary infiltrates in chest radiograph, fever,
respiratory symptoms (cough, dyspnea, or pleuritic pain), and blood
leukocyte count ⬎11.000 cell/mL or ⬍4.000 cell/mL. Aspiration
was defined as acute bronchial infection or pneumonia 24 to 48 hours
after a witnessed vomit. Urinary tract infection was defined as low
urinary tract symptoms with a positive urine culture for an uropathogen (⬎105 colony-forming units [cfu]/mm3) or fever with a positive
urine culture for an uropathogen in absence of other infectious
source. Bacteremia included a blood culture positive for a pathogen;
if coagulase-negative staphylococcae were isolated from blood,
confirmation was required in a second positive blood culture with the
same antibiogram. Bacteremia attributable to intravenous catheter
required the isolation of the same pathogen from blood and the
catheter tip (⬎15 cfu) in the absence of other infectious source.
Catheter-related phlebitis was described as inflammatory symptoms
and signs at the insertion point or subcutaneous trajectory of
peripheral or central intravenous catheter. SAI was defined as
infections diagnosed during the first 7 days of stroke onset to limit
the confounding effect of time at risk. Infections were treated with
antibiotics as judged most appropriate by specialists on infectious
diseases, and antipyretics were administered if body temperature was
⬎37.5°C. Outcome was assessed at day 7 and defined as poor if the
modified Rankin scale (MRS) score was ⬎2. Patients could be
discharged before day 7 only when the neurological state remained
stable for ⱖ48 hours.
Microbiologic Methods
Blood cultures were performed in the presence of fever, and urine
cultures were obtained in the presence of urinary tract symptoms, or
if fever was not accompanied by any focal symptoms. Samples were
obtained by spontaneous micturation or from previously inserted
urinary catheters. Urine culture was considered positive when 105
cfu/mL of an uropathogen was isolated. Respiratory samples were
obtained in the presence of respiratory tract symptoms, and sputum
samples were obtained in collaborative patients. Tracheal aspirate
was obtained in patients with abundant respiratory secretions and
low level of consciousness. Samples were grown on McConkey agar
at 37°C and cystine lactose electrolyte deficient agar for quantification during 48 hours. Identification of isolated microorganisms was
performed by standard methods.10 Antibiotic susceptibility testing
was performed by the E-test method (AB Biodisk) and Kirby Bauer
method following the instructions of the manufacturer, according to
the National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards recommendations. Blood cultures were placed into 2 blood culture bottles
and tested daily by means of an infrared ray (Bactec 9240) system
during 5 days. Significant bacteremia was considered when a
pathogenic microorganism was isolated in 1 blood culture.
Statistical Analysis
Dichotomous and categorical data were compared by use of Fisher
exact test or the 2 as appropriate. Differences in continuous
variables were assessed with Student’s test if normally distributed or
nonparametric tests otherwise. Logistic regression modeling was
used to assess statistically significant predictors of SAI during the
acute phase of stroke and poor outcome at discharge. Variables with
a P value ⬍0.10 on univariate testing were selected in these models.
When necessary, collinearity was minimized generating interaction
terms. Antibiotic use was studied as a whole group without the
analysis of individual drugs. All tests of significance were 2-tailed
and at 0.05 level.
TABLE 1. Topography of Infection and Isolated Micro-Organisms
Topography of Infection
n (%)
Acute bronchial
38 (63)
Pneumonias
33 (5)
Urinary tract
13 (22)
Other locations
6 (10)
Cultures
Blood
n⫽45
Urine
n⫽52
Tracheal Aspirate
n⫽17
Escherichia coli
1
13
3
Coagulase negative staph.
2
䡠䡠䡠
䡠䡠䡠
Staphylococcus aureus
1
䡠䡠䡠
Streptococcus viridans
1
䡠䡠䡠
䡠䡠䡠
2
Streptococcus pneumoniae
䡠䡠䡠
Enterococcus faecalis
䡠䡠䡠
䡠䡠䡠
1
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
䡠䡠䡠
䡠䡠䡠
Enterobacter spp.
䡠䡠䡠
Proteus mirabilis
䡠䡠䡠
䡠䡠䡠
1
䡠䡠䡠
Klebsiella oxytoca
䡠䡠䡠
1
䡠䡠䡠
Micro-organisms
1
䡠䡠䡠
1
1
Vargas et al
TABLE 2.
Early Infection After Acute Stroke
463
Univariate Predictors of Early Infection in 229 Stroke Patients
Early Infection
No
n⫽169
Age y, mean (SD), y
Yes
n⫽60
P
Value
⬍0.001
70.3 (13.1)
78.9 (7.8)
Female, n (%)
75 (44)
37 (61)
0.02
Current smoking, n (%)
30 (18)
7 (12)
0.27
Alcohol (⬎60 关males兴/40 关females兴, g/d), n (%)
20 (12)
3 (5)
0.13
Diabetes, n (%)
32 (19)
12 (20)
0.85
Chronic pulmonary disease, n (%)
16 (10)
6 (10)
1.00
7 (4)
1 (2)
0.68
Hypertension, n (%)
103 (61)
35 (58)
0.76
Active cancer, n (%)
6 (4)
4 (7)
0.29
Chronic renal disease, n (%)
Previous stroke, n (%)
27 (16)
10 (17)
0.17
Hours to first exam, mean (SD)
6.9 (5.7)
6.0 (5.5)
0.31
Baseline temperature °C, mean (SD)
36.1 (0.4)
36.2 (0.5)
0.76
Lacunar/nonlacunar syndrome, n (%)
32/137 (97/70)
1/59 (3/30)
⬍0.001
Hemorrhagic/ischemic stroke, n (%)
30/139 (18/82)
12/48 (20/80)
6 (3–13)
18 (11–21)
Baseline NIHSS, (interquartile)
Vomits on admission, n (%)
Nasogastric tube feeding, n (%)
0.69
⬍0.001
7 (4)
7 (12)
0.07
48 (28)
46 (77)
⬍0.001
In-dwelling urinary catheter, n (%)
19 (11)
11 (18)
0.12
Baseline glucose mean (SD), mg/dL
142 (65)
149 (50)
0.46
Baseline creatinine mg/dL, mg/dL
1.0 (0.4)
1.0 (0.3)
0.90
Baseline C-reactive protein, mg/dL
1.8 (1.7)
3.7 (4.3)
0.14
Results
SAI: Incidence, Topography, and Pathogens
A total of 295 stroke patients were admitted during the study
period, although patients with a delay to admission of ⬎24
hours (n⫽58) or with signs or symptoms of ongoing infection
at first examination (n⫽8) were excluded. Thus, 229 patients
assessed at a median delay of 4.7 (interquartile range [IQR],
2.5, 10.2) hours from stroke onset took part in the study.
Median time to hospital discharge was 9 (IQR, 5, 13) days.
Sixty (26%) patients developed SAI, 11 (5%) patients had
bacteremia attributable to an intravenous catheter, and 22
(10%) developed nonseptic fever. Forty-five (75%) patients
were diagnosed with SAI within the first 3 days of admission.
Antibiotics were administered to 93 (41%) patients within 7
days of stroke onset. Antibiotics included amoxicillin (n⫽48),
levofloxacin (n⫽35), cephalosporins (n⫽5), tazobactampiperacillin (n⫽3), and vancomycin (n⫽2). The topography of
infections and the responsible micro-organisms were as described in Table 1. The yield of positive cultures was 11% for
blood samples, 31% for urine samples, and 47% for tracheal
aspirate samples, respectively.
Risk Factors of Infection
SAI was associated in univariate analysis to older age, female
gender, higher median NIHSS on admission, vomiting at
stroke onset, nonlacunar stroke, and tube feeding, as shown in
Table 2. Using logistic regression analysis, tube feeding was
the strongest and sole independent predictor of SAI (odds
ratio [OR], 3.2; 95% CI, 1.3, 7.8; P⬍0.01).
Clinical Outcome
At day 7, 72 (31%) patients had an MRS score of 0 to 2, and
157 (69%) patients had an MRS score of ⬎2, including 26
(11%) patients who died because of stroke (n⫽16), sepsis
(n⫽5), or cardiovascular diseases (n⫽5). As shown in Table
3, poor outcome (MRS ⬎2) was associated in univariate
analysis to age, gender, admission delay, smoking, baseline
NIHSS, stroke syndrome, baseline temperature, tube feeding,
SAI, and antibiotic use. In a logistic regression model, only
baseline NIHSS score (OR, 10.0; 95% CI, 1.5, 100) and tube
feeding (OR, 16.6; 95% CI, 2.9, 100.0) remained associated
to poor outcome. Contrarily, SAI (OR, 0.9; 95% CI, 0.9, 1.0)
or the interaction term SAI*antibiotic use (OR, 0.8; 95% CI,
0.3, 3.0) did not enter in the logistic regression model of
stroke outcome.
Discussion
In this prospective cohort, 26% of the patients developed SAI
within the first 7 days of stroke onset, and 10% of additional
patients developed nonseptic fever (ⱖ37.5°C), confirming
that infections and hyperthermia are a sizable problem not
only in intensive care settings11 and general wards12 but also
in neurological wards. The main finding of the study was that
infections diagnosed and treated with antibiotics within 7
days of stroke onset did not contribute significantly to the
likelihood of poor outcome at day 7. Yet, the study confirmed
that SAI was directly related to the initial severity of the
stroke,12,13 occurred more frequently within the first 3 days of
stroke,14,15 and in patients fed by nasogastric tube.6 Indeed,
464
TABLE 3.
Stroke
February 2006
Clinical Outcome at Discharge
MRS
Age, mean (SD)
0 –2
n⫽72
3– 6
n⫽157
P
Value
⬍0.001
65.6 (12.9)
75.7 (11.0)
Female, n (%)
23 (32)
89 (57)
0.001
Admission delay, mean
(SD) h
8.1 (5.4)
6.5 (5.6)
0.04
Smoking, n (%)
16 (22)
21 (13)
Baseline NIHSS, median
(IQR)
Baseline temperature,
median (IQR) °C
3 (1–6)
36.0 (36.0–36.5)
13 (7–20)
36.2 (36.0–36.5)
0.008
⬍0.001
0.08
21 (29)
12 (8)
⬍0.001
Tube feeding, n (%)
2 (3)
92 (59)
⬍0.001
Early infection, n (%)
7 (10)
53 (34)
⬍0.001
13 (18)
80 (51)
⬍0.001
Lacunar syndrome, n (%)
Antibiotics, n (%)
77% of the patients fed by nasogastric tube developed an
infection within 7 days of stroke onset compared with 28% of
orally fed patients. These results give credit to the notion that
feeding tubes offer no protection from colonized oral secretions in patients with dysphagia.16 –18 However, because tube
feeding and stroke severity were collinear, contribution of
additional factors cannot be excluded, such as older age,
immobility, impaired pulmonary function, immunosuppression, and malnutrition.19 –21 Moreover, the independent association between poor outcome and tube feeding was mostly
explained by the greater severity of stroke at baseline in
patients who required tube feeding. Unlike the predominance
of urinary tract infections, which are more frequent during the
chronic phase of stroke,12 chest infections predominated
during the earliest phase of stroke. However, unlike series
that included mechanical ventilated subjects,11 the predominant chest complications were acute bronchial infections
rather than pneumonias. Overall, one fourth of the infections
yielded positive cultures, particularly in tracheal aspirate
samples, and revealed micro-organisms that are commonly
acquired in the community.
In contrast with previous tertiary analysis,5 series of
mechanically ventilated patients,11 and studies that disregarded the effect of confounding factors,12 SAI did not
emerge in our study as an independent prognostic factor.
Outcome assessment in the study did not evaluate longlasting effects. However, the study accounted prospectively
for the effect of decisive prognostic factors, such as age,
baseline stroke severity, stroke subtype, delay to admission,
tube feeding, and body temperature. Moreover, strict operational criteria were set at the outset of the study to minimize
underreporting or misclassification of infectious events.5 The
administration of antibiotics was not randomized, but their
effect was accounted for in the prediction models. However,
to avoid the creation of small subgroups, the effect of
individual antibiotics was not measured. Although the strict
control of fever might have also lessened the consequences of
infection,22 a small randomized controlled trial of early
antipyretic therapy recently showed only modest benefits in
acute stroke.23 Therefore, the most likely explanation for the
lack of independent association that we found between SAI
and poor outcome was the prompt initiation of an antibiotic
therapy. Admission temperature did not emerge as an independent prognostic factor in our study, most likely because
patients with elevated temperature at stroke onset (ⱖ37.5°C)
were not included.
Empirically, current stroke therapy guidelines recommend
to watch carefully for the appearance of infection and to treat
rapidly with antibiotics all emergent infections.1,2 Our results
showing that expeditiously treated infections were not detrimental are in support of these guidelines. Antibiotics have also
been given prophylactically to patients with acute stroke.8 The
rationale of such approach was that infections could decrease
the degree of recovery,5 whereas early preventive measures
might avoid it. However, antibiotics given during the early
phase of brain ischemia could do more than kill bacteria
because the ESPIAS trial showed less recovery in patients
treated with levofloxacin than placebo,8 a finding that was
attributed to the effects of this drug on ␥-aminobutyric acid
and glutamate neurotransmission.24,25 Notwithstanding, certain antibiotics might theoretically provide clinical benefits in
acute stroke in relation to previously unrecognized effects on
the central nervous system. Thus, moxifloxacin26 and minocycline27 have demonstrated marked neuroprotective effects
after focal brain ischemia in mice and rats. Indeed, an
ongoing clinical trial is evaluating the effect of moxifloxacin
in patients with acute stroke. Several -lactam antibiotics
have also shown protection against the dysfunctional effects
of the neurotransmitter glutamate by activating the expression
of a glutamate transporter in in vitro models of ischemic
injury.28 Given the relevance of glutamate in stroke, -lactam
antibiotics are a promising option for future acute stroke trials
in patients with or without SAI.
In summary, the study shows that SAI is a very common
complication after stroke that does not contribute independently to the likelihood of poorer outcome. These results
support current stroke guidelines that advise prompt treatment of infection and reinforce the advise against antibiotic
prophylaxis in this clinical condition. However, these recommendations should not be an obstacle to the performance of
acute stroke trials that assess the outcome effects of antibiotics with acknowledged neuroprotective properties.
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