CHAPTER 1
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
'trying to draw a rainbow with a lead pencil'
Prospective...a way of focusing and concentrating on the future by imagining
it full-blown, rather than drawing deductions from the present.
- Gaston Berger (Masini, 1993, p. 55).
The past belongs to memory, the present to action and the future to
imagination and will...'prospective' which belongs to the future...is related to
invention, creativity and will.
- Antonio Alonso Concheiro (Masini, 1993, p. 8).
Vision values are linked to the way people envision how they want the future
to be. In this sense vision values are motivating values because they draw us
forward.
- Collins and Chippendale (1991, p.10).
That images of the future motivate behaviour in the present is a theory with
both socio-historical and psychological evidence.
- Elise Boulding (1988, p.17).
The lack of hope (of youth) for the future reflects the mistakes of the past, the
problems of the present and the challenges of the future. But it also suggests
a failure of vision, a failure to conceive a future that is appealing and
plausible and able to serve as a focus and source of inspiration.
- Richard Eckersley (1996, p.65).
1.1
Introduction
The above quotes from contemporary futurists throw light on the central dynamic of the
research problem of this study, that is, the relationship between imagination and action.
The role of imagination in education will be explored in this study in its historical and
contemporary educational context. Specifically, the relationship between an imaginative,
holistic approach to education and the prospectivity of youth visions of their futures will
be investigated. Steiner education is introduced as an innovative, alternative educational
approach that has developed over the past 75 years into the largest, non-denominational,
independent schooling system in the world. It is based strongly on imaginative, aesthetic,
holistic methods grounded in a comprehensive theory of human development.
The title of this chapter 'trying to draw a rainbow with a lead pencil' highlights and
problematises the challenge of using a strongly rational academic process to research and
discuss such qualitative themes as youth visions of their futures, yet such visions are
crucial to our tomorrows. In particular, given the research context of a holistic, aesthetic
and even ultimately spiritually based approach to education, it is appropriate that the
theoretical context, literature review and research itself will be trans-disciplinary with an
educational focus. The relatively new, interdisciplinary academic field of Futures Studies
research most appropriately provides the primary methodological context.
1.2
Statement of The Research Problem
The purpose of this study is to explore links between the educational development of
imaginal skills (creative imagination) through Steiner education and the ability of Steinereducated adolescents to envision the future creatively in a way that they feel an active
part of it. There are two overlapping aspects to this enquiry. First, the views and visions
of the 'probable future' as perceived by a group of Steiner educated senior secondary
students will be examined and discussed in the light of contemporary research on
mainstream youths' views of the future.
Secondly, the Steiner students' visions of their 'preferred futures' will be explored for
evidence of prospectivity and personal empowerment, as demonstrated by
• their ability to envision a future different from the past and present;
• the confidence and willingness of the students to act to create their own preferred
futures.
The research problem is situated within two main contextual areas as follows. The futures
studies field provides the primary research context, particularly the futures research
concerning youth views and visions of the future/s, while Steiner education, as an
innovative educational alternative, provides the specific research focus. These two fields
will be explored throughout the study from several perspectives. As part of the rationale
for this study they will be introduced below. Their theoretical backgrounds will be
examined in Chapters 2 and 3, with relevant research detailed in Chapter 4. Figure 1.1
below demonstrates how the research problem is situated within these contextual areas.
2
1.3
Rationale for the Research Problem
The rationale for the research involves an examination of the two contextual areas
described above. Since both the futures studies field and Steiner education are somewhat
marginal to mainstream educational research a number of key terms used in these fields
need to be explicated, in particular, the following terms which are used in the title:
future/futures, imagination, will and prospective.
1.3.1
Definitions and Contextualisation of Key Terms
In order to clarify the particular meanings of key terms used in the title and frequently in
this research, this section will define and contextualise these terms in relation to their
common usage in Steiner education or the futures studies field.
Futures
Studies Research
Youth
Views and Visions of
the Future/s
Steiner students
Views and Visions
of their
Futures
Alternative
Education
- Steiner
Figure 1.1
Contextualisation of Theoretical and Methodological Background to
the Present Study
3
•
One future or many futures. It is most common in everyday discourse to speak
of 'the future' as if there were only one possible option as to how 'the future' might be.
The present study seeks to problematise this narrowing down of future options. At times
the term 'future' singular will be used and this will generally reflect the closure usually
associated with what will later be explicated in Chapter 4 as the 'probable future'.
Alternatively, this research seeks to open the students' future options by inviting them to
envision their own 'preferred futures' which will be individual, unique and multi-faceted.
The encouragement to envision a plurality of 'futures' is a feature of the empowerment
oriented futures studies research, that inspired the present study.
•
Imagination is used here to describe an active process whereby dynamic mental
images are formed to provide a living synthesis with the intellectual concepts being
presented so that they can be understood in a meaningful way. In Steiner schools this
active imagining process is strengthened in a number of ways. The foremost of these is
the use of story-telling as the primary teaching tool to introduce and reinforce intellectual
concepts. The pedagogical rationale for the cultivation of the imagination, through storytelling and the arts, will be examined in Chapters 2 and 3 and illustrated with further
examples.
•
By will is meant the ability to act, to implement, to put into action what one thinks,
plans or wishes to do. While the inability to act out one's life choices may be regarded as
disempowerment, the faculty of an active will to engage one's life choices is regarded
here as an aspect of personal empowerment. The cultivation of the will of the children in
Steiner schools is activated by imaginative processes and further enhanced by the
practical, experiential approach to learning which will be described in Chapter 3.
•
Prospective is an important term developed within the futures studies field and is at
the heart of the research question: will the students' visions have a prospective (forward
looking) rather than a retrospective (past oriented) quality? This term prospective
originating with the French futurist Berger in the 1950s includes the three aspects of
knowledge, imagination and will (Masini, 1993, p. 2). These concepts closely echo the
three faculties of the human being that Steiner education attempts to balance through its
holistic approach which integrates the thinking, the feeling life and the will of the child
being educated (Steiner, 1909/1965) (See Table 3.1, in Chapter 3). The prospective
concept is a key term in the innovative action-oriented thinking of futurists in both
developing and developed countries, who see the future in terms of creative change
(Masini, 1993).
1.3.2
The Role of the Futures Studies Field in Educational
Futures Research
The futures studies field provides the primary research context for this study. Although
thinking about the future has always been a part of human culture (eg, soothsayers,
prophets, and later 'utopians') it has only been in the past three or four decades that it has
produced the academic discipline known as Futures Studies (Masini, 1993). The scope
4
of this study limits this section to a review of the broad features of this discipline and
some of the key developments in relation to education.
General Approaches to Futures Studies Research
There are several typologies for categorising the types of futures studies research (Gough,
1989; Frank Hutchinson, 1992; Masini, 1993; Slaughter, 1989a). The approach of
Inayatullah (1990), modified by Wildman (1995a), was chosen because it is consistent
with the broad research paradigm typology used in this study which draws on the work of
Habermas (1972), Grundy (1987) and Guba and Lincoln (1978) as discussed in the
methodology section (Chapter 5). While it is commonly thought that futures studies is an
attempt to predict the future based on extrapolation from present day trends, this is only
one of at least four epistemological approaches to futures research described below.
The first three approaches to futures studies are identified by Inayatullah as the
predictive, the cultural-interpretive and the critical (Inayatullah, 1990).
A fourth
approach to research in future studies is identified by Wildman and termed 'futuring'
(Wildman, 1995). This applied, 'creactive' approach to futures research may be seen as a
development on from the cultural and critical perspectives to futures 'praxis', that is,
creating one's future through active visioning and action research. This is an
empowerment approach that introduces transformational futures processes, and is also
identified by other futurists (Boulding, 1988; Francis Hutchinson, 1996; Masini, 1993;
Slaughter, 1989a). It is this empowerment oriented approach to futures research that the
present study attempts to engage.
Futures Studies and Education
The futures studies discipline in relation to education makes use of the methodologies
used by futures studies generally (Slaughter, 1989a; Tydeman, 1987). The role of futures
studies in the fields of youth research and education takes three broad forms. The first
involves the teaching of an actual futures studies curriculum. The second relates to recent
research particularly over the last 10-15 years concerning young people's views and
visions of the future. The third concerns critical speculations by educational 'futurists'
about how education for the future might respond to some of the disturbing findings from
the youth futures research. A delimitation of the present study involves dealing not with
the futures studies curriculum as such, which will be briefly sketched below, but rather a
synthesis of the latter two areas.
a) Futures Studies Curriculum.
The actual teaching of a future studies curriculum incorporates basic concepts and
metaphors, as well as introducing major theories and perspectives. It also includes
processes such as the development of imagination and creativity, and utilises a variety of
specific methods or tools (Hicks, 1994; Slaughter, 1989a) (See Appendix A: Example
Futures Studies Curriculum). The development of futures studies education in this sense
is in its infancy in Australia with Queensland being the only state which has incorporated
it into the mainstream curriculum, as an elective for Years 11 and 12 students. This may
5
change in the near future in response to some research by the Australian Commission for
the Future which has prompted a Youth Futures Forum to discuss such matters (Richard
Eckersley, 1996).
b) Youth Views of the Future and Related Issues
It is believed that any youth research in Australia at the present time needs to
acknowledge the serious problems and issues that have appeared and accelerated over the
past 10-15 years. Currently in Australia many youth are experiencing a range of crises
which may impact on research particularly in regard to how they think about the future.
Since the benchmark report by Burdekin in 1989 on youth homelessness, numerous
studies and reports have examined this issue and in addition, the rising youth
unemployment, and high levels of chronic truancy and educational disenchantment
leading to increasing numbers of students 'dropping out' (Beresford, 1993; Burdekin,
1989; Corbett, 1993; Daniel & Connell, 1993; Dwyer, 1989; MacKenzie & Chamberlain,
1992; Senate Standing Committee on Employment Education and Training, 1992;
Winefield, Tiggeman, Winefield, & Goldney, 1993).
Recent ethnographic research cites the increasing appearance of 'street kids' emerging
from the intersection of the above three phenomena (Gidley & Wildman, 1996a, 1996b).
Increases over the past decades in youth male suicides in Australia place our rates as
among the highest in the industrial world (R. Eckersley, 1988, p. 5). Recent figures from
the Australian Institute of Suicide Prevention in Adelaide show that the rate of suicide for
young men aged 15-19 has increased from 3.1 deaths per 100,000 in 1964, to 40 deaths
per 100,000 today (Hammond, 1996). These figures are four times the rate for young
women (R. Eckersley, 1988, p. 5).
In this context it is not surprising that recent studies with youth point to the emergence of
feelings of deepening negativity, lack of hope, meaning and a sense of disempowerment
in relation to the future (Eckersley, 1988; McGregor, 1989; Totaro, 1990; Gidley and
Wildman, 1996a, Wilson, 1989; Hutchinson, 1992a). Educational futures researcher
Frank Hutchinson (1992a) points out in his critical study of futures consciousness and the
school that many of these studies are epistemologically reductionist and do little more
than counsel resignation to the inevitability of 'future-shock adjustment'. On the other
hand, youth futures research when undertaken by educational futurists takes a more
proactive form than that demonstrated in some of the surveys referred to here.
Hutchinson points to a form of futures action research involving active visioning of
positive futures which has been developed by Elise Boulding and Warren Ziegler,
regarding this as an important component in educating for the future (Beare & Slaughter,
1993; Boulding, 1988; Francis Hutchinson, 1992; Ziegler, 1991).
Situated
epistemologically within the fourth, 'creactive' type of futures studies, this visioning
approach is included in the present research. In spite of Hutchinson's concerns about the
reductionism of much of the survey research, his own study which focused on 'actively
listening to contemporary youth voices about feared futures' drew similarly disturbing
findings:
6
Many of the young people in this study expressed a strong sense of negativity, helplessness,
despondency and even anguish about the anticipated problems facing their society and the
world at large. For a majority, negative imagery of the future ranged from perceptions of
intensifying pressure and competition in schools in the twenty-first century to worsening
trends in physical violence and war, joblessness and poverty, destructive technology and
environmental degradation (Frank Hutchinson, 1994, p. 26).
The self-perpetuating possibility that negative views of the future might in turn lead to a
further weakening of young people's ability to cope in their present lives is suggested by
some researchers (Boulding, 1988; Richard Eckersley, 1993; Slaughter, 1989a). That the
situation overall with regard to youth views of the future is not improving is indicated by
a recent review of the research in a Schools Council Report which made the following
comment 'the more recent the research, the deeper the pessimism' (Hannan, Ferguson,
Pollock, & Reeders, 1995). Though these studies and subsequent claims relate to the
Australian situation, similar findings are evident throughout the western world (Hicks,
1995; Johnson, 1987; Rogers & Tough, 1992; Rubin, 1996). The above and other
relevant research will be reviewed extensively in Chapter 4.
c) Critical Speculation about Education for the Future
In Australia, the youth problems described above tend to emerge in a context of economic
rationalism with its competitive skills-based education driven by the national reform
agenda. This move in mainstream curricula in Australia towards harder technologies and
more skills-based job oriented competencies is not without critique from liberal
educationists and educational futures researchers. By contrast the basic tenets of the
Steiner approach which holds to softer and social technologies, and the human-centred,
holistic development of individuals challenge many current developments in mainstream
education and gain support from educational futures research.
Somewhat understandably, over the past decade a number of key educational 'futurists'
have developed a critical approach to what they see as the pedagogical implications of the
above mentioned responses of western youth to their futures. The wider societal
significance of the links drawn in this chapter between current youth issues and the need
for futures perspectives and alternative approaches to education is further indicated by
Hutchinson in discussing the results of his research with youth:
....expressions (found in the youth views of the future) of lost self-esteem and alienation are
unlikely to be adequately met by proffered technocratic solutions to youth unemployment and
arguments about necessary long term shifts in work patterns. More education of a narrowly
vocational bent, more behaviourist criteria in setting instructional goals, and more insistence
on literacy narrowly defined are hardly likely to be adequate in meeting such deep-seated
needs deprivation. Rather than sensible foresight and encouragement of active citizenship, it
is a probable recipe for exacerbated societal problems ... (such as drug abuse and suicide)
(Frank Hutchinson, 1994, p. 30).
Critical speculation about alternative forms of education make some clear
recommendations about better preparing youth for a rapidly changing and uncertain
future, while also considering the needs of future generations (Beare & Slaughter, 1993;
Bjerstedt, 1982; Boulding, 1988; Galtung, 1982; Hicks, 1995; Francis Hutchinson, 1996;
Slaughter, 1994, 1989b; Tough, 1993). These researchers recommend more holistic,
7
integrated teaching methods using imagination, visualisation, social skills and specific
futures methodologies. Intriguingly, many of these are a crucial part of Steiner
education.
In the concluding remarks of his important study, Hutchinson makes recommendations to
teachers and schools about the importance of cultivating balanced development of
cognitive/analytical and affective/imaginative learning styles and literacies, implying a
holistic approach to learning and teaching. He also refers repeatedly to the work of Elise
Boulding (1978, 1988) who stresses the importance of broadening and deepening our
skills for imagining a better world. It is Boulding, cited in Hutchinson, who reminds us
that an important indicator of optimal (rather than mere functional) forms of literacy is
how empowered, as distinct from cynical, resigned, helpless or fatalistic, young people
feel in the face of a rapidly changing and complexly interdependent world (Frank
Hutchinson, 1992, p.38). It is further implied in this and other research that more
holistic, imaginative styles of education might facilitate a more confident, proactive and
hopeful futures outlook in young people (Beare & Slaughter, 1993; Richard Eckersley,
1995; Gidley & Wildman, 1996b).
Table 1.1
Educational Futures Research - Guidelines for Teaching and
Preparing Young People for the 21st Century
* 1. Appropriate Imagery - choosing metaphors with care and imagination
* 2. Teach for Wholeness and Balance - holistic paradigm
* 3. Teach Identification, Connectedness, Integration - epistemological
interconnectedness
* 4. Develop Individual Values - value the individual
* 5. Teach Visualisation - development of the picturing imagination
6. Cultivate Visions of the Future - cultivate images and visions of futures
* 7. Empowerment through active hope - distinguish between faith and hope
* 8. Tell Stories - use story telling and mythology as powerful teaching tool
* 9. Teach and Learn how to Celebrate - celebrate festivals
10. Teach Futures Tools - encourage and use futures tools and methods
Source: Beare and Slaughter (1993, p. 129-134)
* The asterisked points all refer to important features of Steiner Education listed in Table 3.2 Key Features
of Steiner Education, Chapter 3.
In a comprehensive conceptual review of current global dimensions of change and
consciousness shifts required to prepare young people for the 21st Century, Australian
educational futures researchers Hedley Beare and Richard Slaughter list a number of
educational features that they recommend schools incorporate to better prepare young
people for the future (Beare & Slaughter, 1993). These ten educational features listed in
8
Table 1.1 above are remarkably consistent with the key features of Steiner education
described in Chapter 3 (See Table 3.2) with at least eight of the ten points listed below
being features of Steiner education.
As yet the suggestions and guidelines put forward by Beare and Slaughter have not been
applied by educational futures researchers or educators in an integrated fashion in an
educational setting which could then be studied. Yet, in effect, in one sense it may be
argued that the guidelines suggested by Beare and Slaughter, with the exception of the
specific futures methods and tools, are already being implemented in Steiner schools
around the world.
1.3.3
Steiner Education - An Innovative Alternative Approach
In short Steiner education provides an integrated, holistic balance of
intellectual/cognitive, artistic/imaginative and practical/life skills education, as
recommended by educational futurists. An important rationale for this research is that it
provides an opportunity to investigate, then authenticate the futures views and visions of
students who have been educated in an educational style which resembles that
recommended by key educational futurists. It should be pointed out here that while
Steiner schools do not yet directly offer 'futures education' as such, some of the key
educational processes may contribute to prospective thinking in the students. This
possibility highlights the central research question.
As stated earlier the present study investigates the views and visions of their futures of a
group of Steiner educated senior secondary students. The further possibility suggested by
contemporary educational futures researchers that such holistic, imaginative styles of
education might facilitate more confident, proactive and hopeful outlooks towards the
future provides the key rationale for this research.
Steiner education represents a rapidly growing and popular private education system with
approximately 40 schools in Australia, educating in excess of 5,000 students throughout
Australia. The development of Steiner education world-wide and its theoretical context
and content will be explicated in Chapter 3. Further, a number of common criticisms of
Steiner education will be addressed as part of an overall critique. There have been no
formal studies on the outcomes of Steiner education in Australia with only limited
research world-wide which will be examined in Chapter 4. The lack of research on the
outcomes of Steiner education provides a further rationale for this study.
1.4
Significance and Limitations
The significance of this study is implied in the aforementioned rationale. In spite of its
growth and popularity over the past decade, no formal research has been undertaken on
the educational outcomes of Steiner education in Australia. Access to Steiner schools for
research may be restricted for researchers who are not seen as 'insiders' or at least
9
'sympathetic'. The present researcher is in the unique position of having had a decade's
involvement and praxis with this form of education.
On a personal and professional note, the author was, over a ten year period, the founder
and one of the pioneers of a Steiner kindergarten, primary and secondary school. She
worked as a teacher of all primary and junior secondary classes, and principal equivalent,
during this time. The present research provides an opportunity to reflect on this decade
of praxis and then to investigate more objectively some of the questions that arise. The
researcher is no longer working professionally within the Steiner education field and as
such the insights derive from a reflective journey back over the past praxis. Observations
and experience as well as experiential evidence from other colleagues supports the
proposition that Steiner educated youth in general are confident and proactive about their
role in creating their desired futures. This personal perspective, is undoubtedly a shaping
factor in the forming of the central research question of this thesis. Additional aspects of
the personal perspectives and their methodological implications will be discussed in
Chapter 5.
This study is a valuable opportunity to objectify/demystify a significant innovation in an
alternative pedagogical paradigm both within and beyond its current sphere of influence.
In addition, this research involves an applied investigation of the theories and
speculations of critical educational futurists on possible models of education for the
future.
There are a number of limitations to the study which necessitate attention. These have
been identified in the following ways:
•
There are only 5 of the 40 Steiner schools in Australia in which students can
currently complete a full 12 years of formal schooling. Three of these were chosen
because they were well established, had reasonable class sizes and agreed to
participate in the research process. Two other schools were approached but were
unwilling to participate - both of these schools had very small numbers of students
in senior secondary (less than ten students per class).
•
Because of the geographic distance between the three participating schools
(Sydney, Melbourne and Adelaide) and the limitations of budget and time, the
second stage of the research was limited to one class (Year 12) in one school.
•
Although the study attempts to investigate the views and visions of their futures of
these students from the point of view that these are influenced by the type of
education they have received, it is impossible to control for all the other variables
that might have influenced these students over the years of their education. This
issue will be further addressed in Chapter 5.
•
Although some unique visions were found among the Steiner students considerably more research would be needed to attempt to identify fully what
particular aspects of Steiner education were responsible.
10
1.5
Chapter Summary
The first chapter has established the research question to be investigated
in this study as follows:
•
Will an analysis of Steiner educated students' views and visions of the future indicate
a prospective quality, linking a creative, forward-looking imagination with personal
confidence and a will to act, empowering them to create their own futures?
This question will be explored in detail in later chapters.
The various approaches to futures studies research were overviewed, followed by an
introduction to the field of educational futures research. It was shown that the present
study draws on a synthesis of critical educational futures and youth futures research. It
has been demonstrated that there are a number of indications that many youth in Australia
are experiencing a crisis of confidence or hope in what society can offer them for their
futures. This was evidenced by recent research on youth views of the future indicating
general negativity and lack of hope in conjunction with the variety and extent of increases
in problem areas for youth over the past decade.
The contribution from critical futures researchers in education was shown to develop
from acceptance of problems and fears of future to positions of critique of mainstream
education and speculation about changes needed in schooling to better prepare youth for
the future. Steiner education was introduced as an alternative educational system offering
imaginative, integrated, holistic education, closely resembling the innovations
recommended by educational futurists.
Chapter 2 will examine in more detail the theoretical basis of these areas which the
research embraces - the role of the futures studies field in the question of education for
the future, including youth views of the future; and in particular, the educational theory
context for holistic, imaginative, artistic and practical alternatives such as Steiner
education.
1.6
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