BIRKBECK COLLEGE
UNIVERSITY OF LONDON
Gaudí and the Establishment of
Catalan Cultural Identity
MA IN HISTORY OF ART
BARCELONA: THE CULTURAL ROOTS OR ARTISTIC INNOVATION
Tutor: JACQUELINE COCKBURN
DATE: 17.05.04
Word count: 4700
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This work aims to discuss the work of the Catalan architect Antoni
Gaudí I Cornet taking in consideration the patriotic aspects of his art which
can be associated with the consolidation and recovery of Catalan cultural
identity in the end of XIX and beginning of XX centuries.
The historical timeframe of Gaudí’s life coincides with an important
period in the history of Catalonia, when many circumstances enabled the
development of important cultural, social and political changes. My objective
with this work is to highlight how these changes and ideas were reflected on
the work of Gaudí and also how his art contributed to the renovation of the
Cultural identity of the people of Catalonia.
Gaudí was born in 1852 in Reus, in the southern Catalan province of
Tarragona, a region with a rich and sophisticated heritage, which allowed the
young artist to have immediate contact with a number of historical sights
including: middle ages walled settlement with castle, mountain monastery,
Roman villas, gothic and Romanesque churches that would remain in his subconscious and serve as aesthetic references for the rest of his life and often
seen translated onto his architecture. Another relevant aspect of Gaudí’s
origin was his family long craft tradition. He was the son, grandson and
great-grandson of coppersmiths and had access to the legacy of centuries of
metalwork tradition that he would put to use by exploring his advanced
spatial apprehension - which he claimed to have learned in the workshop of
his father. As a mature architect, Gaudí would always acknowledge the
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importance of his father’s creativity and the fact that he had learned to feel
and imagine in three dimensions from the family’s coppersmiths tradition.
Gaudí showed an early interest in archaeology and together with his
two inseparable childhood friends Eduardo Toda and José Ribera Sans would
always explore the surrounding countryside; this helped Gaudí develop his
special Catalan sensibility and feeling for material, distilled from the
observation of local architecture and archaeology. One of the visits that would
mark Gaudí’s life and inspire his choice to become and architect was the
exploration of the Cisterian monastery of Poblet in 1867. Founded in 1153
from a gift of land by the Count King of Catalonia, the site was a landmark of
Catalan Catholicism and a symbol of Catalan identity or a national pantheon all the kings of Aragon and Catalonia had been buried there. The expedition
to the monastery served as Gaudí’s first architectural laboratory and inspired
him and his two friends to write a manifesto to restore the building and
revive part of Catalonia’s glorious past. This was one of the first
demonstrations of what later would consolidate as Gaudí’s strong support of
the unique value of the cultural heritage of Catalonia.
Another aspect that certainly influenced the architectural style of
Gaudí was his interest in plants and animals. Having grown up in the rural
areas of Baix Camp in the province of Tarragona, Gaudí developed a
passionate curiosity for the local fauna, flora and geology and later on his
professional life would always refer back to his earlier experience with nature,
which he considered “the Great Book, always open, that we should force
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ourselves to read.”. The influence of organic forms can easily be spotted on
the architects work – for example: the iron palmetto-leaf fence of Casa Vicens,
the wavy sand coloured façade of Casa Milá, the rocky viaducts in Park Güell,
the bone-like columns at Casa Batlló. The artist claimed that his intention was
not to copy the forms of nature but build an architecture that followed its
harmonic rules. The use of biomorphic structures also derives from the artist’s
belief that nature is God’s handwork and that the natural forms provide an
endless source of inspiration to which architects should always refer.
Another important aspect of Gaudí’s development was his move to
Barcelona, where he joined the school of architecture in 1873. His new life in
the capital of Catalonia coincided with the beginning of a movement that
would change not only the face of that flourishing city but also allow the
newcomer to fully exercise his vocation as innovative architect. La Renaixença
started with the interest of the Church to restore the religious monuments and
the Catalan architectural heritage. A passionate popular interest in the
Catalan traditions followed and soon Barcelona became the centre of a major
movement that aimed to move Catalonia towards modernity by digging
through its medieval past.
The fruitful relationship with Spanish colonies and subsequent
independence of many of them, resulting in the return of Catalan
entrepreneurs with accumulated capital ready to re-invest in their homeland,
generated industrial development, which combined with the strategic
geographic position of Barcelona’s busy port in the Mediterranean
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contributed to the rapid improvement of Catalan economy. A major
demographic expansion followed, creating highly favourable conditions for
the flowering of intellectual and cultural life. The new intellectual and
financial elite would eventually engage in re-establishing Catalonia’s identity,
which had suffered greatly from political centralization and supremacy of
Castilian dominance. Gaudí would benefit to a great extent from the
economical prowess of fin-de-siècle Catalonia through the patronage of
wealthy industrialists - enabling the artist to contribute with an ensemble of
works that would become new milestones for the Renaixença.
Barcelona had also established itself as an important publishing centre
and was considered the editorial capital for the Spanish language. This
facilitated the creation of publications that would support and strengthen the
consolidation of Catalan Renaixença. The expansion of wealth of the new
industrialist bourgeoisie coupled with their absence in the decision-making
positions in Government gives rise to a number of political associations and
publications in order to support their increasing demands of political
independence and clearer cultural identity. It is in this environment that
many publications such as La Renaixença (magazine 1871-1880 / periodical
1881-1905) and Diari Català (1879-1881) – first periodical in Catalan language –
, La Tradició Catalana (Torras i Bages 1892), and a number of Catalan political
entities such as Lliga de Catalunya and Lliga Regionalista, all combined to
contribute to the rising notion of an independent Catalan identity. One
notable development was the launch of the magazine L’Avenç (Progress), the
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first issue of which appeared in 1881, providing the Renaixença movement
with a means to publicize itself and spur the intellectual elite to embrace
Catalan culture. Perhaps the most relevant publication for our study is
Domènech i Montaner groundbreaking essay of 1878: En busca de una
arquitectura nacional (In Search of a National Architecture), specially if we take
in consideration that he was Gaudí’s teacher at university and must have been
an important influence on the already ‘Catalanist’ student. In his essay
Domènech analysed several architectural styles and pronounced them
inappropriate for Catalonia, he claimed that the Islamic, Romanesque and
Gothic heritages were the only valid ones for the creation of a more functional
approach – stressing a building’s structural rationale - and the creation of a
national architecture. This proved vitally important for the development of
the modernista style. Domènech managed to integrate architecture into the
Catalan cultural debate of Renaixença. The work of Gaudí would later become
the perfect illustration of Domènech’s thesis through the creation of a unique
(Catalan) style.
Gaudí was involved with some of the many new associations that
sprung up during the Catalan Renaixença and one of these was La Asociación
Catalanista de Excusiones Centíficas (Catalan Association of Scientific
Excursions), founded in 1876 with the aim of arranging excursions to local
sites of religious or historical importance. The extension and development of
the rail connections and roads that were taking place at the time allowed the
Catalans to more easily explore caves, peaks, rugged towns and the many
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Romanesque buildings of Catalonia. There was a general growing interest
and awareness of the Catalan cultural and natural richness, and celebrating
the Catalan natural resources became part of Renaixença spirit; the many
excurcionista societies were formed so that Catalans could rediscover their
splendid past. Gaudí joined La Asociación Catalanista de Excusiones Centíficas in
1879 and was actively participating in its events for many years; this would
allow him to explore the architecture of medieval Catalonia and also raise
awareness and contribute to the need of restoring some of the buildings. I
believe it is important to highlight that the biomorphic structures and
decoration we see in many of Gaudí’s works is not only a reference to natural
forms but also a proud homage to Catalonia’s natural resources. Gaudí was so
proud of his Catalan land that he is known to have renounced foreign
excursions, which can be confirmed by the following passage from Gijs Van
Hensbergen’s biography of the artist: “Once Gaudí was asked why he didn’t
travel more often. He replied brusquely, ‘Why should I? It’s the foreigners
who should come here, especially the north Europeans’.”1
Perhaps the most symbolically powerful manifestation of the
Reinaxença – and one that arouse the interest of Gaudí - was the reinstatement
of and ancient national poetry contest, the Jocs Florals (floral games), which
contributed to re-create national myths and revitalize the national traditions
and cultural heritage. During this cultural tournament Catalan poets would
read out hymns, odes and epics in Catalan and therefore celebrate the beauty
of their language and land. In 1877 the priest-poet Jacint Verdaguer who
1
Gijs Van Hensbergen, Gaudí, HarperCollins Publishers, 2001, page 65.
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presented an epic poem entitled L’Atlàntida, recounting the labours of
Hercules and the disappearance of Atlantis in a Spanish context, won the Jocs
Florals. Verdaguer’s work would eventually become an anthem of Catalan
Identity.
In the excursions with La Asociación Gaudí had the opportunity to
meet many potential patrons and also some other members of the intellectual
elite of Catalonia. In 1883 Gaudí met Verdaguer and initiated what would
become an important friendship not only for the architect but also for the
Catalan people for both artists shared a common sensibility and contributed
with a great dose of geniality to the political and cultural project of the
Renaixença. Gaudí greatly admired Verdaguer and eventually translated some
of the imagery created by the poet onto his architecture. In 1884 Gaudí
received his first major commission from the industrialist Eusebi Güell and it
is in the architecture of Finca Güell that we can identify sculptural features
that correspond to elements present in L’Atlantida. The wrought iron gate in
the shape of a dragon and the decoration of a brick pillar topped by a branch
of orange tree loaded with fruits find an inevitable analogy with the dragon
and the magic tree laden with golden oranges in Verdaguer’s masterpiece.
Gaudí and Verdaguer were important players in the historical process of
creation of references for the consolidation of the Catalan identity and
mythology to an extent that eventually transformed them in an integral part
of this symbolic universe.
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At this stage of Gaudí’s life his career was subject to an important
boost as he received the first important commission from his lifetime patron
Güell and also saw his name suddenly pronounced in the rank of Barcelona’s
top architects after accepting to continue the project of Sagrada Familia in 1883.
Gaudí enthusiastically set to work on the temple dedicated to Saint Joseph
and the Holy Family and the project fired his Christian ardour that until then
had lain dormant. This work would keep Gaudí busy for the rest of his life
and give him the opportunity to build a landmark that would be forever
embedded into the Catalan collective psyche and become an internationally
known symbol of not only Catalonia but also Spain.
Barcelona was to enter a period of even greater changes and
development with the preparations for the 1888 Universal Exposition. It came
as the perfect opportunity to firmly establish the trends of Modernisme as the
artistic manifestation of the Renaixença, which due to the great influx of
investment and architectural enterprises allowed a vast number of new
buildings to change the face of the city and evermore link the image of
Barcelona with its novel architecture. The Universal Exposition intended to
gather the most representative industrial and cultural production of all
countries and therefore was a perfect setting for disclosure and assertion for
the culture of the host country. Barcelona needed therefore to identify and
establish its own image, consequently impelling a self-assessment of cultural
roots and a wider search for the national identity; search that found its most
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loyal ally on the creative hands of architects like Domènech i Montaner, Puig i
Cadafalch and Antoni Gaudí.
No one more than Gaudí took Modernisme further. He not only
contributed with the process of renewing the image of Catalonia without
renouncing the traditional architecture and crafts but also wanted to make
Catalonia an example of rich and flourishing culture. His project for Park Güell
is a perfect illustration to support this statement.
At this stage it is worth bringing to light the importance and strength
of the association between the artist and his main patron, who provided
strong ideological grounds that were of core importance to the project of Park
Güell, which represents one of the most important expressions of cultural
aspirations in the new industrial era of fin-de-siècle Barcelona. Gaudí and
Eusebi Güell had developed a fruitful friendship that opened the way for the
artist to benefit from the valuable opportunity of counting on Güell’s financial
engagement and at the same time retain a good level of freedom to create
remarkable works. Güell trusted Gaudí for his skills and Gaudí admired
Güell for his righteous character, but these were not the only reasons why
their connection lasted twenty-five years, they also had important things in
common: they were equally enthusiastic Catalan patriots and both came from
the same province of Catalonia, which according to Pidal Menéndez: “The
fact of having been born in the same province creates among Spaniards a
sense of companionship and an obligation to help one another which is as
great as or even greater than that among relatives, and this causes them to
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become rigidly exclusive in dealing with others.”2. Gaudí and Güell both
believed in the integration of industrial advances and cultural heritage and
with the project of Park Güell combine forces to bring back traditional values
of Catalan society in a time marked with significant economical growth and
social and political transformations. The original idea behind Park Güell was
to set ground for the establishment of a community away from the problems
of the outside world, an enclave where the archetypes of Catalan culture and
religion could converge and harmonize with the novelties of engineering of
the new era. The social and political circumstances during the implementation
of the project combined with the strict limitations, imposed by Güell, for the
building of the houses by potential buyers led to the its commercial failure;
nevertheless the project was never abandoned and Güell took pride in
contributing to the construction of a new landmark for Barcelona and
Catalonia. Gaudí was commissioned to create the haven for an exemplary
Catalan community and at the same time reclaim Catalan identity and flaunt
local craft and nature. The park sets stage for a pilgrimage through the old
traditions and devotions of Catalan culture and presents a number of
references to the most distinguished national values. In the process of
preparing the ground and during the initial excavations at the site of Park
Güell, pre-historical fossils were discovered in numerous small caves later
associated with biblical cataclysms, which contributed to support the
proposed concept of a ‘holy’ ground for the new ‘temple’ of Catalan culture.
The architecture created by Gaudí would only confirm this, as the lay out of
2
Gijs Van Hensbergen, Gaudí, HarperCollins Publishers, 2001, page 84.
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the park takes us in a pilgrimage through Catalan traditions represented by
its many symbolic features. Gaudí created a design for the plan of the park
that inevitably directed the visitor through monumental sceneries, which was
a spectacle on its own and in consonance with the contemporary vogue of
valorising theatrical performances as a means to buttress the values of a
blooming bourgeoisie in the new cathedral: the opera house. Gaudí had a
strong interest in the performing arts and even carried out a commission for
the interior design a movie theatre called Sala Mercè, where the traditional
families of Barcelona would meet to watch screenings, poem reciting and
other cultural events. The reflection of Gaudí’s interest in theatre can be
recognized on many aspects of his works but especially at Park Güell. The
theatrical aspects of his work for the park are composed of symbolism and
heraldic ceremony and also the opportunity to see and make oneself seen. The
stairway that follows the main entrance concentrates the flux of visitors and
displays, in the central islets between the two flanks, three allegories to
Catalonia in the form of fountains. The first one is in the shape of a rugged
cave, the middle one is a serpent head in front of a shield with the colours of
the Catalan flag, and the third one is a green and blue dragon, both dragon
and serpent sculptures are finished in broken tiles - the so called trencadís – a
traditional decorative technique of Catalonia. All these three decorative
elements of the stairway carry a symbolic meaning and represent strong
references to Catalan culture. Both dragon and serpent are typical of the
Catalan heraldic tradition and the cave like fountain is a reference to local
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palaeontologic heritage and also to the many caves of Montserrat – the utmost
symbol of Catalan Christianity and identity.
A milestone of the process to resurrect the myths of Catalan cultural
identity was the celebration of the 1000th anniversary of the holy site of
Montserrat. The Virgin of Montserrat – a Romanesque black wooden statue of
the Virgin and Child supposedly found in a cave in the year 880 - was
designated the patron saint of Catalonia in 1881. The three-day pilgrimage to
the Montserrat monastery and caves in a site surrounded by rocky needle
mountains near Barcelona became a usual excursion for the Catalan people.
Gaudí made several visits to Montserrat and also designed the decoration for
a chapel in a grotto at one of the entrances to the holy cave, which included a
sculpture of Jesus by Catalan artist Josep Llimona and the red and yellow
heraldic shield of Catalonia. Montserrat played an important role in
establishing the Catalan fascination for the cave or grotto as an emblem of
their religiousness and Christian background; this is also due to the fact that
in the middle ages several polychrome images of the Virgin were found in
caves in the mountains of Catalonia and served as symbols for people’s
perseverance in keeping their Christian faith during the Muslim occupation.
When of the creation of Park Güell the importance of the sacred cavernous
mountains as a symbol of Catalonia had already been established and this
most certainly influenced the designs of Gaudí. With Park Güell Gaudí
creates spaces that evoke mountain sanctuaries, Christian catacombs, grottos
and cloisters, all elements commemorate the Christian heritage and are easily
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associated with the sacred site of Montserrat. Gaudí designed and built three
remarkable viaducts at Park Güell aiming to preserve the natural landscape
and topography of the site - Montaña Pelada - and at the same time create new
architectural allusions to the holy grounds of Catalonia. All without
distancing his works from his belief that structural designs should seek to
reflect the diversity and balance found in nature. These grotto-bridges
combine a great ingenious technique and traditional practice – such as the
bóveda tabicada catalana or Catalan vault walled with long, thin bricks on ribs
of brick - to purposely create a rugged, grotto-like appearance. Soon after its
opening to the public these features of Park Güell became an attraction for
excursionistas who used to photograph the site as if visiting a landmark of
Catalonia; Park Güell, after all, fitted the archetype of Catalan sacred cave and
mountain.
“Los excursionistas de principios del siglo XX se fotografiaban
entre los nichos gaudianianos y las columnas románicas que evocaban
ruinas antiguas, como si se tratase de una visita dominical a alguna gruta
o ermita de la Calaluña rural.”3
The aesthetic tendencies of the geomorphic forms of caves and
mountains can also be identified in other works of Gaudí, such as the façade
of Nacimiento at Sagrada Familia and Casa Milá. This only reinforces the idea
3
Conrad Kent & Dennis Prindle, Hacia la Architectura de un Paraíso, Hermann Blume Ediciones,
Madrid, 1992, page 116.
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that the works of Gaudí carry a heavy load of symbolism and consequently
support the Catalan ideal.
In consonance with the above premise there are some further remarks
to be made about the architecture of Park Güell. The stairway that follows the
main gate of the park – already discussed in this essay - leads to a colonnade
of a style resembling the Doric order in Greek architecture. The eighty-six
imposing columns that rise six metres from the ground create a structure
similar to a Greek temple built to house the community market. The
colonnade creates an impressive sight enhanced by the fact that visitors walk
up the stairway to find the extraordinary building that supports a large open
area called El Teatro Griego (The Greek Theatre). Even though Gaudí based his
of design for the colonnade on the Classical order, he believed each building
should have its own order and consequently made use of the Greek
architectural tradition in a very un-orthodox way. This is emphasised by the
use of slightly inclined columns for the outer row contrasting with the
straight columns in the inner rows, distancing itself from the neoclassic
tradition. We can never cease to reiterate the presence of reoccurring
symbolism in this project of Gaudí: the visitors entering the park go up the
stairs already amidst symbols of Catalonia to reach the top and face a templelike structure that supports a large open space dedicated to cultural
manifestations for the community. This set up can be compared with the
creation of a temple to Catalan culture as it is set up to glorify its expression
and achievements. It was in this monumental arena that the Catalan people of
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early twentieth century would gather on Sundays to perform their most
traditional dance - La Sardana - and participate in other cultural events; this
communitarian ritual was a renewed version of the balls that took place in
front of the Cathedral in the old gothic quarter. Gaudí’s architecture clearly
serves as a tribute and stage to celebrate and revive the culture of Catalonia.
Gaudí was a passionate supporter of the Catalan ideal and not only
used his architecture to express his patriotic feelings but also was an incentive
to people who worked for him and with him to put their local and traditional
crafts skills to use as he believed in the immense value of their culture.
Builders working on Park Güell were proud to see their skills help build what
would become one of the symbols for their nation. This can be confirmed with
the following passage:
“Fructuoso Manà, arquitecto de Barcelona y asesor de la
restauración del parque, ha señalado que la improvisación en las
estructuras del parque no es sólo obra de Gaudí, su arquitecto, sino
también de los artesanos que se enorgullecían de la ingeniosa aplicación de
sus habilidades a la tarea que estaban realizando.” 4
The use of trencadís on the benches built on the edges of Teatro Griego, above
the market colonnade, is a good example of the ingenious application of the
traditional local crafts, wonderfully accomplished under the supervision of
Gaudí’s assistant, the architect Josep Marià Jujol.
4
Conrad Kent & Dennis Prindle, Hacia la Architectura de un Paraíso, Hermann Blume Ediciones,
Madrid, 1992, page 71.
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Gaudí’s work was always based on structural laws, craft traditions,
deep experience of nature and absolute dedication, but above all he believed
that originality meant going back to one’s origins and therefore, throughout
his carrier, the artist applied a number of techniques, materials, ornaments
and styles that represented an adaptation of the rich Catalan legacy,
coinciding with the ideal of Modernisme, which stood for an eclectic
architecture that looked to the past for inspiration and transformed
architecture with the appliance of new structural techniques. The use of
brickwork for Colegio Teresiano, the Catalan vaulting for the crypt of the
Colonia Güell church, tile work for Casa Vicens, the use or wrought ironwork
on the façade of Palau Güell, the neo-gothic inspiration for Sagrada Familia and
the stained glass of Casa Batlló are all reflections of Gaudí’s creativity in reshaping Catalan tradition. It comes as no surprise that today Gaudí’s works
are internationally recognized symbols of Catalonia and it could not be
otherwise for the reason that many of his works are the metamorphosed
architectural and sculptural versions of traditional symbols of that country.
No other symbol of Barcelona is more representative of Catalan
cultural identity today than the temple of Sagrada Familia and for the very
religious Gaudí it was – as he believed - a unique opportunity to construct a
three-dimensional record of the history and credo of the Catholic faith and
take the long noble tradition of Christian architecture on into the new century
and most likely beyond and therefore place Catalonia at the centre of
Christendom. Even Gaudí’s accidental death at the age of seventy-three,
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which left the project unfinished, would not prevent the expiatory temple
from embedding itself firmly and forever into the Catalan collective psyche.
Gaudí’s strive for universality, obsessive dedication to his work, strong
patriotic feelings and belief in the concept of the total work of art, which
translated onto his unique architecture, all combined to place him, without
doubt, in the position of Catalan hero since he spent his life dedicating to
promote Catalan cultural values. Following the death of Gaudí in 1926 an
important newspaper of Barcelona – La Veu de Catalunya - was quick to
recognise his outstanding achievements and published: ‘In Barcelona a genius
has died! In Barcelona a saint has passed away! Even the stones cry for him.’5
The distinctiveness of Gaudí’s architecture is present in several corners
of Barcelona today, therefore contributing to its recognition as part of the
national identity and consequently also for the outsider who inevitably
associates his works with Catalonia and Spain. Today Gaudí’s style has
somewhat become Barcelona’s style. His creations have consolidated their
status as symbols of city and we can no longer think of Barcelona without
bringing to mind one of his fabulous works. We also see his creative brilliancy
reproduced in Barcelona, for instance, one of the most noteworthy examples
is the hexagonal floor tiles that cover the pavements of an important
boulevard of the Catalan capital, Passeig de Gràcia, and for which one of
Gaudí’s decorative patterns was used. Gaudí has himself become synonym to
what is Catalan and himself a symbol of Catalonia.
5
Gijs Van Hensbergen, Gaudí, HarperCollins Publishers, 2001, page 266.
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Concluding, the phenomenon Gaudí was not an isolated and
anomalous event, the development of his geniality is closely related to the
opportunities and historical setting that enabled the artist to let his creativity
flow and explore his potential. The strong economical expansion of Barcelona,
the increase of capitalization of local investors, the rapid populational growth
are key factors that created the right financial settings to support the
development of a flourishing cultural production and more importantly
ploughed the fields for the creative seeds of enthusiasts of Catalan culture.
The economical advantageous situation was combined with a growing feeling
of patriotism among the Catalan people and an increasing search for national
identity, as the intellectual elite gathered to unite their belief in the prowess of
Catalan heritage. The revival of important cultural events, such as the Jocs
Florals and the challenge put forth by the Universal Exposition triggered the
Catalan will to more clearly define their own image and identity creating the
perfect opportunity to re-examine them. All sets the perfect conditions for an
ideologist like Gaudí to thrive and create unique works of art that were to
forever change the imagery of the nation. Gaudí, more than any other
architect of the Renaixença, re-vitalized the Catalan iconography and his work,
year after year, conquers its right as an inimitable and unrivalled artistic
creation - firmly claiming the merit Catalan architecture deserves. Gaudí
would have never been able to produce such architectural marvel had it not
been the advantageous cultural, economical and political circumstances of finde-siècle Barcelona and likewise Barcelona would never have attained to
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establish such a distinct cultural identity without the innovative works of
Gaudí.
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Hensbergen, Gijs Van, Gaudí, Harper Collins Publishers,
London, 2001
Hughes, Robert, Barcelona, The Harvill Press, London, 1992
Kent, Conrad & Prindle, Dennis, Hacia la Arquitectura de un
Paraíso: Park Güell, Hermann Blume Ediciones, Madrid, 1992
Marco, José María, La Libertad Traicionada, Editorial Planeta
S.A., Barcelona, 1997
Mendoza, Cristina y Eduardo, Barcelona Modernista, Editorial
Seix Barral, Barcelona, 2003
Nonell, Juan Bassegoda, Antonio Gaudí – Master Architect,
Translation by Jeanne D’Andrea, Abbeville Press Publishers,
New York, 2000
Thiébaut, Philippe, Gaudí – Builder of Visions, Thames and
Hudson, London, 1992
Ubero, Lina & Magallón, Dolors (Ed.), Gaudí i Verdaguer,
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