Chapter 3 Excavations Tol e Nurabad PROOF

31 Chapter 3. Excavations at Tol-e Nurabad L.R. Weeks, K.S. Alizadeh, L. Niakan and K. Alamdari (Trench A) A. Khosrowzadeh and M. Zeidi (Trench B) 3.1. Site Description and Surroundings Tol-e Nurabad is a large, flat-topped mound on the outskirts of the town of Nurabad, covering around 9 ha and standing 23 m above the height of the surrounding plain (Figures 3.1. and 3.2). Approximately 200 m to the north-northwest of the main mound, and separated from it by the perennial Korr-e Sangān stream, is a second large, low mound (4 m high) of approximately 3-4 ha (Figure 3.3). Both mounds sit in the middle of the fertile Dasht-e Nurabad, at an elevation of approximately 965 m above sea level. Before the excavations were commenced, the entire mounded area of the site and a great deal of the surrounding area was surveyed three-dimensionally, using a Sokkia Set 5A Total Station and SDR 31 data logger. This survey included the establishment of a site datum, and the creation of a site grid aligned to magnetic north. In total, 1569 data points were recorded, with their easting and northing coordinates and absolute elevation being measured relative to the site datum, which was situated on the highest point of the main mound at E51º 31.273’ N30º 07.344’ at a height of 988 metres above sea level, as determined with a handheld Garmin GPS 12 Personal Navigator®. This three-dimensional data was used to produce the contour plans and digital elevation models illustrated in Figures 3.2, 3.3 and 3.6. Tappeh Sorna (MS-1) the next largest site in Mamasani. Tappeh Sorna lies on the main communication route between the Kur River Basin and lowland Khuzestan. The position and size of Tol-e Nurabad, especially from the Bronze Age onwards, may thus reflect its location on the inland route linking the lowlands with Bushehr and the south, and its ideal position approximately one day’s travel from Tappeh Sorna. The location of Tol-e Nurabad was no doubt influenced by the Korr-e Sangān stream (Figure 3.4), and evidence from both excavation and surface ceramic distributions suggests that the earliest periods of occupation at the site in the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods may have been concentrated in the northern section of the main mound, i.e. the part closest to the modern course of the stream. This suggests that the course of the Korr-e Sangān may have remained relatively constant from the MidHolocene, although it is not possible at this stage to verify such a hypothesis. On a regional scale, Tol-e Nurabad is located approximately 30 km to the south of Regional survey (see Chapter 6) indicates that Tol-e Nurabad is the largest prehistoric settlement in the Mamasani District and surface ceramic collections document a long period of occupation of the site, from at least the pottery Neolithic to the Post-Achaemenid period. Thus, a number of indicators suggested that the excavations at the site had the potential to contribute significantly to our understanding of the archaeology of Fars, and the Mamasani District in particular. Excavation of the site was also prioritised due to the threat of damage and destruction of both the main and subsidiary mound due to modern agriculture. Due to their location on prime agricultural land, both the main mound and the lower northwest mound have been significantly damaged by wheat and rice cultivation and by other earth-moving projects. On the main mound this has taken the form of the flattening and ploughing of the top of the mound for agricultural purposes, the construction of roads leading onto and off the mound, and the cutting of a large slice through the north-eastern section of the mound. Furthermore, the southern portions of the main mound are being encroached upon by houses, roads, and a market belonging to the modern town of Nurabad. On the northwest mound a large cut, perhaps for agricultural purposes, has resulted in the removal of more than a metre of deposit from the south-western third of the mound (Figures 3.2 and 3.3) 3.2. Stratigraphy, Phasing, and Architecture of Tol-e Nurabad 3.2.1. Excavation Methodology Excavations took place at Tol-e Nurabad in FebruaryMarch and June-July 2003, with the initial aims of establishing the periods of occupation at the site and, in tandem with the excavations at Tol-e Spid (see Chapter 4), obtaining a stratigraphically-controlled ceramic sequence for the Mamasani District. To this end, two small (c. 2x2 m) stepped test trenches were excavated at the site (Figures 3.5 and 3.6): Trench A was located on the rough 11 m high section created by the steep cut into the north-eastern edge of the main mound, and was excavated from a scaffold erected against the face (Figure 3.7). This sounding continued approximately 5 m into the archaeological deposits at the base of the standing section. Trench B was located near the top of the main mound on another rough section created by a road cutting, in a location where a scaffold excavation was not necessary. Trench B thus sampled the highest and latest deposits on the site, and was excavated to a depth of approximately 7 m. This was equivalent to the absolute elevation at the top of Trench A, which was excavated to 32 a depth of more than 15 m and which contained material from the earlier occupational phases at the site. Excavation proceeded by the identification and removal of discretely stratified deposits, which were the product of either natural deposition or anthropogenic processes. If more than 20 cm of deposit was removed across the excavated trench with no detectable change in the nature of the deposit, arbitrary horizontal stratigraphic divisions (c.20 cm deep) were employed until changes in natural stratigraphy were observed. These natural and artificial deposits represent the smallest excavation units at the site, and were referred to as loci and numbered consecutively from 1 to 175 (Trench A) and 300 to 350 (Trench B). Each locus was recorded on a separate sheet, where the nature of the deposit was defined (e.g. pit, wall, floor, hearth, collapse, fill, etc.) through the selection of a relevant tick-box and a written description. The location and extent of each locus was drawn in plan, and absolute levels were taken so that it could be defined in threedimensional space. The use and recording of both natural and arbitrary layers allowed for the collection of material remains from recognisable anthropogenic deposits and, in the cases where natural stratigraphy went unrecognized, the possibility of correlating artificial levels with natural stratigraphic levels observed later during section cleaning and drawing. The stratigraphic relationships of the various loci were determined during excavation, and are illustrated using a standard Harris matrix in Figure 3.8 (Trench A) and Figure 3.43 (Trench B). The deposits visible in each vertical section of the sounding were drawn at a scale of 1:20, and this section drawing was progressively added to as the excavations proceeded. Each section was scanned and digitally rendered in the post-excavation period (see Figures 3.9-10 for Trench A and Figures 3.44-45 for Trench B). Excavation was undertaken relatively quickly, utilizing predominantly pick, shovel and trowel. Deposits were not routinely sieved, with the exception of the Neolithic levels from Trench A (loci 115-175), which were drysieved through a 3 mm mesh. Deposits that were not sieved were examined by hand with a trowel, and all cultural material was collected before the soil matrix was removed. The cultural artefacts recovered from each locus were placed in a clean plastic bag together with a label marked with the date, site name, the trench designation, the locus number and a description of the type of material. This created a permanent connection between the artefacts and the locus they were excavated from, served to locate the artefact in three-dimensional space, and ensured that each artefact had a specific provenience. 3.2.2. Stratigraphic Phasing Methodology Subsequent to excavation and recording in the field, individual loci were combined into larger groups referred to herein as phases. Phase numbers start at the top (highest point) of the trench, and at Tol-e Nurabad are preceded by the Trench designation. Thus, Trench A phases (Figures 3.8, 3.10) are numbered Phase A1 (surface) to Phase A28 (sterile clay at the base of the trench). Trench B phases (Figure 3.43, 3.45) are numbered Phase B1 (surface) to Phase B9 (Middle Elamite deposits at the base of the trench where excavations were halted). Phases are subjective constructs. At Tol-e Nurabad, a phase represents a group of excavated loci that can be related to occupation of a specific building, or during a specific time period. The phasing is most reliable and useful when the grouped loci can be associated with a particular architectural feature. For example, the Neolithic deposits in Trench A Phases A20-A26 consist of building levels superimposed directly one upon the other, and the recognition and grouping of the loci associated with a particular structure is relatively straightforward. It is assumed that the loci that make up such a phase must all have been deposited over a relatively short time, perhaps a few generations, equivalent to the use and eventual abandonment or destruction of the architectural unit. Such a hypothesis is supported by the radiocarbon determinations for Neolithic phases at Tol-e Nurabad (see Section 3.7), which suggest a short duration for the construction and use of these buildings. However, much of the deposit in Trench A lacks clear structural/architectural elements. In such a case, phases were defined not only from the evidence of stratigraphy, but also by the examination of changes in associated material culture, especially ceramics. The problem with assigning phases to such deposits is that, unlike loci associated with a specific building or structure, the period over which the loci were deposited is unknown and could have been relatively short or relatively long. Moreover, choosing the exact point at which to end one phase and begin another is an inherently subjective process. Nevertheless, the phases produced for such deposits serve to group the archaeological loci into manageable units whose chronology, depositional history, and material culture remains can be constructively investigated and summarized. 3.2.3. Trench A Phase Descriptions The stratigraphy and phasing of the excavated deposits from Tol-e Nurabad are described below on a phase-byphase basis. The individual loci comprising each phase and their stratigraphic relationships are illustrated in Figure 3.8, and the sections are illustrated in Figures 3.9 and 3.10 (with phasing). Individual loci that cannot be exclusively assigned to a specific phase are listed in square brackets (e.g. [172]) in the text of this section and in the subsequent discussion of the pottery from Trench A. For each phase, a description of the probable absolute age of the deposits is given, based upon consideration of ceramics and, where available, radiocarbon determinations. Such chronological information is presented in a highly abbreviated form in this section, and readers are referred to Sections 3.3 (Pottery) and 3.7 (Radiocarbon) for more detailed presentation of the data. 33 Phase A28 Extent: Exposed over an area of 1 x 2 m, with a maximum depth greater than 0.3 m. Description: This phase represents the sterile buff/light orange clay layer (Locus 175) underlying the earliest occupation in Trench A (Phase A27). Culture Period: none. Phase A27 (Figures 3.11, 3.13) Extent: Exposed over an area of 1 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.53 m. Description: This is the first occupation layer in the Trench A area, comprising a thick brown clayey deposit (Locus 174) with a small patch of burning in the southeast corner of the trench that probably represents the remains of a fireplace. Culture Period: The deposit is characterised by chaff-tempered pottery of Mushki type. A radiocarbon date on charcoal from Locus 174 (WK13989) produced a calibrated date around the middle of the 6th millennium BC, however this material must be contaminated as the date is significantly younger than radiocarbon dates from subsequent phases. An actual date in the late 7th or early 6th millennium BC seems most probable (see Section 3.7 for a fuller discussion). Phase A26 (Figures 3.12-3.13) Extent: Exposed over an area of 1 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.37 m. Description: This phase is the first at the site with clear evidence for architecture. This consists of a mudbrick wall (Locus 171) running northwest-southeast at eastern end of trench, and associated fill (Locus 170, [172]). The wall survives to a height of five courses of mudbrick (0.37m) and maximum thickness of c. 0.30 m. The bricks are very thin and grey, and set with a buff coloured mud mortar. Culture Period: The deposits of this phase are characterised by the presence of classic Mushki chafftempered pottery and pottery similar to the upper layers at Tall-i Mushki (TMB Trench), suggesting that it should be placed in the period of transition from the Mushki to Jari assemblages well known in the Kur River Basin. A radiocarbon date from Locus 170 (WK13990) has a 2σ calibrated range in the first three centuries of the 6th millennium BC and is consistent with a series of dates from higher phases. Phase A25 (Figures 3.13-3.14) Extent: Exposed over an area of 1 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.35 m. Description: This is the second Neolithic period structural phase, consisting of a mudbrick wall at the eastern end of trench, running northeast-southwest, and associated fill. The wall survives to a height of four courses of mudbrick (0.35 m). Bricks are light grey, with buff coloured mud mortar and the wall is faced with a thick layer (up to 6 cm) of buff coloured mud plaster. The phase is capped by a layer of grey sandy clay up to 5 cm thick, which runs across the whole excavation unit. Culture Period: The deposits of this phase are characterised by the presence of rare (residual) Mushki chaff-tempered pottery and pottery similar to Mushki-Jari transitional material seen in Phase A26. A radiocarbon date from Locus 167 (OZI128) has a 2σ calibrated range of 5980-5730 BC, and is consistent with the series of dates from earlier and later Neolithic phases. Phase A24b (Figures 3.15-3.19) Extent: Exposed over an area of 1 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.96 m. Description: This is the third Neolithic period structural phase, comprising two walls in the eastern and central potions of trench and associated fill. The tallest wall (Locus 159 at top) runs northeast-southwest and is of light brown coloured chineh, with a coating of yellowish-buff coloured mud plaster. It survives to a height of nearly 1 metre with an average thickness of c.40 cm. The second wall (Locus 158 at top) is of similar construction material, technique, and colour and survives to a height of 0.75 m, with a maximum thickness of c.35 cm. From the southern balk it runs parallel and adjacent to the Locus 159 wall for 50-60 cm, before turning perpendicular (northwest) for a distance of c.80 cm and ending. The associated fill to the west of these walls (Locus 155 at top) is full of evidence for burning: charcoal and ashy layers, a great deal of burnt animal bone, in addition to numerous rounded river cobbles (Figs. 3.18, 3.19). The packing between the walls is visible in the south section, and was light brown coloured like the walls, but with a higher concentration of charcoal inclusions. The associated fill to the east of the walls (Locus 156 at top) was light brown sandy clay with some evidence for burning, in the form of charcoal inclusions (charcoal was particularly concentrated in the layers towards the base of the walls), and patches of mudbrick collapse. Culture Period: Pottery of this phase shows technological continuity from preceding phases, but a range of new decorative motifs that are not easily paralleled in the Kur River Basin. Nevertheless, a radiocarbon date from Locus 163 (WK13991) has a 2σ calibrated range indistinguishable from the analysed charcoal from Phase A26. Phase A24a (Figures 3.20-3.21) Extent: Exposed over an area of 1 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.43 m. Description: This is the fourth Neolithic period structural phase, labelled A24a as it seems to represent a wall rebuilding (Locus 152) directly on top of the Phase A24b wall, on the same alignment, although using mudbricks rather than chineh construction. The mudbricks are light brown, and are set in a grey mud mortar. Although not visible in the section, excavations in the trench suggest that the wall may have been faced with a thin (c.2 cm) layer of buff coloured mud plaster. The addition stands to a height of c.20 cm, incorporating four courses of mudbrick. The associated fill to the west (loci 149, 151) is of brown sandy clay, with a concentration of ash, charcoal, and river cobbles in the southwest corner of the trench (possibly a hearth?). To the east of the wall, the fill (loci 150, 153) consists of buff coloured, denser sandy clay with a low concentration of charcoal flecks. 34 Culture Period: The pottery of this phase resembles that of Phase A24b. Phase A23 (Figure 3.22) Extent: Exposed over an area of 1 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.45 m. Description: This is the fifth Neolithic period structural phase. It comprises a mudbrick wall (Locus 148) at the eastern end of the trench, and associated fill (loci 144-147). The wall runs Nnortheast-Ssouthwest and is comprised of grey mudbricks in a light brown mud mortar. The wall survives to a height of c.30 cm (2-3 courses of mudbrick). The associated fill to the west of the wall is of brown sandy clay, with some concentrations of bricky collapse (Fig. 3.22) and areas of burning, in addition to patches of grey (water-lain?) clay visible particularly at the western end of the trench. Culture Period: Pottery of this phase resembles Phases A24a-b, and a radiocarbon date from Locus 147 (WK13992) has a 2σ calibrated range indistinguishable from the analysed charcoal samples from Phases A26 and A24b. Phase A22 (Figure 3.23) Extent: Exposed over an area of 1 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.40 m. Description: This is the sixth Neolithic period structural phase, comprised of a mudbrick wall (Locus 140) at the eastern end of the trench and associated fill. The wall runs northeast-southwest, on exactly the same alignment as the Phase A24 walls even though separated by a building (Phase A23) constructed on a different alignment. The Phase A22 wall is built of grey mudbricks with a light brown clay mortar, with a width of c.30 cm and surviving to a height of c.40 cm. An extension of the wall to the northwest may have existed, although this was very difficult to trace both in plan and during subsequent examination of the section. The associated fill to the north and west (Locus 139) was of relatively loose, brown sandy clay, with concentrated areas of ash and charcoal and orange-brown burnt patches. To the east of the wall, the fill (Locus 141) was brown sandy clay with a low concentration of charcoal flecks. Culture Period: Chaff-tempered pottery in the same style as seen in the immediately preceding phases continues into Phase A22. these layers are walls (loci 129, 134, 135) which were quite difficult to delineate during excavation and hard to see in section. The walls appear to have been made of grey mudbrick, perhaps faced with a yellow/buff mud plaster, which survived to a maximum height of c.20 cm. The clearest section of wall follows the alignment seen in earlier phases, i.e. northeast-southwest, and has a maximum width of 25-30 cm. The bricks that make up this wall can be seen most clearly in the east section. The associated fill to the north and west (loci 128, 131, 133) was of grey-brown sandy clay, with an increasing concentration of ash and charcoal patches towards the lower levels of the wall(s). The associated fill to the east of the wall (loci 130, 132) was of relatively dense light brown clay, with some patches of bricky texture. Culture Period: The pottery assemblage of this phase is similar to that of the immediately preceding layers. Phase A20 (Figures 3.27-3.29) Extent: Exposed over an area of 1.5 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.50 m. Description: This is the eighth Neolithic period structural phase and is represented by the construction of a hearth, located in the southwest corner of the trench, and the fill that built up over this feature. The hearth shows multiple phases of construction and use (loci 120125), represented by burnt orange clay structural features (floors/walls) with overlying ashy, charcoal-filled deposits. The exact shape of the hearth is uncertain, but it appears to have been sub-rectangular, with an internal width of c.50 cm, and an external width of up to 70 cm reflecting the construction of a collar of grey mud or mudbricks (Locus 126) to create a solid base for the feature. Excavation and section drawings demonstrate the presence of at least two small pits that were dug through the burnt clay structures of the hearth, at different periods in the history of its use. The fill overlying the hearth (loci [118], 119, [127]) is a relatively loose, patchy grey-brown sandy clay deposit. Culture Period: The Phase A20 pottery assemblage is relatively small, but nevertheless similar to previous phases. Moreover, a radiocarbon date from Locus 123 (WK13993) has a 2σ calibrated range of c.5800-5600 BC, only slightly younger than the analysed charcoal samples from Phases A26 and A24b. Phase A19 (Figures 3.30-3.31) Phase A21 (Figures 3.24-3.26) Extent: Exposed over an area of 1.5 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.30 m. Description: This is the seventh Neolithic period structural phase. The transition between Phase A21 and the preceding Phase A22 was difficult to discern both during excavation and in the examination of the sections. The lower levels of Phase A21 appear to be nonarchitectural: Locus 137 is a brown sandy clay deposit with numerous patches of bricky texture and colour varying in colour from buff to light brown to grey. It is cut by a shallow pit (Locus 136, see Fig. 3.26), filled with grey sandy clay, in the southwest corner of the trench. It is difficult to say whether these deposits belong more clearly to Phase A21 or the preceding Phase A22. Above Extent: Exposed over an area of 1.5 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.65 m. Description: This is the ninth Neolithic period structural phase. As for the preceding Phase A20, this phase is represented by the construction of a hearth in the southwest corner of the trench (Locus 117) and the fill that built up over this feature (loci 111-116). The hearth is not as elaborately constructed as that of Phase A20, but there is nevertheless a concentration of burnt river cobbles and one larger limestone rock, in a matrix of grey ashy clay and charcoal (Fig. 3.30). The deposits to the north and east of the hearth (Locus 116) show numerous patches of compact clay of red, ochre-like colour, which may represent a floor. The fill which built up over this possible floor and the hearth area is of patchy buff-grey 35 clay, with some loci having a more bricky texture (Locus 114) and others having many gritty/gravelly inclusions (Locus 113). The deposits of this phase are capped with a burnt deposit sloping strongly from west-southwest to east-northeast (Locus 111). Culture Period: Although the co-incident location of hearths in Phases A20 and A19 suggests continuity, there are some differences in the ceramic assemblages of the two phases, particularly the first (rare) occurrence of sandy buff wares with brown/black painted decoration. A radiocarbon date from Locus 117 (WK13994) has a 2σ calibrated range of c.4850-4600 BC, a millennium later than the analysed charcoal sample from Phase A20. This late dating is supported by an additional radiocarbon date from Locus 113 (OZI129), which has a similar 2σ calibrated range of c.4940-4680 BC, Phase A18 Extent: Exposed over a maximum area of c.2 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.65 m. Description: This phase is without structural/architectural elements, consisting only of layers of grey and light-brown/brown sandy clay fill (loci 110, 112), sloping from west-southwest to east-northeast. Patches with concentrations of small river cobbles were seen in the upper levels of this deposit (Locus 110), while the lower levels (Locus 112) showed some nearhorizontal, buff clay levels perhaps representing floors (visible only in section). The Phase A18 layers are capped by a thick (c.15-35 cm) grey clay deposit (Locus 109) with a great deal of ash and charcoal as well as patches of small river cobbles (as seen in Locus 110). The deposit also slopes strongly from west-southwest to eastnortheast. Culture Period: This phase witnessed the first predominant use of Bakun-related painted buff wares, although a small proportion of chaff-tempered wares were also found. A radiocarbon date from Locus 109 (OZI130) falls into the late fifth millennium BCE, but seems to be a clear example of residual or contaminated material. A date c.4800-4600 BC is suggested by the radiocarbon determinations dates from the preceding Phase A19. Description: This is the first Bakun period phase with a structural component, and incorporates a hearth (Locus 103) located near the southwest corner of the trench and associated fill deposited above (loci 98, 102). The hearth consists of a clearly delineated concentration of small river cobbles with a great deal of charcoal and ash. It is round or sub-circular (diameter c.80 cm) with a maximum depth of 18 cm. The thick (c.50 cm) buff coloured sandy clay layer that covers the hearth has a high concentration of white (gypsum?) inclusions, and slopes significantly from west to east. Culture Period: This phase is typified by painted buff ware, a number of near-complete examples of which can be paralleled in the upper layers of Tall-i Gap in the Kur River Basin (see Section 3.3.2). The ceramic indicators therefore suggest a date towards the end of the Middle Bakun Period, although a radiocarbon date from Locus 103 (WK13996) of c.4800-4500 BC (2σ calibrated) is very similar to that from the terminal Neolithic period deposits of Phase A19. Phase A15 Extent: Exposed over a maximum area of c.2 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.50 m. Description: This phase comprises a thick layer of undifferentiated buff coloured sandy clay sloping from west-southwest to east-northeast, with some grey and white (gypsum?) floor-like layers in the southwest corner of the trench. A possible post-hole observed in Locus 96 is the only evidence for structural features in this phase. Culture Period: Painted and plain Bakun buff wares are the only ceramic types recorded in this phase. Phase A14 (Figure 3.33) Extent: Exposed over a maximum area of c.2 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 1.30 m. Description: This phase comprises a very thick layer of buff to light brown sandy clay, with some concentrations of white (gypsum?) inclusions, sloping strongly from west to east. Possible post-holes (Locus 92) cutting Locus 91 represent the only structural component of this phase. Culture Period: Painted and plain buff wares remain the only ceramic types recorded in Phase A14. Phase A17 Extent: Exposed over a maximum area of c.2 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 1.10 m. Description: This is another non-structural phase. It is comprised of a thick (0.7-1.0 m), buff sandy clay layer (loci 105-108), with some gypsum(?) and charcoal patches, overlying the burnt deposits of Phase A18. The layer slopes strongly from west-southwest to eastnortheast, suggesting that at this period of its occupation, higher parts of the settlement mound lay to the southwest of Trench A. Culture Period: Bakun-related Buff wares are the only ceramic type used in this phase. Phase A13 (Figure 3.33) Extent: Exposed over a maximum area of c.2 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.80 m. Description: This phase comprises strongly sloping layers of grey sandy clay and overlying layers of buff coloured sandy clay, up to 80 cm thick, that seem to have built up to form a level surface under the wall of Phase A12b. Culture Period: The deposits of this phase were difficult to differentiate during excavation from the upper Phase A14 deposits, but have been given a separate phase designation due to the first appearance of red-slipped Lapui pottery alongside the sandy buff wares. Phase A16 (Figure 3.32) Extent: Exposed over a maximum area of c.2 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.60 m. Phase A12b (Figure 3.34) Extent: Exposed over a maximum area of c.2 x 1 m, with a maximum depth of 0.88 m. 36 Description: This is the first clear post-Bakun structural phase in Trench A. It consists of a wall in the western half of the trench made of grey mudbricks in a buff clay mortar and preserved to a maximum height of 0.88 m, equivalent to six courses of mudbrick in places. The clearest segment of the wall (loci 78 and 83) incorporates one row of square mudbricks c.29x32x8 cm, running approximately north-south. Culture Period: Red-slipped Lapui pottery continues to characterise this phase. A radiocarbon date from Locus 78 (OZI134) has produced a 2σ calibrated range from c.3640-3370 BC, suggesting Phase A12b can be dated to the Late Lapui period. Phase A12a Extent: Exposed over a maximum area of c.2 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.80 m. Description: This phase represents the gently-sloping whitish-buff coloured sandy clay fill (loci 69-73, 77, 79) overlying the Phase A12b wall. The fill is heterogeneous, incorporating in particular some grey patchy areas. Culture Period: Red-slipped Lapui pottery, as seen in Phases A12b and A13, characterises this phase. The radiocarbon date from Phase A12b provide a terminus post quem, suggesting a Late Lapui period date for Phase A12a. Phase A11 Extent: Exposed over a maximum area of c.2 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.55 m. Description: This phase is comprised of a gently sloping layer of light brown sandy clay (loci 65-67) with rare grey patches and some white (gypsum?), sloping floor-like levels at the west end of the trench. Culture Period: Red-slipped Lapui pottery continues to occur in this phase, which is distinguished by the first appearance of bevelled-rim bowl sherds, a type associated with the Susa II and III periods in lowland Khuzestan and with Terminal Lapui and Banesh period deposits in the Kur River Basin. A radiocarbon date (OZI132) from Locus 68 (Phase A11-12a) that contained the earliest bevelled-rim bowl sherd recorded in Trench A has provided a 2σ calibrated range from 3650-3100 BC. Phase A10 Extent: Exposed over a maximum area of c.2 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.65 m. Description: This phase consists of a series of interdigitated grey and grey-brown layers of sandy clay and thin, white (gypsum?) floor-like levels, with some loci (e.g. loci 63 and 64) showing clear evidence for burning. Culture Period: Red-slipped wares, residual Bakun buff wares, grit-tempered wares, and bevelled-rim bowls co-occur in the ceramic assemblage from Phase A10, and a radiocarbon date from Locus 64 (WK13998) has produced a 2σ calibrated range from 3640-3360 BC. The evidence of ceramics and radiocarbon supports the proposition that the Phase A10 deposits are chronologically transitional from the Lapui to the Banesh period, most likely belonging to the Initial or Early Banesh period. Phase A9 Extent: Exposed over a maximum area of c.2 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.55 m. Description: This phase consists of a thick layer of mostly densely-packed, sandy clay (loci 52, 54-59) varying in colour from light grey to light brown, with a low concentration of charcoal flecks or other evidence for burning. Culture Period: The pottery assemblage has numerous chaff- and grit-tempered forms (bevelled-rim bowls, goblets, spouted vessels) typical of the Middle Banesh period in the Kur River Basin. Phase A8 (Figure 3.35) Extent: Exposed over a maximum area of c.2 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.45 m. Description: This phase consists of a series of sandy clay layers varying in colour from grey to brown, interspersed with what appear to be floor levels. The clearest of these floors is the lowest (Locus 52), which is relatively thick (c.4 cm) and composed of white gypsumlike gravel. This feature was found only at the southern edge of the trench, but was clearly visible during both excavation and section drawing. A similarly-constructed floor level (Locus 48) is found 10-15 cm higher. The white gypsum gravel in this floor is less concentrated than in Locus 51, and the floor is most clearly visible in the western half of the trench. Above this floor is another brown sandy clay layer (Locus 47), before another concentration of white gypsum-like material (Locus 46) which might represent a floor level, again visible in the western half of the trench only. This floor is much less gravelly than the lower floors of Phase A8, with a more plaster-like appearance and texture. This floor is overlain by another brown sandy clay layer (Locus 45) and a clearly-visible grey layer of sandy clay with patches of ash and charcoal. This burnt layer (Locus 44) slopes gently from west to east and is up to 10 cm thick, becoming thinner towards its eastern end. It stretches across almost the entirety of the excavated square but the burning is more concentrated in the western portion of the trench. Culture Period: Typical Middle Banesh period pottery continues to be found in this phase, and the chronological assignation is supported by a radiocarbon date from Locus 45 (WK13999) with a 2σ calibrated range of 3360-3010 BC. Phase A7 (Figures 3.36-3.37) Extent: Exposed over a maximum area of c.2 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.4 m. Description: This phase (loci 40-42) is defined by a relatively thick and clearly delineable layer of light brown sandy clay with a high concentration of white limestone river cobbles. The layer runs across most of the excavated square, sloping gently from west to east, although the cobbles are concentrated more at the eastern end of the trench (Fig. 3.36). The cobble layer can in fact be seen to extend many metres to the east of Trench A in the large cut through the northern edge of the mound (Fig. 3.37), showing a significant downward slope from 37 west to east. There are some patches of ash and charcoal to be seen amongst the cobbles. Culture Period: Middle Banesh grit- and chafftempered pottery forms continue into this phase. Phase A6 Extent: Exposed over a maximum area of c.2 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.3 m. Description: This phase comprises layers of light brown to light grey sandy clay, varying in compactness, with a significant concentration of charcoal flecks (particularly in Locus 39). At the northeast corner of the trench is a concentration of river cobbles (Locus 36) covering an area of c.1x0.4 m. Examination of the section indicates some patches of ash and charcoal that can be associated with the cobbles. Culture Period: The pottery of this phase suggests occupation in the Middle to Late Banesh Period, with the latter date supported by the radiocarbon determination from Locus 37 (OZI135) with a 2σ calibrated range of 2890-2580 BC. Phase A5 Extent: Exposed over a maximum area of c.2 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.62 m. Description: A layer consisting of light brown sandy clay (loci 25, 30, 32, 33) across the trench, with small variations in colour and compactness. The deposits of this phase are differentiable from the lower Phase A6 deposits by the lack of charcoal flecks, although the phasing change was also warranted by the first appearance of clay “wall cones” in Locus 33 (see Section 3.5). Culture Period: The chronological position of this phase is difficult to discern based purely upon the excavated ceramic assemblage, which has a number of elements suggestive of a post-Banesh period date in the late 3rd or early 2nd millennium BC. This phase is characterised by the first occurrence of clay wall cones, which find their best parallels at later 3rd millennium BC Susa (Susa IV), nevertheless the radiocarbon date from Locus 33 (OZI136) has a 2σ calibrated range of 17401490 BC. Phase A4 (Figures 3.38-3.42) Extent: Exposed over a maximum area of c.2 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.80 m. Description: This phase consists of a pyrotechnological installation at the very northeast edge of the trench and the thin, relatively loose, grey-brown sandy clay layer (Locus 23) that overlies it. The installation cuts through all the deposits of Phase A5, and was built into a pit (loci 29 and 35) that was filled with large limestone boulders in a grey sandy clay matrix with some animal bone (Figs. 3.41, 3.42). In addition to the boulders, the superstructure was supported by smaller river cobbles, and a final supporting layer of thin flat stones and gravel. The feature was rebuilt numerous times (loci 26, 27, 28) and is sub-circular and flat-bottomed, with each functional surface made of a thin (c.2-3 mm), burnt clay layer. The rebuilds are separated by layers of support material, incorporating compact sandy clay and gravel (Fig. 3.40). The earliest construction phase (Locus 31) includes a low channel or “ash box” built into the western end of the feature (Figs. 3.38, 3.39). Culture Period: The typology of the installation can be paralleled in Level II at Tall-i Nokhodi (Goff 1963: 46 and Fig. 3), and a radiocarbon date from Locus 29 (WK14000) with a 2σ calibrated range of 1740-1520 BC likewise places its construction in the late Kaftari period. The very limited ceramic assemblage from Phase A4 tentatively supports such a chronology. Phase A3 Extent: Exposed over a maximum area of c.1.7 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.40 m. Description: This phase comprises two possible walls and the deposits associated with them. One wall (Locus 16) is of grey mudbrick, standing to three courses and a maximum height of c.40 cm, and running north-south along the eastern edge of Trench A for a distance of 60 cm. The base of the wall is demarcated by a number of fragments of baked brick. This wall runs perpendicular to what may be a larger chineh wall (Locus 15), c.50 cm wide, 20-30 cm high and c.1.5 m long. The construction material was a brown, crumbly mud with numerous chaff inclusions. Its architectural status is far from certain. Against these deposits are layers of brown sandy clay fill with frequent charcoal flecks, with river cobbles becoming frequent towards the lower layers of this phase and a number of burnt brick fragments also recovered. Culture Period: The ceramic assemblage of this phase has numerous parallels in the Kaftari period assemblages from the Kur River Basin and, less frequently, with Susa V. The radiocarbon date for this phase from Locus 20 (OZI137) has a 2σ calibrated range of 1750-1530 BC, suggesting a date in the late Kaftari period. Phase A2b Extent: Exposed over a maximum area of c.1.2 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.53 m. Description: This phase consists of a thick layer of light brown sandy clay, with a number of mudbricks in collapse visible in the west section. The only structural elements which belong to this phase are the post-holes and fill (loci 10 and 11) dug into the top of a Phase A3 wall. Culture Period: As for the preceding phase, the ceramics of Phase A2b have their best parallels with Kaftari period assemblages in the Kur River Basin, although sherds with better parallels in the subsequent Qaleh period are also recorded. The radiocarbon date from Locus 9 (OZI138) covering the 16th-15th centuries cal BC is more in keeping with a Qaleh Period assignation for this Phase. Phase A2a Extent: Exposed over a maximum area of c.1.3 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.82 m. Description: This is an irregular layer of grey-brown sandy clay (loci 3, 5, 7) with some white patches that look like plaster/mortar or floor materials. Culture Period: Most ceramics of this phase have Kaftari period parallels, but a number of examples can 38 also be paralleled in the Qaleh period in the Kur River Basin. A Qaleh date is supported by these parallels and by the mid-2nd millennium BC calibrated radiocarbon date from the preceding phase A2b. Phase A1 Extent: Mixed surface deposits exposed at various levels of Trench A. Description: At the top of the trench, this phase consists of brown topsoil grading to grey-brown sandy clay, with lots of grass and many roots and rootlets. At lower levels in Trench A, deposits from the outer exposed face often appeared to contain eroded material from higher levels at the site, and to have been affected by plant roots, animal burrows, and/or exposure to wind, water and heat. Such deposits (e.g. loci 14, 24, 38, 53), regardless of their absolute level, were regarded as potentially contaminated and were classified with Phase A1 surface deposits from the upper levels of the excavation. Culture Period: Mixed. Phase B8 (Figures 3.48-3.49) Extent: Exposed over an area of 2 x 1.5 m, with a maximum depth of 0.9 m. Description: This phase is comprised of several continuous layers of brown, grey, and yellow soil with numerous tiny yellow and white inclusions, in addition to areas of mudbrick collapse. The deposits contain a relatively rich assemblage of cultural material including ceramic sherds, bone and charcoal. These deposits appear to have been emplaced against a mudbrick wall (Locus 342), the partly damaged traces of which were recovered in the southeast corner of the excavated area. Adjacent to this wall is a small pit full of ash and charcoal that produced numerous ceramic sherds. Culture Period: The mudbrick collapse layers produced some residual prehistoric sherds. However, the presence of long-necked goblet with a thin body and convex base, bearing chain decoration and raised bands with a round cross-section, establishes the formation date of this phase in the Middle or Neo-Elamite period. Phase B7b (Figures 3.50-3.51) 3.2.4. Trench B Phase Descriptions As outlined above in Section 3.2.1, the Harris matrix for the Trench B excavated deposits is shown in Figure 3.43, whilst the phased Trench B section is shown in Figure 3.44. Phase B9 (Figures 3.45-3.47) Extent: Exposed over an area of 1 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 1.70 m. Description: The base of Phase B9 represents the artificial point at which excavations in Trench B ceased. The absolute elevation at the base of Phase B9 was equivalent to the absolute elevation at the top of the nearby Trench A deposits. Phase B9 is represented by the remains of a substantial mudbrick structure in the southeast corner of the trench. The regular mudbrick courses are easily observable in the southern and eastern sections of the trench, and they were held in place with a greyish-yellow mortar. The mudbrick dimensions average at 43x43x10 cm. The northern and western parts of the trench were comprised of several layers of hardened mudbrick collapse, occasionally with loose grey and brown soil. Culture Period: There was very little cultural or organic material from this phase, other than the prehistoric ceramic sherds that were recovered from the paste of the mudbricks. However, a few characteristic Middle and Neo-Elamite ceramics were recorded. The tall-necked goblet with thin body and small convex base (TNP 2514) is one of the most characteristic Middle Elamite vessel types, although its manufacture continued into the Neo-Elamite period. Consequently, it is sometimes difficult to precisely delineate the period to which this type of vessel belongs. From the ceramic evidence, we can date this phase to the Middle or NeoElamite period. Extent: Exposed over an area of 2 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.40 m. Description: The deposits of this phase are comprised of hardened mudbrick collapse without any intact architectural remains. The deposits are essentially comprised of loose brown and grey soil with a rich material culture assemblage of ceramic sherds, ash, and bone. In the west corner of the excavated area, two large pits full of loose soil and free of cultural material were recorded (Locus 336). Culture Period: The characteristic pottery of this phase includes small jars with everted rim and carinated body with fine raised cordons (with circular or square section) on the shoulder. Although manufactured as early as the Middle Elamite period, this ceramic type is most characteristic of the Neo-Elamite period and it seems likely that this phase in fact belongs to the Neo-Elamite period. Phase B7a Extent: Exposed over an area of 2 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.60 m. Description: As for the previous phase, Phase B7a has no coherent intact architecture. It is comprised of loose and homogeneous light brown soil with many tiny yellow and white particles, with ash and charcoal common throughout the deposit. The west parts of the trench consist predominantly of mudbrick collapse, while other areas showed small patches of river cobbles/pebbles. It is possible that these cobbles are associated with the stone pavement of the subsequent Phase B6 deposits. Culture Period: Neo-Elamite ceramics are present in this phase, in addition to a small number of possibly intrusive Achaemenid wares. Phase B6 (Figures 3.52-3.53) Extent: Exposed over an area of 2 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.40 m. 39 Description: The deposit is comprised predominantly of homogeneous loose grey, yellow, and light brown soil with many ceramic sherds and a great deal of faunal bone and charcoal. Mudbrick collapse, sometimes hardened, was recorded in other areas of the trench. In the southwest corner of the excavated area, part of a mudbrick wall (Locus 329) was recorded, and it seems likely that the Phase B6 deposits were emplaced against this structure. A paved floor of river pebbles and cobbles (Locus 330) was recorded in the southeast corner of the trench, and is probably associated with the Locus 329 wall. Culture Period: A mixed assemblage of Neo-Elamite and Achaemenid ceramics is characteristic of this phase, including vessels with a string-cut base. The deposit may be transitional from the Neo-Elamite to the Achaemenid period, or may simply include a chronologically-mixed assemblage due to site formation processes. Phase B5b (Figures 3.54-3.55) Extent: Exposed over an area of 2 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.35 m. Description: The deposit is comprised mostly of hardened greyish/light brown soil associated with many sherds and bones, although compressed mudbrick collapse was recorded at the north edge of the excavated area. Below this layer of compressed soil, damaged sections of a paved floor of river pebbles and cobbles were found, with a surviving area of 1.56 x 0.40 m. Culture Period: Carinated bowls with everted rim, characteristic of the Achaemenid period, were recovered from deposits of this phase. It seems that the change in material culture and the paved floor indicate a new phase entirely separate from previous phases and indicates new settlement of Achaemenid date. west, and the brick colour varies from greyish-brown to orange-brown. The west part of the excavated area is comprised of loose soil with a lot of charred seeds/plant remains (Locus 318) which are clearly observable in the west trench section. A lot of pottery and faunal bone were recovered from this phase, in addition to part of a stone mortar. Culture Period: As in later phases, there is a high proportion of residual ceramic sherds in the mudbricks and mudbrick collapse of Phase B4. However, the chronologically characteristic ceramics of this phase can best be paralleled at Achaemenid sites in Fars and include flasks with horizontal raised cordon decoration (cordons with triangular and circular cross-section). Phase B3 (Figures 3.58-3.61) Extent: Exposed over an area of 2 x 1.8 m, with a maximum depth of 1.5 m. Description: This phase is comprised of loose brown soil with numerous small white particle inclusions. A hardened bricky deposit (Locus 315) was recorded in the south part of the excavated area, bearing significant concentrations of cultural material (pottery, ash and charcoal, shell, and faunal bone). A large pit (Locus 312) in the southeast part of the excavated area contained loose soil with charcoal and rare ceramic sherds, in addition to many small animal bones. The deposits of this phase were possibly capped by a river cobble floor (Locus 307), the damaged remains of which were recorded in the southeast corner of the trench. Culture Period: Carinated bowls with rounded base were recovered from deposits of this phase. They can be readily paralleled in the Achaemenid and PostAchaemenid periods. Phase B2 (Figures 3.62-3.63) Phase B5a Extent: Exposed over an area of 2 x 1.8 m, with a maximum depth of 0.75 m. Description: No intact architectural remains were recovered from this phase. The central and west part of excavated area consisted of loose grey soil with a great deal of charcoal, pottery, and faunal bone (Locus 321). The other parts of the excavated area were composed of compressed and hardened mudbrick collapse. River pebbles/cobbles were also recorded, particularly in the south and west parts of the excavated area. Culture Period: The most characteristic ceramics of this phase are carinated bowls with spherical body and everted rim, similar to those recovered from the previous phase (B5b). It is probable that this phase likewise belongs to the Achaemenid period. Phase B4 (Figures 3.56-3.57) Extent: Exposed over an area of 2 x 2 m, with a maximum depth of 0.60 m. Description: This phase is comprised of layers in light yellow and grey soil with mudbrick collapse, in some areas hardened and compressed. In the west section of the trench traces of mudbrick in regular courses can be seen. This mudbrick structure (Locus 320) is aligned east- Extent: Exposed over an area of 2 x 1.8 m, with a maximum depth of 0.86 m. Description: The upper part of this phase (loci 301303) includes loose soil and hardened mudbrick collapse. Below the mudbrick collapse, a mudbrick wall (Locus 304, brick dimensions 50x45x9 cm) was recorded. Part of the wall at the north edge of the trench was damaged. The mudbricks comprising the wall are light brown, and it is notable that they contain numerous residual ceramic sherds. Culture Period: The most characteristic ceramic sherd of this phase is a fragment of glazed vessel base, the tarnish and oxidised turquoise colour of which suggest a Post-Achaemenid date. Phase B1 Extent: Exposed over an area of 2 x 1.5 m, with a maximum depth of 0.34 m. Description: This phase is the loose ploughed surface deposit at the highest point of trench and the mound. The highly-disturbed deposits (Locus 300) consist of light grey soil, with plant remains, ceramic sherds, animal bones, stones, and charcoal. Culture Period: Most of the ceramics of this phase belong to the Post-Achaemenid period. 40 3.3. Ceramics from Tol-e Nurabad 3.3.1. Introduction and Definition of Terminology In the sections below, registered ceramics from Trenches A and B at Tol-e Nurabad are discussed by their stratigraphic phase, as outlined and illustrated in the preceding sections. The discussion begins with the earliest material from the site (the Neolithic deposits of Trench A, Phase A27), and proceeds upward through the Trench A stratigraphic column to Phase A1 (Post-Kaftari Period). Subsequently, the ceramic material from Trench B is presented, beginning with the Middle Elamite material from Phase B9 and proceeding to the PostAchaemenid material of Phase B1. For each phase, the discussion is broken into the categories of Ware, shape, and decoration. A total of 1830 sherds was registered from Trench A, and labelled with registration numbers TNP 1 to TNP 1830. A total of 520 sherds was registered from Trench B, labelled with the registration numbers TNP 2000 to TNP 2519. The discussion below deals predominantly with the registered ceramics, although for some phases (i.e. Phases A13-A6) counts of ware groups in unregistered sherds assemblages are discussed in order to assess the representativeness of the registered corpus and to aid in chronological assignation of the relevant deposits. A selection of the registered sherds from each phase has been illustrated in Figures 3.64-3.137 (drawn sherds), Figures 3.138-3.188 (black and white photographs) and Plates 3.6-3.10 (colour photographs). All drawn sherd figures are accompanied by descriptive tables, which list individual sherds by their unique TNP registration number, their locus, and phase. Additionally, each sherd is described using nine numerically-designated categories: 1. “Vessel Form” describes where possible the specific vessel form (e.g. bevelled-rim bowl) or, if fragmentary, assesses whether the form is open or closed. The form is otherwise listed as unknown. 2. “Manufacture” indicates where possible whether the vessel was hand built, wheel finished or completely wheel thrown, otherwise it is listed as unknown. 3. “Firing” indicates whether the vessel was underfired (friable), well-fired (non-friable) or over-fired (discoloured, burnt or vitrified). No estimation of potential firing temperature or method has been made. 4. “Fabric Colour (ext./int./core)” describes the colour of the exterior, interior and core of the sherd visible in the sherd section, using commonplace colour terms (e.g. buff, orange, brown etc.) with hue (e.g. “greenish”) and brightness (i.e. light, dark) modifiers. The most common colour descriptors are listed below in Table 3.1, with their Munsell Soil Colour Chart equivalents. Table 3.1. Munsell Soil Colour Chart equivalents to colour terms used in the ceramic descriptions Colour Term Munsell Equivalent Buff 5Y 8/1 to 8/2, 2.5Y 8/1 to 8/2 Greenish-Buff Gley Chart 1 8/5GY to 8/5G Light Brown 2.5Y 7/2 to 7/4, 2.5Y 6/2 to 6/4 Brown 10YR 5/3 to 5/8 Dark Brown 10YR 3/3 to 3/6, 10YR 4/3 to 4/6 Light Orange 7.5YR 7/6 to 7/8 Orange 2.5YR 6/8 and 7/8 Dark Orange 10R 5/8 and 6/8 Red 10R 4/8 and 3/6 Light Grey 5Y 7/1 to 7/2, Gley Chart 2 7/5B to 7/5PB Grey 5Y 5/1, Gley Chart 2 6/5B to 6/5PB Dark Grey 2.5Y 4/1, Gley Chart 2 4/5B to 4/5PB 5. “Inclusions” describes the type of inclusions present in the clay matrix. These are most commonly sand, mineral grits, vegetal materials such as chaff, or combinations thereof. The term does not distinguish between materials that were deliberately added to the raw clay during vessel manufacture and those that were naturally present within the raw clay. Three size modifiers are employed in the description of the inclusions (i.e. fine, medium or coarse). 6. “Finish (ext./int.)” describes the exterior and interior surface finish of the sherd, ranging from very fine to fine, medium, coarse, and very coarse. 7. “Exterior Coating” indicates whether a surface coating is present on the sherd exterior, and gives a description of its type, colour and the nature of any surface treatment. Coatings on the exterior of a formed vessel include “slip”, “wash” and “glaze”. Slip and wash are both fluid suspensions of clay in water that are applied to the vessel before firing to form a coating on the surface. The ceramics of Neolithic Tol-e Nurabad are commonly characterised by the presence of a thick coating of relatively pure clay applied to the interior and exterior of a coarse chaff-tempered core, which is referred to in this report as a slip. However, in their discussion of technologically similar ceramics from surface collection at the site of Kushk-e Hezar, Alden et al. (2004: 36-37) raised the possibility that the thick coating of fine clay could have been applied in a nearsolid state rather than as a liquid slip. Likewise, the comparable fine clay surface layers recorded on some of the earliest pottery from Susiana, in the “Formative Susiana” phase at the site of Chogha Bonut, have been described as “too thick to be slip or wash” (Alizadeh 2003: 54). If such is the case, the use of the term “slip” to describe the exterior and interior coating of the Neolithic soft wares from Mamasani is perhaps technically incorrect. Significantly, however, the term “slip” was employed by Vandiver (1987: 18) in her detailed technical discussion of the thick coatings on the exterior of early soft wares from Hajji Firuz Tepe in Azerbaijan province. As no detailed technical studies of the Mamasani Neolithic soft wares have been undertaken as yet, the term slip is retained in the following discussion 41 of Neolithic ceramics from Tol-e Nurabad (and the wider Mamasani region).Wash is similar to slip, but it is thinner, and the body of the vessel can be seen through the coating. Slip and wash are typically different in colour to the paste/fabric of the vessel. Where they are the same colour as the paste, they can be difficult to distinguish from un-slipped, smoothed or polished surfaces (after Rice 1987: 149-151). Glaze is a coating of glass melted in place, and fused to the vessel surface (Rice 1987: 151-152). Treatments can be applied to vessel with or without a coating, and include “burnishing”, “smoothing”, and “shaving”. Burnishing is where the surface of the vessel has been rubbed back and forth with a smooth hard object, such as a pebble, bone, horn or seeds, which compacts the surface and produces lustre. Wet smoothing is where a soft yielding tool, such as cloth, leather, grass, or the potter’s hand is used to create a finer and more regular matte surface than results from forming, and is usually done before the vessel is completely dry, or after it has been re-wet. When a hand is used, fine parallel striations with rounded edges are visible (Rice 1987: 138). Shaving is where a hard tool has been used to slice clay from the surface of the vessel before firing, with the aim of thinning the surface. The colours used in the descriptions of these coatings and treatments are the same as those used to characterise the fabric colours noted above. 8. “Interior Coating” indicates whether a surface coating is present on the sherd interior, and gives a description of its type, colour and the nature of any surface treatment, following the definitions outlined above for Exterior Coating. 9. “Decoration (ext./int.)” describes the exterior and interior surface decoration on the sherd, whether it be painted, incised, carved, appliqué, impressed or relief. “Parallels”, where found, are listed for each sherd and incorporate information on the archaeological context and dating of the parallel, followed by the publication details. All drawings of ceramic sherds have been reproduced at 40% of their full scale. A convention has been used in all line drawings, whereby red slip is indicated by 20% grey shading, red paint by 40% grey shading, brown paint by 60% grey shading, and dark brown/ greenish-black/black paint by 100% black. The black and white and colour photographs of the ceramic sherds have not been reproduced at a consistent scale. Given the small excavated exposures at Tol-e Nurabad, of only 2-4 square metres, it is unlikely that representative pottery assemblages have been collected. Difficulties are particularly clear when attempting to address the range of vessel types utilised, as the small excavated volume means that the assemblage is comprised almost exclusively of sherds rather than complete or nearcomplete vessel profiles. Moreover, at least one long chronological gap that appears in the Trench A sequence (between Phases A20 and A19, as suggested by the radiocarbon dates) could be explained by either the lack of occupation at the site at the time, or simply that occupation at the site was outside the very small area sampled in the test trenches. Nevertheless, the ceramic sherds recovered in abundance from Tol-e Nurabad provide a useful basis for chronological attributions of the excavated deposits and indicate, amongst other things, contrasting periods of ceramic regionalism and unity in the history of southwestern Iran. 3.3.2. Trench A Pottery Descriptions by Phase In the following pages, the ceramic assemblage from Trench A is discussed in detail on a phase-by-phase basis. The discussion focuses largely upon the registered assemblage, which totalled 1830 sherds. In some instances, the data from total sherd counts (by locus and ware group) is introduced to address particular issues of interpretation. An overall summary and review of the ceramic evidence from Trench A (and Trench B) is presented in the concluding part of the chapter, Section 3.8.2. Phase A27 (Figures 3.64-3.65, 3.138-3.139) In total, seven sherds were registered from Phase A27 (loci 173, 174). A further 14 sherds registered from a mixed Phase A26-A27 context (Locus 172) are relevant to the discussion in this section. Wares Chaff-tempered Wares: The sherds of Phase A27 are well-fired (i.e. relatively hard and non-friable), hand made, and vegetal (chaff)-tempered, with paste colour varying from light brown to light orange. They are generally slipped and burnished on interior and exterior surfaces, with slip colour varying from light orange through brown to red-brown, and bear exterior painted decoration. Surface finish for the slipped/burnished sherds varies from very fine to fine, whilst the unpainted and unburnished sherds have medium/coarse surface finish. Exterior painted geometric decoration varies in colour from brown to black. Shapes Chaff-tempered Wares: Only two diagnostic vessel forms were identified from Phase A27. These include a bowl with a simple everted rim (TNP 1806), and a large bowl or basin with a simple upright rim (TNP 1805). Decoration Chaff-tempered Wares: Two main decorative motifs were recorded in Phase A27. These were grouped horizontal lines at the vessel rim in dark-brown/black paint (TNP 1806), and diagonal lines with large terminal dots (TNP 1802, 1803). The parallels for these motifs occur exclusively in the Mushki period assemblage of Fars, as typified by the type-site of Tall-i Mushki in the Kur River Basin (see Fig. 3.43 and associated table for references). Phase A26 (Figures 3.65-3.66, 3.139-3.141) In total, 23 sherds were registered from Phase A26 (loci 170, 171), whilst a further 14 sherds were registered from a mixed Phase A26-A27 context (Locus 172). 42 Wares Chaff-tempered Wares: Phase A26 wares are hand made and vegetal (chaff)-tempered. Vessels are generally well-fired (5 under-fired examples were registered), commonly with very fine to fine “slipped” and burnished exterior surfaces and exterior painted geometric decoration (see n. 1). From this phase onwards until Phase A19, the slip on ceramic sherds can be very thick, up to 2 mm, and generally consists of very fine clay with few or no inclusions, in contrast to the strongly chafftempered sherd core. Paste colour varies from light brown to orange with grey cores very common and entirely grey paste seen in a significant minority of sherds. Slip colour is predominantly light orange/orange, although orangebrown, red-orange, red-brown, and buff variants are seen. Although all sherds have a slip, a minority are unburnished and unpainted, and a similar number are burnished but unpainted. Approximately two-thirds of the registered sherds are slipped, burnished and painted. Paint colour varies from red to brown, dark-brown and black. Shapes Chaff-tempered Wares: Bowls are the most common form, with simple rims varying in orientation from slightly incurving to everted. One possible carinated vessel was recorded from an unmixed Phase A26 deposit, and two are illustrated from mixed Phase A26-27 deposits (TNP 1808, 1809). Flat bases were the most common base form, although one example of a slightly concave base (TNP 1785) was also found. One nearcomplete vessel (TNP 1778) was excavated: it is an undecorated, slipped and burnished, flat-based, somewhat convex-sided bowl with slightly outflaring lip. Decoration Chaff-tempered Wares: Approximately two-thirds of the vessels are painted, in both monochrome black/brown geometric style or in a bichrome style (e.g. TNP 1779, 1799) incorporating black/brown painted geometric motifs and broad (mostly horizontal) bands in red or redbrown. Bichrome wares are recorded from mixed Phase A26-27 contexts (e.g. TNP 1814, 1819), but as they are not found in uncontaminated Phase A27 deposits they are regarded as first appearing in Phase A26. Some motifs typical of the Mushki Period are also found in mixed A26-27 deposits and in pure Phase A26 contexts (e.g. TNP 1789, 1811, 1813), whilst new motifs appear, such as the “ladder” (TNP 1796, 1797, 1798, 1799) and areas of cross-hatching (TNP 1797, 1798). Also seen for the first time is one sherd bearing a diagonal “basketry” pattern (TNP 1783). This motif is characteristic of the early Jari period in the Kur River Basin (see references in pottery table), and at Tol-e Nurabad is much more common in Phase A25 than Phase A26. It may be that this one sherd is intrusive from later deposits in Trench A. Phase A25 (Figures 3.67-3.68, 3.142-3.143) In total, 27 sherds were registered from Phase A25 contexts (loci 167-169), and another 8 sherds were registered from a mixed Phase A24b-A25 context (Locus 166). Wares Chaff-tempered Wares: Phase A25 wares are generally well-fired, hand made, and vegetal (chaff)tempered with a thick fine clay slip and a burnished finish, with exterior painted geometric decoration in brown/black and red. The paste is predominantly light brown, with small numbers of buff and orange/red variants, and grey cores are commonly seen. Slip is seen on most sherds, and the majority are burnished to a very fine/fine finish on interior and exterior surfaces. Slip colour is predominantly light orange with buff/lightbrown and reddish variants seen. Shapes Chaff-tempered Wares: The most common shape is the bowl, with rim varying from slightly incurving (TNP 1772) to everted (TNP 1758, 1759). The closed jar form is attested by a number of body sherds and by the rim sherd TNP 1752. Two body sherds from carinated vessels (TNP 1749, 1766) were also recorded (one from a mixed A25-24b context). The only base sherd registered from Phase A25 (TNP 1766) was flat, and a concave base sherd (TNP 1750) was recovered from a mixed Phase A24b-25 context. Decoration Chaff-tempered Wares: Around three-quarters of the sherds are decorated with paint on their exterior surface. Typical Mushki “line with terminal dot” motifs continue (TNP 1763, 1764), as does decoration with bichrome red/brown-black painting (TNP 1769, 1772, 1774). Motifs more typical of the Jari Period which were first seen in Phase A26 (e.g. basketry) continue in Phase A25 (e.g. TNP 1753, 1761, 1774). Broad cross-hatching continues to be seen (TNP 1754, 1776). The brown/black painted geometric decoration on three sherds from mixed Phase A25-24b contexts (TNP 1745, 1747, and 1748) fits more comfortably into the Phase A24b repertoire than into Phase A25. Phase A24b (Figure 3.68-3.72, 3.143-3.147) In total, 112 sherds were registered from unmixed Phase A24b contexts (loci 155-165). A further 8 sherds were registered from a mixed Phase A24b-A25 deposit (Locus 166) and 11 registered sherds come from a mixed Phase A24a-A24b deposit (Locus 154). Wares Chaff-tempered Wares: Wares of Phase A24b are all hand made and chaff-tempered, and the great majority have a thick fine clay slip and burnished exterior with exterior painted geometric decoration. Quality of firing seems lower than in earlier layers, with around half of the registered sherds being relatively soft and under-fired. Paste colour is predominantly light brown or light orange and dark grey cores are common. Approximately onequarter of the registered sherds are of a grey paste throughout. Surface finish varies from very fine to fine in the burnished vessels. Shapes Chaff-tempered Wares: The assemblage consists of a small repertoire of open and closed shapes: bowls are 43 common, with variations in the orientation of the rim from upright to everted and outflaring (e.g. TNP 1648, 1665, 1690, 1725, 1730). Some very large, plain, bowls/basins were also recorded (TNP 1678, 1679, 1744). Of the closed forms, jars with inverted or slightly outflaring rims are very common (e.g. TNP 1647, 1691, 1741), and carinated vessels were also recorded (TNP 1621, 1733). Registered bases are either flat (e.g. TNP 1630) or slightly concave (e.g. TNP 1657). Decoration Chaff-tempered Wares: The monochrome painted sherds are decorated with brown/black paint which is sometimes quite faded, and there are a significant number of bichrome decorated sherds, generally combining broad horizontal bands in red/red-brown paint with geometric patterns in brown/black paint. Zig-zag lines (often represented in reserve) become very common (e.g. TNP 1621, 1627, 1655, 1665, 1688, 1691, 1700, 1710, 1741), after first being seen in a mixed A25-24b context (TNP1745). They are frequently located just below the rim of the vessel, and a variant of this rim pattern is seen on sherds TNP 1628 and 1673. A pattern of groups of horizontal or diagonal stepped lines interspersed with filled blocks is seen for the first time in a mixed Phase A24b-25 context (TNP 1747), and appears on a number of examples from Phase A24b proper (TNP 1726, 1728, 1730). Also new and very common in this phase are panels filled with stepped-lines (e.g. TNP 1644, 1646, 1669, 1672, 1701, 1704, 1712, 1727, 1729), often found in bichrome wares outlined by bands in red/brown. The basket motif seen in earlier phases continues (e.g. TNP 1731) but is rare, although a number of examples (e.g. TNP 1650, 1680, 1687, 1688, 1734) seem to be transitional from the basket motif to a dense stepped-line pattern (also TNP 1686, 1689, 1697, 1725, not illustrated). Also continuing to occur at low frequency is the ladder motif (e.g. TNP 1683, 1711, 1733), sometimes in a coarser form than in the lower layers (TNP 1732). Hatched areas are seen on a number of sherds (e.g. TNP 1654, 1712). Unusual vessels from the decorative perspective include TNP1648 and 1675 (meandering red painted bands with dark brown border), TNP1647 and 1676 (interleaved hanging and standing nested triangles and multiple zigzag lines) and TNP 1677 (six vertical lines hanging from rim). The significant proportion of undecorated wares in Phase A24b (e.g. TNP 1625, 1657, 1678, 1679) have parallels as early as the Mushki period and as late as the Shamsabad period. Phase A24a (Figures 3.72-3.74, 3.147-3.148) In total, 62 sherds were registered from Phase A24a deposits (loci 149-153), whilst 11 registered sherds come from mixed Phase A24a-A24b deposits (Locus 154). Wares Chaff-tempered Wares: Wares of Phase A24a are all hand made and the great majority have a thick fine clay slip and are burnished to a very fine or fine surface finish, with exterior painted decoration. Paste is characterised in all instances by the presence of coarse chaff temper. Whilst most sherds are well-fired (even if exhibiting a grey core), a significant minority are under-fired and relatively friable with a dark grey core. Paste colour is predominantly light brown, although brown, grey, and orange variants are also seen. Shapes Chaff-tempered Wares: As for the earlier phases, the Phase A24a assemblage is dominated by jars and bowls. Bowls have simple rims varying in orientation from upright (e.g. TNP 1562) to everted (e.g. TNP 1560, 1583, 1639, 1640) and outflaring. The most common jar form is typified by TNP 1600, with other good examples provided by TNP 1558, 1590, and 1599. Necked jars were represented by only one certain example (TNP 1576), and another example of a highly restricted form is given by TNP 1589. Large plain bowls/basins were also found in Phase A24a, as represented by TNP 1575. One flat base was registered (TNP 1591). Decoration Chaff-tempered Wares: Both bichrome and monochrome wares continued to be used in this phase. Paint colour for the monochrome wares varied from brown to black, and bichrome wares were commonly found to combine red+black, red+brown, or brown+black. Motifs such as the stepped-line (e.g. TNP 1568, 1569, 1598, 1599, 1600, 1605, 1606, 1610, 1614, 1616), groups of vertical lines (e.g. TNP 1571), and the reserved zigzag (e.g. TNP 1600, 1601) continue, as do broad (usually horizontal) bands in red, outlined in black, (TNP 1560, 1562, 1596, 1598, 1605) although they appear more regularly placed than in the previous phase (although see TNP 1632 from a mixed Phase A24a-b context). New motifs include hatched standing and hanging triangles (e.g. TNP1559, 1561), black painted meandering diagonal lines (TNP1583), and cross-hatched columns (TNP1563). One sherd from a mixed Phase A24a-b context (TNP 1631) is decorated in a chevron or V-pattern in red paint only, and is reminiscent of Archaic Susiana 2 “red-line ware” from Chogha Mish, although the paste is less dense and sandy and has more chaff temper than the Chogha Mish examples. There are a number of unpainted slipped and burnished vessels (e.g. TNP 1575, illustrated; TNP, 1579, 1581, 1588, not illustrated) which appear very similar to the plain chaff-tempered wares which characterise the lower levels at Tall-i Bakun B (B1) and Level II at Tall-i Jari A and which are generally referred to as “Shamsabad” ware. Nevertheless, the other ceramics from this phase, and the radiocarbon dates from nearby Neolithic contexts (see Sections 3.7), indicate that the plain chaff-tempered wares of Phase A24a are earlier than the Shamsabad wares of the Kur River Basin. Phase A23 (Figures 3.75-3.76, 3.149) In total, 31 sherds were registered from unmixed Phase A23 contexts (loci 144-148). A further 6 sherds were registered from mixed Phase A22-A23 contexts (loci 142, 143). Wares Chaff-tempered Wares: Vessels of Phase A23 are chaff-tempered, hand made wares slipped with a thick layer of fine clay and burnished to a very fine/fine surface finish. Paste colour is predominantly light brown, with a 44 small number of light orange and grey variants. Slip colour is overwhelmingly light orange-buff, with rare variants in buff, light-brown, or red. The deterioration in firing quality seen in earlier phases continues into Phase A23, where approximately two-thirds of the registered sherds are under-fired, as demonstrated by their softness and friability and by the common presence of grey or dark-grey cores. The great majority have painted decoration on their exterior surface. Shapes Chaff-tempered Wares: The most common open shape in plain and decorated wares is the bowl with simple everted rim (e.g. TNP 1529, 1551), however bowls with upright or slightly incurving rims are also seen (e.g. TNP 1537). Closed forms include large jars/basins (e.g. TNP 1530, 1555, 1557), and decorated hole-mouth or low-necked jars (TNP 1533, 1536?). Decoration Chaff-tempered Wares: Paint on the monochrome wares varies from grey to brown/black, with red-painted monochrome ware also recorded (TNP 1533; also TNP 1527, not illustrated). Bichrome wares occur in red+black, red+dark-brown, red-brown+grey, and as in earlier phases commonly feature a broad horizontal band in red/red-brown (e.g. TNP 1536, 1544), surrounded by designs in the darker brown/black colour. Recurring patterns include stepped-lines (e.g. TNP1539, 1541, 1543, 1544), and reserved zigzags (TNP 1556). A new motif of extremely fine, shallow zigzag lines at the vessel rim is seen for the first time in this phase (TNP1529) and in a mixed Phase A23-22 context (TNP 1523). Red-line monochrome sherds, with thick horizontal and diagonal bands and adjacent groups of parallel thin lines, can be compared to Chogha Mish red-line wares from Archaic Susiana 2 phase. Plain chaff-tempered slipped wares continue into this phase (e.g. TNP 1537, 1551, 1555, 1557). Phase A22 (Figures 3.76-3.77, 3.150) In total, 31 sherds were registered from Phase A22 deposits (loci 138-141) and a further 6 registered sherds come from mixed Phase A22-A23 deposits (loci 142, 143). Wares Chaff-tempered Wares: Phase A22 wares are handmade and chaff-tempered. They are commonly slipped with a thick layer of fine clay and burnished to a very fine/fine surface finish, with exterior painted decoration. Paste colour varies from the predominant light brown to orange and grey. Grey cores are seen in about one-third of the registered sherds, commonly as a result of under firing, meaning that many of the sherds are relatively soft and friable. Slip colour is predominantly light orange-buff, with common variants in buff and light-brown. Shapes Chaff-tempered Wares: The most common open form in Phase A22 is the bowl with everted rim (e.g. TNP 1505, 1514) or upright rim (e.g. TNP 1506). Also seen are slipped/burnished but unpainted large bowls with upright or everted rim (TNP 1493, 1509, 1510, 1520, not illustrated). A hole-mouth jar (TNP 1519) and unpainted body sherds from carinated vessels (e.g. TNP 1516) were also recorded, as were fragments of concave bases (TNP 1503) and a probable flat base sherd (TNP 1495). Decoration Chaff-tempered Wares: Three-quarters of the registered sherds were decorated with painted geometric patterns. Monochrome wares exhibit dark-brown, black and grey paint, often faded, and red and red-brown monochrome painted wares also continue in this phase. Bichrome wares are more limited in occurrence (e.g. TNP 1506 1512, 1513), and are found in the red+black and red-brown+dark-brown varieties. Motifs seen in earlier phases and continuing into Phase A22 include: the thick meandering line (e.g. TNP 1495, 1502), this time seen in red monochrome rather than red+black bichrome; the horizontal thick red band (e.g. TNP 1512, 1513); the reserve zigzag (e.g. TNP 1506) and the shallow fine-lined zigzag, often in multiples bounded by filled triangles (e.g. TNP 1501, 1513, 1514, illustrated; TNP 1507, 1517, 1518, not illustrated); diagonal lines at or near the vessel rim (TNP 1505, 1506); and other panels/areas of hatching (e.g. TNP 1512). Red-line monochrome wares (TNP 1491, 1494) also exhibit familiar patterning of thick and thin lines, as seen in Phase A23. The nested V’s on TNP 1519 have no exact parallels, but the motif is similar to material from earlier phases at Tol-e Nurabad. Undecorated chaff-tempered wares were also recorded from Phase A22 deposits (TNP 1516; also TNP 1493, 1496, 1497, 1498, 1509, 1510, 1511, 1520, not illustrated). Phase A21 (Figures 3.78, 3.151) Overall, 47 sherds from Phase A21 contexts (loci 128137) were registered. Wares Chaff-tempered Wares: Phase A21 wares are hand made and chaff-tempered, and the great majority have a thick exterior and interior slip of fine clay and are burnished to a very fine/fine surface finish. Paste colour varies from a predominant light brown to brown, with rare buff, orange and grey variants, but cores are commonly grey due to varying degrees of under firing. Around one-quarter of the registered sherds are underfired to the extent that the paste is relatively soft and friable. Slip colour predominantly varies from buff through light brown to light orange-buff, although a significant minority of sherds display orange, red, or redbrown slip. Approximately two-thirds of the registered sherds are decorated on their exterior surface with painted geometric designs. Shapes Chaff-tempered Wares: The most common shape is the bowl with upright or everted rim, both painted (e.g. TNP 1443, 1444, 1462, 1474, 1480, 1482), and plain (e.g. TNP 1446, 1450, 1470, 1476). Closed forms were represented by the presence of a hole-mouth jar (TNP 1453) and a low-necked jar with flaring rim (TNP 1460), 45 in addition to a number of carinated vessel fragments (e.g. TNP 1459, 1464). Bases (not illustrated) are either flat or concave. Decoration Chaff-tempered Wares: Monochrome wares are produced in varieties of brown, black, grey and red, often faded, and bichrome wares are found combining red+brown or dark-brown+black. Significant continuity from earlier phases is seen in the range of motifs used to decorate Phase A21 pottery. Reserved zigzag lines (e.g. TNP 1474, 1482), shallow fine zigzag lines (e.g. TNP 1444, 1453, 1474, 1482, 1486), horizontal red bands with black outline (e.g. TNP 1475, 1486), and thick red meandering bands (e.g. TNP 1480) are all motifs seen in earlier phases. Red-line monochrome painted ware also continues to be used (e.g. TNP 1462, 1481), and shows similar patterns to earlier phases. “New” patterns are seen in the form of groups of horizontal black/grey lines below the rim (e.g. TNP 1460) which are probably enclosed in boxes (e.g. TNP 1443). These motifs are reminiscent of Mushki material, but the paint and fabric of the sherds suggests that they represent an independent later appearance of this motif rather than the presence of residual material. A carinated body sherd with black/grey vertical lines above the carination (TNP 1464) is also reminiscent of Mushki pottery. Stepped lines, so common Phases A24 and A23, are seen only in a transformed diagonal form in Phase A21 (TNP 1475). Phase A20 (Figures 3.79, 3.152-3.153) In total, 19 sherds were registered from unmixed Phase A20 deposits (loci 119-126). A further 10 sherds from mixed Phase A19-A20 contexts (loci118, 127) were also registered. Wares Chaff-tempered Wares: All registered sherds from Phase A20 are handmade, chaff-tempered wares with a thick fine clay slip burnished to a very fine/fine finish and exterior painted geometric decoration. Paste colour is predominantly light brown, with minor grey, orange and brown variants, and grey cores are commonly seen. Although the majority of vessels are well-fired, a significant minority show dark-grey cores and friable, relatively soft paste due to under firing. Slip colour varies from a predominant light orange to buff, with minor occurrences in brown and red. Shapes Chaff-tempered Wares: The most common shape is the bowl with simple rim (TNP 1434, 1435), with rim orientation varying from everted to upright (TNP 1437?). One body sherd from a carinated bowl was also registered (TNP 1423). Bases were flat (e.g. TNP 1433) or slightly concave. Decoration Chaff-tempered Wares: Monochrome wares are painted in black, brown, dark-brown, grey, red-brown and red, often faded, whilst bichrome wares occur only in the black+red variety. Motifs seen in earlier phases and continuing in Phase A20 include the shallow fine-line zigzag (e.g. TNP 1423), the reserve zigzag (e.g. TNP 1434), horizontal red bands with black outline (e.g. TNP 1423), and boxes with horizontal hatching (TNP 1441). The diagonal blocks seen in TNP1423 are a new and rare motif, as is the unusual hatching of the horizontal band on TNP 1434. Phase A19 (Figures 3.80-3.81, 3.154) In total, 58 registered sherds come from unmixed Phase A19 contexts (loci 111, 113-117) and a further 10 sherds were registered from mixed Phase A19-A20 contexts (loci 118, 127). This phase witnesses the first appearance of Bakun-like sandy buff wares at Tol-e Nurabad alongside the predominant chaff-tempered pottery similar to the preceding Neolithic levels at the site. Eleven registered sherds from Phase A19 (loci 114, 113, and 111) are of buff ware, with the remaining 47 of chafftempered ware. Wares Buff Wares: The small number of sherds in this ware are hand made and commonly well-fired, with a fine to medium surface finish. Paste colour varies from a predominant buff to light brown, with greenish-buff also present. All registered sherds have fine sand inclusions, and a small number exhibit rare lime inclusions. Chaff-tempered Wares: Wares of this group are all hand made and chaff-tempered, generally with a thick fine clay slip burnished to a very fine/fine finish. Paste colour varies from a predominant light brown to brown and orange, with grey paste and especially dark grey cores commonly occurring due to under firing. Slip colour shows some variation from the preceding phases, being predominantly orange or red-orange, as opposed to the lighter colours which dominated in earlier periods. However, buff slip and light brown slip still occur on a significant minority of sherds from this phase. Shapes Buff Wares: Only two rim sherds were recovered, one from a small bowl or cup with a simple everted rim (TNP 1367), the other from a larger bowl with simple everted rim (TNP 1393). One flat base sherd (TNP 1395) was recovered which, along with the body sherd TNP 1366, suggests the existence of larger, closed forms in the buff ware assemblage of Phase A19. Chaff-tempered Wares: Bowls with simple everted rim are prevalent in this phase, sometimes painted (e.g. TNP 1360, 1382, 1383) but more commonly in a very thick plain ware (e.g. TNP 1378, 1379, 1380, 1381, 1411). One painted bowl (TNP 1399 and 1407) shows an unusual sinuous profile. With regard to closed forms, two possible examples of jar rim sherds were registered (TNP 1396, 1408), and numerous examples of large, thick holemouth jars were also recorded (e.g. TNP 1359, 1361, 1363, 1371). One example of a residual Mushki period carinated vessel sherd was recovered, identifiable by its painted motif of line with large terminal dot (TNP 1376, not illustrated). Decoration Buff Wares: Seven of the registered buff ware sherds were decorated with dark brown painted motifs. With the 46 exception of two sherds (TNP 1390, 1393), all decoration was on the exterior of the vessel. Motifs included simple geometric forms such as horizontal lines (TNP 1362, 1388, 1390, 1393) and rows of filled triangles (TNP 1362), as well as zoomorphic depictions (TNP 1375) and other uncertain motifs (TNP 1366, 1393). Chaff-tempered Wares: Slipped and burnished but unpainted chaff-tempered vessels predominate over painted vessels in Phase A19. Monochrome and bichrome wares continue to be produced in this phase, although the array of motifs is significantly reduced. Monochrome wares are produced in red-brown, dark-brown and grey, and bichrome wares in red-brown+black. Motifs consist of meandering red or black bands (e.g. TNP 1360, 1399 and 1407), sometimes with a black outline (TNP 1401; also TNP 1404, not illustrated), as well as groups of horizontal and diagonal lines (TNP1382, 1385?), crosshatching (TNP 1374, 1384) and chevrons (TNP 1405). A number of these motifs (esp. TNP 1374, 1382) are very distinct from those used to decorate pottery in earlier phases at the site. The cross-hatched diamonds on TNP 1374, in particular, are more reminiscent of designs on the buff ware Bakun ceramics than Neolithic motifs, and may reflect a transitional phase. Phase A18 (Figures 3.82-3.85, 3.155-3.157) In total, 102 sherds were registered from Phase A18 contexts (loci 109, 110, 112). This phase sees Bakun buff wares become the predominant ceramic type at Tol-e Nurabad, alongside a small number of sherds of chafftempered pottery similar to the preceding Neolithic levels at the site. As the Neolithic sherds are generally very small, it is possible that they are all residual from earlier contexts at the site. Fifteen registered sherds from Phase A18 are of Neolithic chaff-tempered type, whilst 87 are of Bakun buff ware type. Wares Buff Wares: Vessels are commonly well-fired, with a fine to medium surface finish, although the larger closed forms generally have a medium to coarse surface finish. Paste colour varies from the predominant buff to greenish-buff and light brown, with rare orange or grey examples. Most vessels have fine sand inclusions, whilst small lime inclusions are seen in around one-third of sherds (although never in the greenish-buff coloured vessels). Vegetal inclusions were recorded in only two registered sherds. Sherds from larger, thick-walled vessels were sometimes of a distinct paste: usually orange with grits and/or lime inclusions, sometimes with a buff slip. Overall, the buff wares appear to be hand made, although some show signs of being made on a slow wheel or tournette (e.g. TNP 1342). Chaff-tempered Wares: A small number of handmade, chaff-tempered, slipped and burnished painted wares was recorded in Phase A18. Paste colour varies from light orange to brown, with a number of examples of grey paste and particularly dark grey cores as a result of under firing. Slip colour shows a continuation of the trend first seen in Phase A19, being almost exclusively a darker red/orange in contrast to the light-orange/brown slip seen in earlier periods. Shapes Buff Wares: One complete vessel profile was recovered from Phase A18 (TNP 1304): it is from a small bowl or cup (height 10.5 cm) with an upright rim (diam. 13 cm) and a ring base (diam. 6 cm). Otherwise, the most common shape is the bowl with simple everted rim, with diameters varying from c.12-25 cm. Less common are large globular vessels (e.g. TNP 1330, 1332, 1333, 1335, 1337), usually with everted neck (e.g. TNP 1334, 1342), and small carinated vessels (TNP 1308, 1309). Ringbases are the most common base form (e.g. TNP 1304, 1325, 1338, 1339, 1340, 1341), with diameters in the 6-9 cm range. Flat or slightly concave bases (e.g. TNP 1346) and slightly rounded bases (TNP 1351) were also recorded. The most unusual shape is represented by TNP 1336, which is a perforated sherd from a vessel of uncertain form. Chaff-tempered Wares: Only three rim sherds were registered for chaff-tempered wares of this phase. All represent bowls with simple rims varying in orientation from near-upright (TNP 1301, not illustrated) to everted (TNP 1291, 1298). Decoration Buff Wares: The great majority of registered sherds have painted decoration, usually in a dark brown paint, although the colour can vary from brown through greenish-brown and black. Most are painted on the exterior only, although bowls with the main decorated area on the interior are also common. This characteristic makes the Phase A18 assemblage stand out from the later Phase A17 buff wares, where bowls with elaborate interior decoration are much rarer (see below). Decoration is predominantly geometric in nature, although humans (TNP 1320), animals (e.g. TNP 1259, 1267, 1314?, 1321, 1325, 1326, 1331, 1337), and other figures (TNP 1335) are depicted in a stylised or abstracted manner. The geometric decoration has an emphasis upon horizontal lines and bands framing hatched (e.g. TNP 1315, 1355) or cross-hatched shapes (e.g. TNP 1254, 1262, 1263, 1304, 1306, 1311, 1316, 1317, 1318, 1319). Vertical (TNP 1272, 1309) and diagonal lines (TNP 1327) occur infrequently. A rare motif is the triangle with pendant lines (TNP 1268, illustrated with Phase A17 parallels). The entire neck area of large globular vessels is usually painted (e.g. TNP 1334, 1342), and decoration on the body generally consists of simple broad bands (e.g. TNP 1330, 1332, 1333). Exceptions include the equid (?) depictions on TNP 1331 and 1337, and the sun (?) on TNP 1335. Chaff-tempered Wares: Of the 15 registered sherds in this ware, seven have painted decoration. Both monochrome and bichrome wares are seen in this phase, with paint colour varying from grey to brown, darkbrown and black. Motifs are all geometric, including horizontal and diagonal lines (e.g. TNP 1294, 1298), zigzag lines (TNP 1299, not illustrated) and checkerboards (TNP 1297). Phase A17 (Figures 3.86-3.88, 3.158-3.160) Overall, 85 sherds were registered from Phase A17 contexts (loci 105-108), and a further 29 registered sherds come from a mixed Phase A16-A17 context (Locus 104). 47 Only one example of chaff-tempered “Neolithic” ware (TNP 1223, not illustrated) was registered in Phase A17. As this sherd is considered residual, the remainder of this section is devoted to the predominant buff ware of Bakun type. Wares Buff Wares: As for the Phase A18 pottery, wares of Phase A17 are well-fired with a buff to light brown paste, with a common greenish-buff variant. Inclusions are generally of fine sand, particularly in the buff-coloured vessels, while fine sand plus lime grits are found in about one quarter of sherds. Surface finish varies from fine to medium for most sherds and varies somewhat with the inclusions: sand-tempered wares are more likely to have a finer finish than those vessels tempered with sand plus lime grits or grits alone. Globular necked jars tend to have a coarser surface finish than smaller vessels, and are produced not only in buff, light brown, and greenish-buff wares, but are also in a darker brown-orange paste with sand and lime grit inclusions. Rare fabrics include two plain body sherds of a grit-tempered red ware with a medium to coarse finish (TNP 1224, 1287), and one bowl (TNP 1173) made of a light-brown/orange paste with numerous micaceous inclusions, rare vegetal temper, and an eroded red slip on its interior and exterior surfaces. It is possible that this sherd, whose shape is very closely paralleled in the Lapui Period, is intrusive from later deposits at the site. Shapes Buff Wares: The most common shape is the bowl with everted rim, although these vary greatly in diameter from c.9-27 cm. Rims are generally simple, although outturned rims (e.g. TNP 1209) and flattened rims (e.g. TNP 1199) are also seen. Variants of the simple bowl include both plain and painted deep bowls (e.g. TNP 1180, 1195, 1200, 1220, 1248?), and bowls with incurving rims (e.g. TNP 1175, 1247, 1250). Closed forms include necked globular jars (TNP 1171, 1172, 1210, 1252), and carinated vessels (TNP 1229, 1267), and the use of closed jar forms is further indicated by a number of sherds (e.g. TNP1192, 1230). One ring base sherd was recovered (TNP 1200). Decoration Buff Wares: The majority of sherds from Phase A17 are painted, with only a few exceptions (e.g. TNP 1172, 1220, 1248). Elaborate decoration is almost always reserved for the exterior of vessels, although four examples of interior decoration on bowls were recorded (TNP 1199, 1228, 1233, 1250). Paint colour varies from brown to black, with a minority of greenish-brown and greenish-black examples. Decorative motifs are almost exclusively geometric, although a few sherds exhibit possible vegetal or animal depictions (e.g. TNP 1204). Again, there is an emphasis upon the use of horizontal lines (e.g. TNP 1192, 1194, 1196, 1229, and 1230), often framing bands of cross-hatched geometric patterns (e.g. TNP 1208, 1249). Plain, broad vertical lines are also common (e.g. TNP 1180, 1195, 1200), and groups of thinner vertical lines are seen (e.g. TNP 1183). Rare motifs include triangles with pendant lines (TNP 1192, 1230), the “mat-weave” pattern (TNP1233), and bands with opposed/interlocking short lines (TNP 1201, TNP 1147 from Phase A16-17). As in earlier phases, globular necked jars tend to be painted over the entirety of the neck area (TNP 1210, 1252, TNP 1157 from Phase A1617). Phase A16 (Figures 3.88-3.92, 3.160-3.163) In total, 66 registered sherds come from unmixed Phase A16 contexts (loci 98, 102, 103). A further 29 sherds come from a mixed Phase A16-17 context (Locus 104), whilst 67 come from mixed Phase A15-A16 contexts (loci 97, 99-101). Wares Buff Wares: The deep plain bowls are generally wellfired and have a fine to medium surface finish, although there are some examples of over-firing. They are produced in a buff to light orange ware with fine sand inclusions and, in a significant minority of sherds, rare lime grits. Painted bowls are made of a nearly identical ware, although the colour variation in the paste is wider and includes light grey-buff, greenish-buff, buff, light brown, and light orange variants. In addition, painted vessels are more likely to have a fine surface finish than the plain deep bowls. Similarly to the preceding phase, one globular necked jar sherd from Phase A16 (TNP 1086) was produced from a darker orange ware with coarse lime grit inclusions. All wares appear to be hand made. Shapes Buff Wares: This phase is significant for the recovery of three nearly-complete vessels: TNP1120 is a small cup with a simple vertical rim and flat base; TNP1121 is a small bowl or beaker with a simple everted rim and slightly rounded base; and TNP1101 is a carinated bowl with a slightly everted simple rim (base not preserved). However, the most common shape in this phase is the deep bowl with slightly everted rim, which makes its first significant appearance in mixed Phase A16-17 contexts (e.g. TNP 1151, 1152, 1162), and is recorded in numerous examples from unmixed Phase A16 contexts. The deep bowls are likely to have had a small flat base, to judge from the one example excavated from a Phase A16 context and the more frequently-occurring examples from mixed Phase A15-16 contexts (e.g. TNP 1049, 1056, 1059, 1072, 1073). This shape is commonly undecorated. They may be over-represented in the registered ceramics due to the fact that they were largely made from one fabric, and the only way of differentiating between them was by diameter and sherd thickness. As the bowls were hand made, there is possibility for significant variation in these attributes within the one vessel, resulting in the registration of multiple sherds from the one vessel. Painted bowls with everted rims are also found (e.g. TNP 1093, 1136), including deep bowls with painted vertical bands from mixed Phase A15-16 (TNP 1010) and A16-17 contexts (TNP 1149). Sherds of globular necked jars (TNP 1086, 1088) occur in Phase A16, and one ring-base sherd was also found (TNP 1095). 48 Decoration Buff Wares: Although the deep plain bowl is a feature of Phase A16, a significant portion of the excavated assemblage and more than half of the registered ceramics from this phase are painted. Paint colour ranges from brown to black, with greenish variants. On the nearcomplete vessels, motifs include schematic scorpions surrounded by small dots and hanging and standing lattices (TNP 1115); a swastika within two concentric circular bands and an elaborate cross (TNP 1101); and panels filled with short strokes surrounded by broad vertical and horizontal bands and groups of vertical zigzag lines (TNP 1121). A variation of this pattern is seen in a vessel from a mixed Phase A15-16 context (TNP 1057). Horizontal bands remain a common motif amongst the excavated body sherds (e.g. TNP 1025, 1087, 1100, 1102, 1124), and are supplemented by groups of diagonal strokes (e.g. TNP 1123, 1136), wavy lines (e.g. TNP 1093?, 1094), and filled triangles with pendant lines (TNP 1139). Deep bowls with broad vertical painted bands are found in both mixed A16-17 contexts (TNP 1149), and in mixed A15-16 contexts (TNP 1010), and presumably continue to be used through Phase A16. Globular jars with painted necks, as seen in earlier phases, are a feature of Phase A16 (e.g. TNP 1088). The dot motif seen on TNP 1115 is very typical for the pottery from Tall-i Gap, and is also seen on a number of sherds from mixed Phase A15-16 contexts (e.g. TNP 1054, 1055). Phase A15 (Figures 3.92-3.94, 3.164-3.165) It is difficult to discuss the ceramic developments in Phase A15, as only 10 registered sherds come from unmixed Phase A15 contexts (loci 95, 96). Most of the pottery potentially from this phase comes from mixed deposits of Phase A15-A16 (67 sherds from loci 97, 99101) and Phase A14-A15 (30 sherds from Locus 94). Wares Buff Wares: The wares of Phase A15 are very similar to those of the preceding phase. They are generally buff to light-orange/light-brown with fine sand inclusions, although greenish-buff wares are also encountered. The vessels are hand made and generally well-fired with a fine to medium surface finish, although there are a few examples of over-firing. Shapes Buff Wares: The most common shape in this phase is again the deep plain bowl with small flat base, numerous examples of which were excavated from mixed Phase A15-16 contexts, from Phase A15 contexts proper (e.g. TNP 979, 980, 983), and in mixed Phase A14-15 deposits. Deep bowls with painted vertical bands may also continue in this phase, although they are known only from mixed Phase A15-16 contexts. Shallow bowls also occur in mixed A15-16 contexts, and one decorated sherd from Phase A15 (TNP 986) suggests their continued use in this period. Decoration Buff Wares: Only one painted sherd was registered from Phase A15 (TNP 986) and it bears a pattern in dark brown paint of cross-hatched thick lines. Nevertheless, numerous examples were excavated in mixed Phase A1516 and Phase A14-15 contexts (see Figs. 3.71 and 3.73), with paint colour varying from brown to black. Common motifs include thick horizontal, vertical (TNP 1010) and diagonal lines (TNP 1070), and the continuation of the dot motif (TNP 1005, 1054, 1055). Also seen are more complex geometric patterns (e.g. TNP 1006). Bowls with a simple dark painted band at the rim, as seen in Phases A18 to A16, are also found in mixed Phase A15-16 and A14-15 contexts (TNP 968, 973, 1009, and 1058). Phase A14 (Figures 3.95-3.96, 3.166-3.167) As for Phase A15, a discussion of the ceramic developments in Phase A14 is rendered difficult by the fact that only 6 sherds come from unmixed Phase A14 contexts (loci 91-93). The remainder of the registered pottery potentially from this phase comes from mixed deposits of Phase A14-15 (30 sherds from Locus 94) and Phase A13-14 (31 sherds from loci 86, 87, 88, 89, 90). This phase is the last of the “Bakun” Period occupation at Nurabad, as indicated by the presence of some typical red-slipped and burnished Lapui pottery in the mixed Phase A13-14 deposits. Wares Buff Wares: The wares of Phase A14 are very similar to those of the preceding phase. Vessels are handmade and almost always well-fired, although there are a few examples of over-fired vessels, and the surface finish varies between fine and medium texture. Paste is generally buff to light-orange/light-brown with fine sand inclusions and occasionally lime grits. Greenish-buff wares with similar inclusions are also encountered, and in most instances the colour variation probably reflects differences in firing temperature (i.e. over-firing). Other Wares: An unusual ware is represented by TNP 978 (not illustrated) from a mixed Phase A14-15 context: it is of well-fired coarse ware with a brown/darkgrey paste, fine lime inclusions, and an orange slip on the interior surface. A number of examples of fine slipped and burnished wares were recorded from mixed Phase A13-14 contexts (e.g. TNP 946, 952). Although it cannot be claimed with certainty, it seems likely that these wares belong to Phase A13 rather than Phase A14, and represent the earliest Lapui material from Trench A. Shapes Buff Wares: Deep plain bowls are very common in mixed Phase A14-15 contexts (e.g. TNP 992, 994, 996, 997, 999, 1011), but are not found in unmixed Phase A14 contexts or in subsequent phases at Tol-e Nurabad. It is thus possible that they fall out of production and use by this phase. Shallower painted bowls with everted rims continue through this phase, as represented by material from mixed Phase A14-15 contexts (TNP 968, 973), Phase A14 contexts (TNP 963), and mixed Phase A13-14 contexts (TNP 942). It is possible that TNP 974 is the neck of a globular necked jar, which would indicate the continuation of this type into Phase 15 or possibly as late as Phase 14. A single flat base (TNP 962) is recorded from Phase A14 contexts, along with a ring base (TNP 955) from a mixed A13-14 context. 49 Other Wares: The vessels of slipped and burnished fine ware from Phase A13-14 contexts occur in shapes typical for the Lapui period, particularly the hole-mouth jar (TNP 946). Flat bases (TNP 952) are also common in the Lapui Period. Decoration Buff Wares: The small buff ware assemblage is largely unpainted, although a number of sherds show simple geometric decoration in brown-black paint, occasionally with a purplish tinge. Bowls with a single painted stripe at the rim are seen in Phase A14-15 contexts (TNP 968, 973) and possibly in a pure Phase A14 context (TNP 963), and other horizontal lines/bands are seen on sherds from Phase A13-14 contexts (TNP 944, 955). Geometric patterns consisting of horizontal and diagonal lines/bands are seen on some sherds from Phase A14-15 contexts (TNP 967, 976), which also provides an example of the dot motif seen in earlier phases (TNP 1005). From mixed Phase A13-14 contexts, examples are seen of a band of X’s (TNP 921) and of a band of cross-hatched triangles below the rim of a simple bowl (TNP 942). Other Wares: Other than the red slip and burnishing that characterises many of the Lapui sherds, they are unadorned by the application of paint, incised lines, or plastic decoration. Phase A13 (Figures 3.96-3.97, 3.167-3.168) In total, 24 sherds were registered from Phase A13 (loci 80-82, 84, 85) and a further 31 registered sherds come from mixed Phase A13-A14 contexts (loci 86-90). This phase is the first of the Lapui period at Nurabad, as indicated by the presence of typical red-slipped and burnished fine ware in mixed Phase A13-14 loci and in unmixed Phase A13 contexts. Wares Buff Wares: The buff ware sherds found in Phase A13 contexts are similar to those of the underlying phases. They are well-fired, hand made wares with a fine to medium surface finish and a buff to light brown paste with fine sand inclusions and occasionally lime grits. Slipped and Burnished Wares: These wares are generally hard and well-fired, and probably hand made (although the exterior burnishing and small size of many sherds often makes the distinction between hand and wheel manufacture a difficult one). Paste colour varies from a light brown to orange/red, with fine sand and grit inclusions (often lime) in the majority of examples. Vessels are commonly covered in a red-slip and burnished to a very fine or fine surface finish. Examples of unslipped sherds also occur in this ware, more commonly for sherds with an orange or red paste. That is, sherds with a light-coloured paste are more likely to be slipped in red than the darker, redder sherds. Some sherds produced of this ware are not slipped, and they tend to have a less regular burnish with the result that their surface finish is coarser, varying from fine to medium/coarse. Shapes Buff Wares: The buff wares of Phase A13 are almost exclusively body sherds, and provide scant information on vessel forms. Only one rim fragment (TNP 908) was registered from this phase, and it comes from a small, plain bowl or beaker (diam. 12 cm) with an outflaring rim. Slipped and Burnished Wares: The most common Lapui vessels of Phase A13 are hole-mouth jars (TNP 905, 912, 946), with a diameter at the rim of c.15-16 cm. Also recorded is a bowl with slightly incurving rim (TNP 900, diam. 18 cm), and a body sherd from a fine carinated vessel (TNP 923). The only base fragment recorded (TNP 922) is of a simple flat type. Decoration Buff Wares: From mixed Phase A13-14 contexts, examples are seen of a band of X’s (TNP 921) and of a band of cross-hatched triangles below the rim of a simple bowl (TNP 942). From Phase A13 proper, notable motifs include panels filled with short strokes (TNP 902), as seen typically at Tall-i Gap, geometric or naturalistic designs interspersed with fields of dots (TNP 909), and horizontal panels filled with rows of “sigma” (Σ) motifs. Simple horizontal lines/bands are common design elements (e.g. TNP 902, 926). It should be noted that the majority of buff ware sherds in this phase are undecorated. Slipped and Burnished Wares: Other than the red slip and burnishing that characterises many of the Lapui sherds, these wares are undecorated. Phases A12a and A12b (Figures 3.98-3.100, 3.169-3.170) In total, 9 sherds were registered from Phase A12b (loci 74, 75, 78, 83) and 56 registered sherds come from Phase A12a (loci 69-73, 77, 79). A further 23 registered sherds come from mixed Phase A11-A12a contexts (loci 68, 76). Three major categories of ware can be delineated for this phase, including a fine slipped and burnished ware equivalent to Lapui fine ware, and a coarser, unslipped, grit-tempered ware which is probably equivalent to Lapui coarse ware found in the Kur River Basin. There are also numerous examples of residual Bakun-like buff ware sherds. Wares Residual Buff Wares: The vessels in this category are well-fired, with a fine to medium surface finish on exterior and interior. The paste is buff coloured with fine sand inclusions and occasionally fine grits. Light brown and greenish-buff variants of the paste also occur. Slipped and Burnished Wares: Vessels of this ware category are always well-fired, and generally of a very fine or fine exterior surface finish, with interior finish generally slightly coarser, varying from fine to medium. Inclusions are predominantly of fine sand, occasionally with fine lime grits or mica. This ware is characterised by the presence of a slip on vessel exteriors and the majority of interiors and a smooth, even, generally horizontal burnish (although irregular burnishing producing a less even surface is also seen). Paste colour varies from the 50 predominant light-brown/brown through to orange and red, whilst slip colour varies from the predominant red through red-brown to dark brown, with one example of dark grey slip noted (TNP 881). Slip colour shows some relation to the colour of the paste, as the three sherds with red paste registered from Phase A12 have dark brown slip, whereas light brown sherds are all red-slipped. Similarly, the grey-slipped sherd is characterised by a grey paste (with an orange core). Unslipped Grit-tempered Wares: Vessels of this ware category are always well-fired, although they show a greater degree of variation in paste colour within the sherd profile than seen in the slipped and burnished wares. The paste colour varies from light-brown/brown to orange and red, and a brown or grey core is seen in a number of examples. Two examples of dark grey paste were recorded, although one appears to be a result of burning rather than firing conditions. Inclusions are generally of mineral grits, often of medium-sized lime particles. Burnishing is seen on the exterior surface of around half of the vessels, and on the interior of most open forms. Exterior surface finish is coarser than the slipped and burnished wares, varying from fine to very coarse (medium most common), whilst interior finishes vary from fine to coarse, again most commonly medium. Shapes Residual Buff Wares: The registered buff wares of Phase A12 are predominantly small body sherds that provide very little information on vessel shape. The few sherds diagnostic of shape come from bowls with a simple everted or slightly outflaring rim (TNP 886, 892). Slipped and Burnished Wares: Slipped wares occur in the form of bowls with everted (TNP 918, 960, not drawn) and out-flaring (TNP 838, 884, 889, not drawn) rims, hole-mouth jars (e.g. TNP 879), and jars with outturned rims (e.g. TNP 917). An uncommon everted and flattened rim form is exhibited by TNP 881, which is also produced of an unusual grey slipped ware. All examples of fine slipped and burnished ware bases from Phase A12 were flat (TNP 828, 831, 848, 858, 880, 915, not drawn). Unslipped Grit-tempered Wares: These wares generally occur in the same range of shapes as the fine red-slipped wares, including bowls with everted or outflaring rims (TNP 960, illustrated; TNP 833, 836, 853, 870, 918 not drawn), hole-mouth jars (e.g. TNP 840), and jars with out-turned rim (TNP 846, not drawn). Flat bases are also the only base form recorded (TNP 875, illustrated; TNP 832, 841, 844, 845, 858, 915, not drawn). Decoration Residual Buff Wares: Paint colour varies from brown to dark brown. Motifs consist predominantly of horizontal straight lines, singly or in groups (TNP 837, 839, 852, 897, illustrated; TNP 854, 886, 894, not illustrated), and rare wavy lines (TNP 898). Other motifs include the “Σ” pattern (TNP 895) and a possible vegetal motif (TNP 883). Slipped and Burnished Wares: Other than the red slip and burnishing, sherds are undecorated. Unslipped Grit-tempered Wares: Vessels of this ware are undecorated other than by the application of slip and burnishing. Phase A11 (Figures 3.100-3.101, 3.171) Overall, 56 registered sherds come from Phase A11 contexts (loci 65-67), and a further 23 were registered from mixed Phase A11-A12a contexts (loci 68, 76). Four major ware categories can be delineated for this phase, including: a buff ware that probably represents residual material from the lower Bakun layers at the site (although still comprising approximately 40% of the excavated sherds from this phase); a fine slipped and burnished ware equivalent to Lapui Fine ware; a coarser, unslipped, grit-tempered ware equivalent to Lapui Coarse ware; and a chaff (+grit)-tempered coarse ware used only for the production of bevelled-rim bowls. Wares Residual Buff Wares: Sherds of this ware are very similar to buff ware from earlier phases at Tol-e Nurabad. Buff wares of Phase A11 are well-fired, with fine sand inclusions and paste colour varying from a predominant buff to light brown and orange. Given the small size of recovered sherds, it is often difficult to determine whether these wares were hand made or turned on a wheel. Exterior finish is generally fine, and interior finish fine to medium. The great majority have exterior decoration in brown to dark brown paint, with occasional greenish or reddish variants. Slipped and Burnished Wares: Represent a continuation of the ware described for the previous phase, i.e. well-fired vessels with a reddish slip, generally burnished to a very fine/fine exterior surface finish, with sand and lime grit inclusions. Paste is most commonly orange, grading to brown, light brown, or red in order of decreasing frequency. Slip is most commonly red, but red-brown, red-orange, and dark brown examples are also seen, as well as one dark-brown/grey slip (TNP 873) which has an irregular burnish and one highly-burnished dark-grey/black slip on a sherd with dark-grey paste (TNP 812). Interior surfaces are occasionally burnished, generally on open forms, and interior finishes are usually coarser than exterior, varying from fine to medium with occasional examples of coarse finish. Unslipped Grit-tempered Wares: This ware is wellfired, although colour variations across the vessel body and through the sherd section are commonly seen. Inclusions are of medium-sized grits, often of lime. Paste colour varies from red and orange to brown, with grey cores common. These wares are unslipped but almost always burnished to a fine or medium interior and exterior surface finish. Chaff (+Grit)-tempered Wares: This ware is used only for the production of bevelled-rim bowls. These hand made vessels are coarse to very coarse with a buff paste, commonly with a grey core, and chaff temper. In three cases, large grit inclusions were also seen. Other Wares: One sherd may represent an example of “Asupas ware” as recorded in the Kur River Basin Survey (Alden 2003: 196): TNP 860, a well-fired vessel of buff ware with fine sand, mica, and lime grit inclusions and painted decoration in light brown. Other ware types 51 include a body sherd from a carinated vessel (TNP 863) of a light grey ware with fine grit inclusions. Additionally, a dark grey burnished ware with medium lime grit inclusions was recorded (the hole-mouth jar TNP 805). Shapes Buff Wares: Buff wares are found in large closed forms (e.g. TNP 795, 796, 803) as well as in finer forms. Unfortunately, most buff ware pieces are sherds, reducing their typological usefulness. The sherd TNP 798 may represent a fragment of a carinated vessel. Slipped and Burnished Fine Wares: Recognisable shapes include bowls with outflaring rim (TNP 809, 816, 822, not illustrated) and hole-mouth jars (TNP 773, 783, not illustrated). One fragment of a flat base was registered (TNP 778, not drawn). Unslipped Grit-tempered Wares: Bowls with everted rims were recorded, in addition to a bowl with everted, flattened rim (TNP 811) a bowl with a vertical, flattened or “expanded” rim (TNP 871, see Nicholas 1990) and hole-mouth jars with simple rim (TNP 763) and with outturned or club rim (TNP 808). Chaff (and Grit)-tempered Wares: This ware is found only in bevelled-rim bowl. Five rim fragments were recorded from mixed A11-12a contexts and pure A11 contexts. Diameters generally vary from 13-15 cm, one with a diameter c.19 cm. One flat base fragment with a diameter of c.12 cm was recorded. Other Wares: TNP 860 is an example of a jar with an out-turned rim (diam. 10 cm). Decoration Buff Wares: Decoration of the buff ware sherds is similar to that seen in the Bakun levels from Nurabad, incorporating predominantly geometric motifs in brown/dark brown paint. Examples include broad painted bands, especially on larger vessels (e.g. TNP 795, 803), herringbone patterns (e.g. TNP 796), and typical dot motifs (e.g. TNP 813). The boxed straight and wavy lines on TNP 798 are an uncommon motif. Unslipped Grit-tempered Wares: One burnished vessel rim (TNP 811) has purplish-brown paint on top of the rim and inside of the lip. Other Wares: TNP 860 (Asupas ware?) has brown painted decoration on the shoulder, consisting of two horizontal lines with cross-hatching in between Slipped and Burnished Wares: No decoration. Chaff (and Grit)-tempered Wares: No decoration. Phase A10 (Figures 3.102-3.104, 3.172-3.173) In total, 126 registered sherds come from Phase A10 deposits (loci 60-64). Four main ware types can be delineated for this phase. These include: a buff ware that represents residual material from the earlier Bakun layers at the site; a fine slipped and burnished ware equivalent to Lapui ware (sometimes occurring in an unslipped variety); a coarser, orange/brown grit-tempered ware (varieties with wash and without); and a chaff-tempered coarse ware used only for the production of bevelled-rim bowls. Wares Residual Buff Wares: These wares have a buff/lightbrown to light orange paste, with fine sand inclusions and occasionally mineral grit, micaceous, or vegetal inclusions. A variant of this ware occurs in a greenishbuff paste with similar inclusions, with the colour difference probably related to firing conditions. These wares are well-fired, with a fine to medium surface finish on interior and exterior and generally appear to be hand made, although a significant minority show signs of possible wheel turning. Slipped and Burnished Fine Wares: This is a wellfired ware, probably wheel made, with a very fine/fine surface finish, characterised by a thick reddish slip and smooth, horizontal burnishing (although the strong horizontal burnishing makes it difficult to differentiate hand or wheel manufacture for small Lapui sherds). Slip colour varies from a predominant red through reddishbrown to dark brown. Slip is commonly seen on the interior of vessels as well as the exterior, and interior surfaces are often burnished. Paste colour varies from predominant orange to buff, light brown and brown, with fine sand inclusions and occasionally mica or fine grits. A variant of this ware is represented by vessels with the same paste and inclusions, but which are un-slipped. The only difference between the groups is the slightly coarser surface finish of the unslipped vessels. Grit-tempered Wares (with red to orange wash): This ware is well-fired and probably wheel made, with a fine to medium finish, and commonly bears a red-orange wash. Around half the registered examples are also burnished on the exterior surface, and open forms are sometimes burnished on their interior surface. Paste varies from a predominant orange through light brown and brown, with grey interior surfaces and/or cores recorded in a small proportion of cases. Inclusions are generally medium to coarse mineral grits. Wash colour varies from red to orange, with minor reddish-brown and brown variants. A sub-category of this ware is represented by vessels with the same paste/inclusion characteristics, but without the surface wash. Vessels are commonly burnished (lightly and unevenly) on their outer surface, producing a fine/medium finish, and interior burnishing is also seen. Chaff (and Grit)-tempered Wares: This ware is used only for the production of bevelled-rim bowls. It is a very coarse hand made ware with light brown paste, well-fired but often with a grey core. All examples from this phase contain chaff temper, with sand and micaceous inclusions and mineral grits seen in a minority of sherds. Other Wares: One example of a hole-mouth jar rim fragment (TNP 759) was produced of a fine dark grey paste with a dark grey slip. A bowl with everted, collared rim (TNP 646, not illustrated) was produced in a medium finish light grey ware with mineral grits and a dark-grey wash/slip on interior and exterior surfaces. Shapes Residual Buff Wares: Almost all buff wares from this phase represent residual pieces from earlier (Bakun Period) occupation at the site, and hence common Bakun buff ware forms such as necked globular jars (e.g. TNP 680, 693), bowls with everted rim (e.g. TNP 704, 741) 52 and ring-based vessels (e.g. TNP 637, 697) are all recorded. Exceptions may include the few body-sherds with vegetal temper (e.g. TNP 702, 748, not illustrated) and the unusual bowl rim TNP 673, a well-fired vessel of greenish-buff paste with lime pops. This rim shape has some parallels amongst the red-slipped and burnished wares from this phase (TNP 695, 752). Chaff (and Grit)-tempered Wares: This ware is used only for the manufacture of bevelled-rim bowls. The bowls show a range of diameters with two modes: one at diameter c.14 cm (e.g. TNP 643, 688) and the other at diameter c.20 cm (e.g. TNP 671, 690, 722). (Slipped and Burnished) Fine Wares: Slipped and burnished fine wares are produced in the form of holemouth and necked jars (e.g. TNP 695, 752), and bowls with everted, outflaring, or upright rims (e.g. TNP 638, 698, 715). All registered base sherds are flat. Unslipped fine wares are produced in virtually the same range of shapes, although no hole-mouth jars were registered. Grit-tempered Wares: Wares in this category that had a surface wash were used for the production of bowls with outflaring and everted rims (e.g. TNP 657, 659) and also for vessels with flat bases. A shape seen in this ware but not the fine wares is the bowl with collared rim (e.g. TNP 655). Plain grit-tempered ware was used for the production of hole-mouth jars with a variety of rim forms (e.g. TNP 636, 658, 661) and a small bowl/jar with slightly out-turned rim (TNP 751). Decoration Residual Buff Wares: Buff painted wares show a similar range of decoration to material from the Bakun Period levels at Tol-e Nurabad. This includes painted decoration in brown-black paint in which simple lines and geometric motifs predominate (e.g. TNP 674, 691, 699, 700, 704, 717, 723, 735, and 741). Depictions of animals are also occasionally seen (e.g. TNP 675, 742). A number of the buff wares are unpainted (e.g. TNP 635, 725). One sherd (TNP 689) shows decoration in the form of a large raised appliqué cordon with trapezoidal section. (Slipped/Burnished) Fine Wares: No decoration. Grit-tempered Wares: No decoration. Chaff-tempered Wares: No decoration. Phase A9 (Figures 3.105, 3.174) In total, 58 registered sherds come from Phase A9 contexts (loci 52, 54-59). Wares Slipped and Burnished Fine Wares: These wares are well-fired and appear wheel made, with a reddish slip and a smooth, even burnish creating a very fine/fine exterior surface finish. Paste colour varies from a predominant orange to light brown and brown, with fine sand and occasionally mica and, more rarely, fine mineral grits. Slip varies from a predominant red through red-brown, brown, and dark-brown. A significant minority of vessel interiors are also slipped and burnished to a fine/medium texture, on both open and closed forms. Grit-tempered Wares: These wares are well-fired and wheel made, with a fine/medium exterior finish and a medium to coarse interior finish. The paste is coloured orange to brown, with such colour gradations often seen within the one vessel, and is characterised by the presence of medium/coarse mineral grits. A minority of vessels in this ware are burnished on the exterior, varying from an even smooth burnish to a less regular burnish. One example of interior surface burnishing is also recorded. One unusual grit-tempered vessel (TNP 578) has an exterior buff wash and brown painted linear decoration. Vegetal-tempered Wares: This is the first phase in which vegetal-tempered wares are commonly used for vessels other than bevelled-rim bowls. The fabric of the vegetal-tempered wares varies significantly in paste, inclusions, and technique of manufacture. Although more consistency is seen within certain subsets of the chafftempered ware, absolute numbers of sherds are low and it is difficult to draw clear conclusions regarding possible chaff ware sub-groups from the data. Bevelled-rim bowls, for instance, are consistently hand made from a coarse/very coarse, light brown paste with major vegetal and minor fine grit inclusions. They are generally wellfired, although exhibiting a grey core in most cases. The remaining vegetal-tempered wares commonly exhibit orange or light brown paste, with chaff as the major tempering agent and medium/coarse mineral grits forming a significant temper component in some sherds. They are well-fired and frequently exhibit grey cores. In general, these wares display medium to coarse textures on interior and exterior surfaces, and examples of both hand made and wheel-turned vessels were recorded. Wheelturned vessels were seen particularly to have been manufactured of clay incorporating both chaff and medium/coarse mineral grit temper. Residual Buff Wares: All buff wares in this phase are likely to represent residual Bakun Period material. As for this earlier material at Tol-e Nurabad, buff-wares of Phase A9 are well-fired, hand made wares with a fine/medium finish, varying in colour from buff to light brown with fine sand inclusions and occasionally fine grit inclusions. They are commonly decorated with darkbrown paint. Shapes Slipped and Burnished Fine Wares: Forms in this ware were similar to preceding phases, including bowls with everted rim, a hole-mouth jar (TNP 627), and one registered flat base sherd. Grit-tempered Wares: This ware is used for the production of bowls with everted or slightly incurving rim, hole-mouth jars (e.g. TNP 591, 602), and other uncertain closed forms (e.g. TNP 578). Vegetal-tempered Wares: These wares were used for the production of bevelled-rim bowls, typical Banesh “goblets” (e.g. TNP 577), hole-mouth jars (e.g. TNP 595), and vessels with open spouts (e.g. TNP 610, 634). Amongst the chaff-tempered wares, bases were exclusively flat (e.g. TNP 582) and one example of a tall, wheel-made, jar/beaker with a flat base was recorded (TNP 600). Bevelled-rim bowls again show great variation in rim diameter, ranging from c.12 cm (e.g. TNP 612, 619) to greater than 20 cm (e.g. TNP 598, 599, 620). Residual Buff Wares: Bowl with everted rim. 53 Decoration Slipped and Burnished Fine Wares: Not decorated. Grit-tempered Wares: TNP578 has buff slip and two horizontal painted bands in dark-brown paint. All remaining sherds in this ware were undecorated. Vegetal-tempered Wares: Not decorated. Residual Buff Ware: The residual buff ware of Phase A9 exhibits typical Late Bakun painted motifs incorporating dense geometric patterns (e.g. TNP 606, 614). Phase A8 (Figures 3.106, 3.175) Overall, 45 registered sherds come from Phase A8 deposits (loci 43-51). Wares Slipped and Burnished Ware: This is a well-fired, wheel made ware with a reddish slip, burnished to a very fine/fine exterior surface finish. Interior slip and burnish is also frequently seen, with interior surfaces burnished to a very fine/medium finish. Paste varies from brown to orange and red, with fine sand inclusions and occasionally mica and fine/medium mineral grits. Slip colour varies from the common red to red-orange, redbrown, and dark brown. One example of light brown slip was also recorded. Grit-tempered Ware: This is a well-fired, wheel made ware with a medium/coarse interior and exterior surface finish. Paste colour varies from orange to brown, with inclusions of medium/coarse mineral grits. One example (TNP 552, not illustrated) has a brown wash on the interior surface. Chaff-tempered Ware: These are well-fired hand or wheel made wares with a light brown or occasionally light orange paste, sometimes exhibiting a grey core. All examples have major vegetal (chaff) temper, but fine/medium mineral grits are also very commonly seen. Surface finish varies from medium to coarse, although bevelled-rim bowls show very coarse exteriors and coarse interior finishes. Two of the bevelled-rim bowls show signs of a light orange interior wash. Other Wares: One bowl with everted rim (TNP 562, not illustrated) was wheel made from a well-fired, coarse, grey grit-tempered ware. One painted body sherd (TNP 540) was from a well-fired, wheel made vessel with light orange paste and fine sand inclusions and a fine interior and exterior surface finish. Shapes Slipped and Burnished Wares: This ware was used to produce bowls with outflaring rim (e.g. TNP 541), holemouth jars, and necked jars (not illustrated). Two other rim sherds (TNP 531, 537) may represent examples of bowls in this ware, although they do not have exterior slip or burnishing. Grit-tempered Wares: This ware was used to produce bowls with simple everted rim, necked jars, and holemouth jars. Flat bases were the only base form recorded. TNP 574 represents an unusual (open?) form in this ware. Chaff-tempered Wares: Varieties of this ware were used to produce bevelled-rim bowls (e.g. TNP 545, 550, 551, 553, 555), Banesh “goblets” (e.g. TNP 557, 572?), and vessels with open spout (e.g. TNP 566). Decoration Slipped and Burnished Wares: Not decorated. Grit-tempered Wares: Two sherds (TNP 544, 548, not illustrated) show single lines in black paint. Chaff-tempered Wares: Not decorated. Other Wares: TNP 540 is decorated in red-brown paint with a geometric pattern of nested V-shapes hanging from a broad horizontal line. Phase A7 (Figures 3.107, 3.176) Overall, 36 sherds were registered from Phase A7 deposits (loci 40-42). Wares Slipped and Burnished Fine Wares: This is a wellfired wheel made ware with reddish slip and an even horizontal burnish, with an exterior surface finish ranging from very fine to fine. Paste colour varies from light brown to brown and orange, with fine sand inclusions and rarely mica or fine mineral grits. Slip varies from a predominant red to dark-brown, with one light grey and one dark-grey example. Grit-tempered Wares: This is a well-fired, wheelmade ware with a medium to coarse finish. Paste varies from a predominant orange through orange-brown to brown, and is characterised by the presence of mineral grits ranging in size from fine to a predominant medium or coarse. A variant with a dark-grey paste and coarse mineral grits occurs in two examples. A significant minority of sherds are burnished, commonly on both exterior and interior surfaces, and a small proportion exhibit an exterior grey/brown wash or a red-orange slip. Vegetal-tempered Wares: There are four bevelled-rim bowl sherds in this phase, which are hand made from a well-fired light brown ware with vegetal (chaff) temper or with mixed vegetal and grit temper. Exterior surface finishes are very coarse, and interior finishes are coarse. The non-bevelled-rim bowl sherds are wheel-made and exhibit a well-fired orange paste, although with a grey core. They are tempered with chaff and medium-sized mineral grits, and their surface finish varies from very fine to coarse. Shapes Slipped and Burnished Fine Wares: This ware is used to produce bowls with everted rim (e.g. TNP 512), as well as bowls with outflaring or slightly incurving rims (not illustrated). Grit-tempered Wares: This ware is used to produce bowls with everted, outflaring (e.g. TNP 513) and incurving rims, in addition to typical Banesh cups (e.g. TNP 483, 489), and closed jar forms (e.g. TNP 517, 518, 525). One unusual footed base (TNP 527) was also produced in this ware. Vegetal-tempered Wares: This ware is primarily seen in bevelled-rim bowls (not illustrated), but an unusual jar/bowl with out-turned, flattened rim (TNP 490) was produced of a vegetal and grit-tempered ware, as were other closed forms (e.g. TNP 519). One flat base (TNP 516) was also found in this ware. 54 Decoration Slipped and Burnished Fine Wares: Not decorated. Grit-tempered Wares: Two sherds (TNP 528; also TNP 511, not illustrated) were decorated with brown painted lines. Vegetal-tempered Wares: Two sherds were decorated with horizontal straight and wavy lines in brown paint (e.g. TNP 519). Phase A6 (Figures 3.108, 3.177) In total, 41 registered sherds come from Phase A6 contexts (loci 34, 36, 37, 39). Wares Slipped and Burnished Fine Wares: This is a wellfired, wheel made ware with a reddish slip and burnished surface, with a very fine/fine exterior finish. Paste colour varies from light brown to brown and orange, with fine sand inclusions and rarely mica or fine mineral grits. Slip colour varies from red to red-brown, brown, and darkbrown, and is frequently applied to the interior surfaces of vessels in addition to the exterior. Vessels are burnished on the exterior and often on the interior, with interior finish ranging from very fine to coarse. Grit-tempered Wares: These wares are wheel made and generally well-fired (two under-fired examples) with a medium exterior finish and a medium/coarse interior finish. Paste varies from orange to brown, often within the one sherd/vessel, and grey cores are common. The paste is characterised by the presence of mineral grits ranging from fine to a predominant medium or coarse. Around half the registered sherds were burnished on the exterior and a number on the interior as well. Five sherds exhibited decoration consisting of painted black lines (not illustrated). A variant of this ware (TNP 460) has dark grey paste. Vegetal-tempered Wares: This ware was predominantly used to produce bevelled-rim bowls, which were well-fired and hand made with a coarse/very coarse exterior finish and a coarse interior finish. Paste colour varies from light brown to brown and light orange, often in the same vessel, and chaff temper is seen in all examples (no mineral grits). The remaining chafftempered wares (TNP 459, 504, not illustrated) are also well-fired but with a finer surface finish than the bevelled-rim bowls, particularly in the burnished example TNP 504. They exhibit light brown to orange pastes, with only vegetal (chaff) inclusions. Other Wares: TNP 478 is fine, well-fired, wheel made bowl with collared rim, made from dark-grey paste with fine sand inclusions. It has an even, smooth, horizontal burnish inside and out. The shape of this vessel is paralleled very closely by a vessel from levels 28-35 of the step trench at Tall-i Ghazir, dated to the Uruk period (Caldwell 1968: Fig. 21). However, the Tall-i Ghazir vessel is red-slipped rather than grey. Shapes Slipped and Burnished Fine Wares: This ware was used to produce bowls with simple everted rim (not illustrated), bowls with outflaring rim (e.g. TNP 476, 480, 505, not drawn), bowls with everted collared rim (TNP 495, not illustrated), and bowls with upright rim (e.g. TNP 477). Closed forms including necked jars (e.g. TNP 473) and carinated vessels (e.g. TNP 457) were also produced. The only registered examples of bases were flat (e.g. TNP 479, 494, not illustrated). Grit-tempered Wares: This ware was used to produce bowls with everted rim (e.g. TNP 501, not illustrated), and closed forms such as hole-mouth and necked jars (e.g. TNP 460, 481). Vegetal-tempered Wares: Wares in this group were used to produce bevelled-rim bowls (e.g. TNP 470, 497, 498), with diameters varying between 12 and 16 cm. Also produced were bowls with everted rim (TNP 459, not illustrated), and a necked jar (TNP 504, not illustrated). Decoration Slipped and Burnished Fine Wares: Not decorated. Grit-tempered Wares: TNP 474 and 475 had one horizontal line in brown-black paint. Chaff-tempered Wares: Not decorated. Phase A5 (Figures 3.109-3.110, 3.178) A total of 101 registered sherds come from Phase A5 contexts (loci 25, 30, 32, 33). Wares Grit-tempered wares become the most prominent in the registered assemblage, followed by vegetal-tempered wares and red-slipped wares. Grit-tempered Wares: These wares are well-fired and wheel made, often with an exterior burnish, and slipped/washed and painted examples were recorded. Paste colour varies from light brown to a predominant brown, with orange-brown and orange very common. Vessels commonly display a grey or dark grey core. Inclusions are of mineral grits, ranging from fine to coarse, with medium and coarse being the most common. Around half of the registered vessels had a burnished exterior surface, with surface finish generally ranging from fine to medium. Unburnished wares had surface finishes generally ranging from medium to coarse. A low frequency of sherds was burnished on both interior and exterior surfaces. A small minority of the registered sherds were decorated with brown painted motifs, almost always horizontal straight and wavy lines. Slipped and Burnished Fine Wares: This is a wellfired, wheel-made ware with a reddish slip, burnished to a very fine/fine surface finish. Paste colour varies from light brown through brown to a predominant orange, and the ware is characterised by the presence of fine sand inclusions and occasionally mica. Slip colour varies from red and orange to brown. Slip is commonly employed in the interior of vessels in addition to the exterior, and vessel interiors are generally burnished to very fine/medium finish. Vegetal-tempered Wares: Two bevelled-rim bowls were recorded. They are well-fired, hand made vessels of light-brown/brown paste with a coarse interior and exterior surface finish, characterised by chaff temper with either mica or medium red mineral grit inclusions. The remaining vegetal-tempered wares are well-fired and wheel made, with exterior surface finishes varying from fine to medium and coarse (rare), and interior surfaces varying from fine (rare) to medium and coarse. Paste 55 colour varies from buff to light brown, brown and orange (most frequent), although dark grey cores are common. One example (TNP 412) with dark grey paste was recorded. In addition to the vegetal temper, inclusions of mineral grits were very common, with sand and mica inclusions less frequent. Other Wares: Four examples of grey wares were recorded (TNP 417, 455, illustrated; TNP 376, 452, not illustrated). One (TNP 455) is a body sherd from very fine, well-fired, wheel-made vessel with a dark-grey slipped and burnished surface and a light grey paste with fine sand inclusions. Two other examples (TNP 376, 417) come from well-fired bowls with fine/medium surface finishes and sandy grey paste, with TNP376 also having a grey wash and exterior burnish. The final sherd (TNP 452) is from a very fine, well-fired, wheel made, carinated vessel made of a light grey sandy paste. Shapes Grit-tempered Wares: The most commonly recorded shape was the bowl with everted rim (e.g. TNP 365, 421, 430), and other open forms with upright (e.g. TNP 371, 420, 428) and outflaring rims were also registered. Closed forms included hole-mouth jars (e.g. TNP 377, 424) and necked jars (e.g. TNP 363). One sherd (TNP 426) appears to be from a small carinated vessel of Late Banesh type, well known from Tal-e Malyan (Sumner 1985: Fig. 3; Miller and Sumner 2004: Fig. 3a; Abdi 2001; Fig. 22.7) and comparable to materials from mid3rd millennium BC Susa (Carter 1980: Fig. 28.1-4; Steve and Gasche 1971: Pls. 16.7, 21.11, 25, 26 and 22.7, 12). An additional carinated vessel sherd (TNP 427) is similar to these vessels in shape, ware and decoration, although the vessel profile is more complex at the carination. Bases were variable, and included examples of flat bases, disc bases (e.g. TNP 338), and ring bases (e.g. TNP 442). The most unusual shape in this ware is TNP404/5/6/7, a small vessel with a globular shape with a large hole and 6 or 7 smaller perforations at the base (?). Slipped and Burnished Wares: This ware was found in the form of bowls with outflaring rim (not illustrated), bowls with slightly incurving rim (not illustrated), holemouth jars (e.g. TNP 375), and necked jars (e.g. TNP 379). Unusual vessels included a necked jar with a strongly carinated body (TNP 388), and a jar with an unusual out-turned rim (TNP 374). Vegetal-tempered Wares: This ware was used to produce bevelled-rim bowls, with a diameter varying from 18 to 26 cm (e.g. TNP 416). Also recorded were bowls with upright, everted, or outflaring rims (not illustrated), a necked jar (TNP 341), and examples of ring bases (e.g. TNP 441). An unusual closed form is represented by TNP 364. Decoration Grit-tempered Wares: A number of the registered sherds were decorated with brown painted motifs, almost always horizontal straight and wavy lines. One exception is the decoration of TNP 427, which uses both horizontal and diagonal lines on the vessel shoulder. In addition, plastic decoration was used on some grit-tempered sherds (e.g. TNP 366, 412). Slipped and Burnished Wares: Not decorated. Vegetal-tempered Wares: Six of the registered sherds had geometric decoration in brown-to-black paint. Motifs consisted exclusively of straight and wavy horizontal lines. Other Wares: Not decorated. Phase A4 (Figures 3.111, 3.179) In total, 46 registered sherds come from Phase A4 contexts (loci 23, 26-29, 31, 35). Wares Grit-tempered Wares: This is a well-fired, hand or wheel made ware generally with a fine/medium exterior surface finish and a medium/coarse interior finish. Paste colour varies from brown to orange, often within the same vessel, and is characterised by the presence of mineral grit inclusions varying from fine to medium (predominant) and coarse. Around half of the registered vessels were burnished on their exterior surface, whilst interior burnishing was much rarer. A small minority of sherds exhibited exterior slip or wash, usually dark brown. Vegetal and Grit-tempered Wares: This is a wellfired, wheel made ware with a surface finish varying from fine to coarse. Paste varies from orange to brown in colour, often with a grey core, and is characterised by the presence of vegetal (i.e. chaff) and medium mineral grit inclusions. An exterior brown/orange slip or wash is common. Slipped and Burnished Fine Wares: This is a wellfired, wheel-made ware with a reddish slip and a very fine/fine exterior burnish. Paste varies from light brown through brown to orange, and is characterised by the presence of fine sand inclusions and occasionally mica. Exterior slip colour varies from a predominant red to brown and, rarely, dark brown. Interior surfaces are also commonly red-slipped and burnished to a fine/medium finish. Other Wares: One bevelled-rim bowl was recorded (TNP 408). It was hand made of light brown paste and well-fired, with a coarse surface finish. Two examples were recorded of fine/medium light brown wheel-made, well-fired, sand-tempered wares, which were very similar to the fabric of the red-slipped and burnished wares. One of these has a grey wash on both surfaces. Shapes Grit-tempered Ware: This ware was used to produce both open bowls (e.g. TNP 347), and closed form such as necked jars (e.g. TNP 343) and hole-mouth jars (e.g. TNP 344). Vegetal and Grit-tempered Ware: A bowl with an everted rim (not illustrated) and a ring base (TNP 305) were produced from this ware. Slipped and Burnished Fine Ware: Bowls with everted or outflaring rim (not illustrated), and a necked jar (TNP 353) were produced in this ware. Decoration Grit-tempered Ware: A small number of sherds were decorated with brown-black painted horizontal lines (e.g. TNP 306), whilst other sherds (e.g. TNP 307, 314) show plastic decoration. 56 Vegetal and Grit-tempered Ware: A few of the registered sherds (e.g. TNP 304, 305) were decorated with horizontal lines in brown-black paint (one red-brown variant was recorded). Slipped and Burnished Fine Ware: No decoration. Other Wares: No decoration. Phase A3 (Figures 3.112-3.113, 3.180-3.181) A total of 85 sherds was registered from Phase A3 contexts (loci 12, 13, 15-22). Wares Grit-tempered Ware: this is a well-fired, wheel-made ware with a fine/medium surface finish inside and out. Paste varies from rare light brown to dark-grey/brown and orange (common), and is characterised by the presence of mineral grit inclusions varying from fine to medium (predominant) and coarse. Approximately half of the vessels are burnished on their exterior surface (rarely on the interior), and a minority are slipped in red/darkbrown. Vegetal-tempered Ware: This is a well-fired, wheelmade ware with a fine/medium exterior surface finish and a medium/coarse interior finish. Paste colour varies from buff to brown and orange, commonly with a grey core, and is characterised by the presence of vegetal (chaff) inclusions and occasionally fine sand inclusions. A majority of sherds are burnished on their exterior surface (rarely with interior burnish), and the majority of burnished wares are painted. Vegetal and Grit-tempered Ware: These are wellfired, wheel and hand made wares with a fine/medium exterior finish and a medium/coarse interior finish. Paste colour varies from light brown to brown and orange (predominant), and is characterised by the presence of chaff temper and mineral grit inclusions ranging from fine (rare) to medium and coarse. Approximately half are burnished on the exterior (rarely interior burnished), and painted burnished examples are also seen. Slipped and Burnished Fine Ware: This is a wellfired, wheel-made ware with a reddish-slip, commonly burnished to a very fine/fine exterior surface finish and frequently burnished on the interior to a fine/medium finish. Paste varies from buff through light brown and orange, and is characterised by the presence of fine sand inclusions and rarely mica. Slip colour varies from a predominant red to red-brown, brown, and dark-brown. Shapes Grit-tempered Ware: This ware was used to produce bowls with everted, outflaring and upright rims (e.g. TNP 280), as well as closed forms including hole-mouth and necked jars (e.g. TNP 230, 247, 276, 281). One example of a very shallow ring base was recorded (TNP 225). Vegetal-tempered Ware: This ware was used to produce a variety of bowls (e.g. TNP 249, 257), in addition to closed forms including (necked) jars (e.g. TNP 212, 270, 277, 288, 290, 293). One example of a ring base (TNP 262) was recorded in this ware. Vegetal and Grit-tempered Ware: This ware was used to produce necked jars and other closed forms (e.g. TNP 214, 286, 292, 301). An unusual shape in this ware is the upright (jar?) rim with thick collar (TNP 248). One ring-base was recorded in this ware (TNP 213). Slipped and Burnished Fine Ware: Bowls with everted rim (not illustrated), and a hole-mouth jar (TNP 237) were recorded in this ware. Decoration Grit-tempered Ware: A number of sherds (e.g. TNP 250) were painted on the exterior surface with geometric decoration in brown-black paint. Additionally, plastic decoration was used on a number of grit-ware sherds (e.g. TNP 286, 299). Vegetal-tempered Ware: A significant proportion of vessels in this ware are painted on their exterior surface with brown paint, with groups of horizontal straight lines (e.g. TNP 212, 288, 290, 293, 303), and occasionally wavy or vertical lines (e.g. TNP 270). The small bowl TNP 257 was painted with short strokes in faded brown paint on the flattened upper surface of its lip. Plastic decoration in the form of an impressed cordon was seen on one vegetal-tempered sherd (TNP 277). Vegetal and Grit-tempered Wares: Sherds were occasionally painted on their exterior surface with brownblack paint, commonly depicting horizontal straight lines in groups (e.g. TNP 292), with fewer representations of vertical, diagonal or curved lines (e.g. TNP 300). Slipped and Burnished Fine Wares: No decoration. Phase A2b (Figure 3.114-3.115, 3.182-3.183) In total, 93 sherds were registered from Phase A2b deposits (loci 4, 8-11). Wares Grit-tempered Wares: This is a well-fired, wheelmade ware with a fine to medium (predominant) or coarse exterior and interior finish. Paste colour varies from light brown to brown and orange (predominant), with rare light grey variants also recorded. The paste is characterised by the presence of mineral grit inclusions of medium to coarse size. The majority of sherds have a burnished exterior surface, rarely with interior burnishing. Vegetal (+Grit)-tempered Wares: A generally wellfired ware (there are a few examples of under firing) with a fine to very-coarse exterior finish (medium predominant) and a medium/coarse interior finish. The paste is characterised by vegetal (chaff) temper and, in the great majority of cases, medium/coarse mineral grit inclusions. Paste colour varies from buff to light brown, brown, and orange, commonly with a grey core. The sherd TNP 164 represents a variant of vegetal+grittempered ware, with a grey paste rather than orange/brown, and unusual black painted decoration. Slipped and Burnished Wares: This is a well-fired, wheel-made ware with a reddish slip and a burnished exterior surface. Exterior surface finish varies from very fine to fine, and over half the sherds have interior surfaces burnished to a very fine/medium finish. Paste varies from buff to light brown and orange (predominant), with a small number of light grey examples recorded. The paste is characterised by the presence of fine sand inclusions, and occasionally mica 57 and fine mineral grits. Slip colour varies from the predominant red to red-brown and dark brown. Shapes Grit-tempered Wares: This ware is used to produce open forms such as bowls with everted rim (e.g. TNP 114, 125), in addition to closed forms including holemouth jars (e.g. TNP 106, 123, 183) and necked jars (not illustrated). Vegetal (+Grit)-tempered Wares: This ware was used for open forms, including bowls with upright to everted rims (e.g. TNP 143, 149) and straight-sided cups (TNP 135). Closed forms were common, and included hole-mouth and necked jars (e.g. TNP 171, 165), some with handles (e.g. TNP 66). Body sherds testify to the prevalence of closed forms of uncertain typology (e.g. TNP 67, 103, 104, 120, 121, 127, 138, 164, 166, and 182). An unusual vessel was TNP 179, a relatively large, slightly closed bowl with raised ridges in addition to plastic and painted decoration. Base types include button and flat bases (not illustrated), as well as ring bases (e.g. TNP 134) and disc bases (e.g. TNP 122). One residual bevelled-rim bowl sherd (TNP 147) was also recovered from Phase A2b. Slipped and Burnished Fine Wares: This ware was used for bowls with everted (e.g. TNP 210) or slightly incurving rim (e.g. TNP 142), hole-mouth jars (e.g. TNP 133), and one necked jar (TNP 119). Flat base sherds and one handle (not illustrated) were also recorded in this ware. Decoration Grit-tempered Wares: Four grit-tempered sherds (not illustrated) were decorated with brown-black painted designs, predominantly horizontal/diagonal/vertical lines, with one example of cross-hatching. Vegetal (+Grit)-tempered Wares: More than half of the registered sherds in this ware had painted decoration, which is more common on the buff and light brown wares than those with darker brown or orange paste. Paint was brown (rarely dark-brown), and motifs consisted primarily of grouped lines (e.g. TNP 67, 104, 120, 121, 138, 165, 182), along with cross-hatched areas (e.g. TNP 130, 179) and occasional examples (e.g. TNP 164, 179, 182) of more complex designs, including a “tree” motif and filled triangles (TNP164). Vessel TNP 179 was also distinguished by the presence of plastic decoration in the form of a raised and impressed vertical cordon. Slipped and Burnished Fine Wares: Not decorated. Phase A2a (Figures 3.116-3.118, 3.184-3.185) In total, 72 registered sherds come from unmixed Phase A2a contexts (loci 3, 5, 7), whilst a further 20 sherds were registered from a mixed Phase A1-A2a context (Locus 2). Wares Grit-tempered Wares: This ware is well-fired and wheel-made with a fine/medium exterior finish and a medium/coarse interior finish. Paste colour varies from a predominant orange to grey-brown and red, and is characterised by the presence of mineral grit inclusions, ranging in size from fine to medium (predominant) and coarse. Around half the registered sherds show exterior burnishing (interior burnish being rare), and they are occasionally slipped. Vegetal-tempered Wares: This is a well-fired, wheelmade ware with a generally fine/medium exterior finish and a medium/coarse interior finish. Paste varies from a predominant orange through to brown, light brown, and buff, with grey cores common. The paste is characterised by the use of chaff temper, commonly with mineral grit inclusions. Around half of the registered vessels have exterior burnishing, which also occurs rarely on the vessel interior. Slipped and Burnished Fine Wares: This ware is wheel-made and well-fired, with a reddish slip and exterior burnish to a very fine/fine finish. Approximately half of the registered sherds have an interior slip and burnish to a very fine/medium finish. Paste is generally orange with rare buff and light brown variants, and is characterised by the presence of fine sand inclusions and rarely fine mineral grits. Slip colour varies from the predominant red to brown/dark-brown. Shapes Grit-tempered Wares: This ware is used for a variety of bowls with everted, upright, and incurving rims (e.g. TNP 73, 95), and a bowl with beaked collar (TNP 194, not drawn). Furthermore, hole-mouth jars (e.g. TNP 22), necked jars (e.g. TNP 72), and other closed forms of uncertain typology (e.g. TNP 19, 43, 46, 49) were registered. Bases (not illustrated) included flat and disc varieties. Vegetal(+Grit)-tempered Wares: This ware was used to produce bowls with everted or upright rim (e.g. TNP 24, 188), as well as closed forms including necked jars (e.g. TNP 20, 91, 94, 202), hole-mouth jars (e.g. TNP 86) and other vessels of uncertain typology (e.g. TNP 28, 47, 75, 89, 90, 98, 189, 205). One example of a ring base (not illustrated) was recorded in this ware. Slipped and Burnished Fine Wares: This ware was used for bowls with everted/outflaring rim (e.g. TNP 187), and necked/hole-mouth jars (e.g. TNP 201). One flat base (not illustrated) was recorded in this ware. Decoration Grit-tempered Wares: A number of the registered sherds were decorated with geometric motifs in red/purple-brown paint, consisting predominantly of horizontal and vertical lines (e.g. TNP 19, 43, 46, and 49). Other motifs, such as zigzags (TNP 46, 50?), were present but uncommon. Vegetal-tempered Wares: Approximately half of the registered sherds of this ware were decorated with geometric motifs in brown/dark-brown paint. The predominant element is the horizontal straight or wavy line, often in groups (e.g. TNP 28, 86, 89, 98, 90, 188, 189, and 205) . Cross-hatching between straight lines is also seen (TNP 28, 188). Other painted motifs include hanging and standing filled triangles (e.g. TNP 35), lozenges (TNP 98), “butterfly” or “bow-tie” patterns (TNP 86), and the “tree” motif (TNP 86, 90). Vegetaltempered wares are also sometimes decorated with raised impressed cordons (e.g. TNP 47, Phase A1-2a) or with incised lines (e.g. TNP 75). Slipped and Burnished Fine Wares: Not decorated. 58 Phase A1 (Figures 3.118-3.120, 3.185-3.186) Overall, 47 registered sherds come from Phase A1 contexts (loci 1, 2, 6, 14, 24, 38, 53), and a further 20 sherds come from a mixed Phase A1-A2a deposit (Locus 2). Wares Grit-tempered Wares: This is a well-fired, wheel made ware in both burnished and unburnished varieties, which exhibit an exterior finish varying from fine to coarse and interior finishes varying from very fine to very coarse depending on burnishing. Paste colour varies from predominant orange to brown and light grey, with grey cores fairly common. The paste is characterised by the presence of mineral grit inclusions varying from medium to coarse in size. A small number of sherds have an external buff slip/wash and two have a very fine internal burnish over a grey slip. Vegetal (+Grit)-tempered Wares: Well-fired, generally wheel-made wares with a fine to coarse exterior finish (medium predominant) and a medium to coarse (predominant) interior finish. Paste varies from buff (rare) to light brown and orange, commonly with a grey core, and is characterised by the presence of chaff temper and commonly coarse mineral grit inclusions. Around half of the registered vessels have exterior burnishing (interior burnishing is rare), and roughly one-third of registered sherds had an exterior buff or orange wash. Slipped and Burnished Wares: This is a well-fired, wheel made ware with a reddish slip and very fine/fine burnished exterior surface. Paste varies from red to orange (predominant) and light brown, with a light grey variant also seen, and is characterised by fine sand inclusions and, rarely, mineral grits. Slip colour varies from the predominant red to red-brown, brown, and orange-red. The grey-ware sherds exhibit a dark-grey slip. All registered sherds have a burnished exterior, and around half are also burnished on the interior (interior finish varies from very fine to medium). showed plastic decoration in the form of a raised chainlike cordon. Vegetal (+grit)-tempered Wares: A small number of painted examples of this ware were registered, with decorative motifs consisting of exterior horizontal lines (e.g. TNP 11, 244, 324) and cross hatching (TNP 11) in brown paint. Shallow incised decoration of horizontal lines was recorded for 1 vegetal-tempered sherd (TNP 326), whilst a combination of incised lines and an impressed cordon was used on TNP 10. Slipped and Burnished Fine Wares: No decoration. 3.3.3. Trench B Pottery Descriptions by Phase In the following section, the ceramic assemblage from Trench B is discussed in detail on a phase by phase basis. The discussion focuses largely upon the registered assemblage, which totalled 520 sherds. An overall summary and review of the ceramic evidence from Trenches A and B is presented in the concluding part of this chapter, Section 3.8.2. Phase B9 (Figure 3.121) Overall, 17 registered sherds come from Phase B9 contexts (loci 351-358). Few sherds were recovered from these deposits, as most of the volume of the phase was occupied by a large mudbrick structure. Wares Residual Wares: Most of the sherds come from mudbricks, and are residual. These include coarse chafftempered Neolithic wares as seen in Trench A Phases A27-A19, painted buff Bakun-like wares as seen in Phases A18-A14, and fine orange Lapui ware as seen in Phases A13-A12a. Elamite Chaff- and Grit-tempered Wares: Only five Elamite sherds were registered from this phase. Paste colour ranges from brown to orange and grey. Temper is predominantly fine and coarse mineral grits, occasionally with lime inclusions, and chaff. The wares have thick brown and cream slip, mostly on the exterior surface. All are wheel-made, with a medium exterior surface finish and a medium or coarse interior finish. Shapes Grit-tempered Wares: This ware is used to produce open forms (e.g. TNP 81), as well as closed forms such as hole-mouth/necked jars (e.g. TNP 323, 468), lugged vessels (not illustrated), and a handled vessel (TNP 2). Registered bases were either flat (e.g. TNP 3, 4) or discshaped (not illustrated). Vegetal (+Grit)-tempered Wares: Aside from bevelled-rim bowls (TNP 583), this ware was used to produce bowls with upright/everted rims (not illustrated), necked jars (e.g. TNP 10, 11, 77, 244, 324), and other closed forms (TNP 326). Only ring bases were recorded in this ware (e.g. TNP 78, 322, 328). Slipped and Burnished Wares: A bowl with upright rim (not illustrated) and a hole-mouth jar (TNP 79) were registered in this ware, as was one flat base sherd (not illustrated). Shapes Elamite Chaff- and Grit-tempered Wares: Characteristic shapes of this phase include the typical Elamite goblet with the convex base, thin body, and long neck (TNP 2514). Decoration Grit-tempered Wares: A number of un-illustrated sherds in this ware showed brown painted decoration, predominantly in the form of groups of horizontal lines on the exterior of the vessel. One sherd (TNP 323) Overall, 77 registered sherds come from Phase B8 contexts (loci 341-350). As for the previous phase, many prehistoric sherds were recovered from the mudbricks of the thick wall in this phase. As their residual character is clear, these wares are not discussed further. Decoration Elamite Chaff- and Grit-tempered Wares: Aside from the cream slip, Elamite pottery of this phase is undecorated. Phase B8 (Figures 3.122-3.123) 59 Wares Elamite Chaff- and Grit-tempered Wares: Elamite wares from this phase are similar to those from B9. Wares are wheel made and well-fired, with paste colour varying from brown to orange, light grey and dark grey. Temper includes fine to coarse mineral grits, occasionally with limestone inclusions, and chaff temper. Some of the sherds have a thick exterior slip in brown, black, or cream, but no further surface treatment, resulting in a rough surface finish. Shapes Elamite Chaff- and Grit-tempered Wares: As for the previous phase, long-necked, thin-bodied goblets occur. New forms appearing in this phase include: necked jars with everted rim (TNP 2445); jars with vertical rim and exterior groove below the lip (TNP 2478); jars with small, rounded, everted rim and a shallow groove on the exterior of the lip (TNP 2424); jars with flat inverted rim and square sectioned cordon below the rim (TNP 2460, 2681); bowls with down-turned rim (TNP 2497); small bowls with everted thinned rim (TNP 2477, 2426); and bowls with rounded, everted rim (TNP 2455). Also characteristic of this period is a ceramic vessel stand with an everted triangular rim (TNP 2458). A few flat bases (TNP 2489, 2454, 2456, 2484) and convex bases (TNP 2442, 2444, and 2487) were recorded from this phase. Decoration Elamite Chaff- and Grit-tempered Wares: Decoration of the Elamite ceramics tends to be in the form of applied cordons, either in the form of chain decoration (TNP 2465), or as raised bands with rounded cross-section below the rim (TNP 2460). Phase B7b (Figures 3.124-3.128) Overall, 73 registered sherds come from Phase B7b contexts (loci 336-340). The wares from this phase comprise a homogeneous and uniform assemblage, such that all the ceramics with the exception of an intrusive Achaemenid fragment belong to the Neo-Elamite period. Wares Elamite Chaff- and Grit-tempered Wares: Ceramics of this phase have close parallels with the ceramics of Phase B8 and B9. Wares are wheel made and well-fired, with paste colour varying from brown to orange, brownish-orange, light grey and buff. The variation in colour across the surface and in the section of a single vessel can be substantial. The temper, as in previous phases, includes fine to coarse mineral grits, occasional limestone inclusions, and chaff. On the surface of some sherds there is a thick slip varying widely in colour from buff to brown, orange, brownish-orange, light grey, or cream. Sometimes the outer vessel surface is smoothed, in which case traces of smoothing in the form of parallel lines are visible on the surface. In general, however, most sherds have a coarse surface finish. Shapes Elamite Chaff- and Grit-tempered Wares: A number of shapes recorded in previous phases also occur in Phase B7b. These include: long-necked thin-bodied goblets (TNP 2415, 2428); jars with vertical rim and groove at the lip (TNP 2366, 2373); and jars with inverted flat rim with thickened exterior and square-sectioned cordon below the rim (TNP 2375, 2392). Another form, the jar with everted flat rim, is a long-lived Elamite type that was produced from the Kaftari period to the Neo-Elamite period. New shapes in this phase include: necked jars with thinned triangular vertical rim (TNP 2401); necked jars with vertical thinned rim (TNP 2404); necked jars with everted turned-down rim (TNP 2370); hole-mouth jars with everted rim (TNP 2411); jars with vertical flat rim (TNP 2355, 2393); jars with inverted rounded thickened exterior rim (TNP 2360); small jar with everted rounded rim (TNP 2354, 2380); small jars with everted rim thickened on interior (TNP 2390); bowls with vertical rounded rim and small groove below the lip (TNP 2419); bowls with vertical rounded rim (TNP 2357); and large bowls with down-turned rim (TNP 2359). The most characteristic type of vessel from this phase is the small jar with everted rim and carinated body with fine squaresectioned or rounded cordon (TNP 2371, 2374, 2391). Overall, this phase is notable for the increase in the proportion of carinated vessel types in the ceramic assemblage. Decoration Elamite Chaff- and Grit-tempered Wares: As in the earlier phases B9 and B8, decoration of the Elamite ceramics was mainly in the form of appliqué cordons. Examples included raised chain cordon decoration (2407, 2408) and raised cordons with rounded section on the outer vessel surface, as well as raised cordons with triangular and rectangular section (TNP 2371, 2374, 2375, 2391, 2392). Incised grooves below the vessel rim comprise the only other decoration seen in this phase. Phase B7a (Figure 3.129) Overall, 36 registered sherds come from Phase B7a contexts (loci 332-335). Significant numbers of prehistoric (Bakun and Lapui) sherds were recovered from the fabric of the mudbricks used in this phase, alongside Neo-Elamite and a small number of intrusive Achaemenid wares. Wares Elamite Chaff- and Grit-tempered Wares: Elamite ceramics from this phase are similar to those of B7b. Wares are wheel made and well-fired with a medium to coarse finish, and range in paste colour from orange to grey. The temper consists most commonly of coarse mineral grit, occasionally with limestone fragments and chaff. In one case, the exterior surface bears thick greenish-buff slip. Achaemenid Wares: Achaemenid wares are wheel made and well-fired, commonly with a fine to coarse surface finish. The paste colour of the Achaemenid wares 60 varies from orange-brown to orange-buff, tempered with medium-fine grit with occasional limestone fragments. Shapes Elamite Chaff- and Grit-tempered Wares: Common shapes in this phase include necked jars with everted rim and a groove at the lip (TNP 2330), and jars with inverted rounded rim with groove at the lip (TNP 2331). Other closed shapes in this phase include necked jars with everted rim and small cordon at the rim (TNP 2351), necked jars with everted rim and small raised cordon with round section on the neck (TNP 2342), and small jars with everted rim and carinated body with fine squaresectioned or rounded cordon (TNP 2349). Open shapes include bowls with everted rounded rim (TNP 2353), Achaemenid Wares: Only one Achaemenid sherd from this phase had an identifiable shape: a necked jar with flattened rim (TNP2316). Decoration Elamite Chaff- and Grit-tempered Wares: One vessel was decorated with raised cordons with triangular section (TNP 2349). Achaemenid Wares: Not decorated. Phase B6 (Figure 3.130) Overall, 14 registered sherds come from Phase B6 contexts (loci 327-331). In this phase relatively few sherds were recovered, including a high proportion of residual examples. The ceramic assemblage of this phase is distinct from lower phases, in that Elamite ceramics are mixed with Achaemenid wares, which are increased in frequency. Wares Elamite Chaff- and Grit-tempered Wares: Elamite sherds are wheel made and well-fired, with a medium to coarse surface finish. Paste colour varies from brown to orange-brown, with fine-medium grit and chaff temper. The exterior surface is covered with brown or buff slip, thick or thin. Achaemenid Wares: These sherds are wheel made and well-fired, with a very fine or fine surface finish. Paste colour varies from buff to orange and grey, with fine to coarse mineral grits and occasionally limestone fragments. Shapes Elamite Chaff- and Grit-tempered Wares: NeoElamite forms found in previous phases include jars with everted rounded rim (TNP 2329), and necked jars with parallel grooves below the rim (TNP 2305), which are characteristic types manufactured from the Kaftari period onwards. Vessels with a flat string-cut base (TNP 2245), or convex base (TNP 2307, 2326) are also common in this phase Achaemenid Wares: Aside from one example, all the registered Achaemenid sherds from this phase were body sherds. The sole rim sherd comes from a jar with inverted rim (TNP 2329). Decoration Elamite Chaff- and Grit-tempered Wares: The only decorations recorded in this phase are parallel incised grooves on the jar body (TNP 2305). Achaemenid Wares: Not decorated. Phase B5b (Figure 3.131) Overall, 33 registered sherds come from Phase B5b contexts (loci 324-327), and a further 12 sherds come from a mixed Phase B5a-b deposit (Locus 323). Wares of this phase show a complete change from the previous phase. The assemblage is mixed, incorporating many prehistoric sherds. Prehistoric sherds include coarse wares with chaff temper of Mushki period, painted buff Bakun wares, and fine polished/burnished Lapui wares. Prehistoric wares come from mudbricks and from bioturbation. Wares Achaemenid Wares: These wares are wheel made and well-fired, with paste colour varying from light to dark grey, brown, buff, and orange-brown. Temper consists of fine-medium mineral grits and occasionally limestone. A small number of sherds have a thick grey slip on the exterior and occasionally the interior surface. Most sherds show no surface treatment, and have a coarse exterior and interior surface finish. Only one example of fine ware with a smooth burnished surface was recorded in the assemblage. Shapes Achaemenid Wares: Recorded shapes include small jars with everted rim (TNP 2300), necked jars with rounded everted rim with a rather rectangular section (TNP 2267, 2278, 2289), and hole-mouth jars (TNP 2266). A bowl with a flat rim thickened on the interior and a sharp carination in the middle of the body (TNP 2287) is characteristic of the Achaemenid period and makes its first appearance in this phase. A bowl with everted rounded rim which probably dates to the NeoElamite period was also found in this phase (TNP 2263). An interesting type also appearing for the first time in this phase is the horizontal handle (TNP 2279). Among the registered sherds, some round and convex bases were found (TNP 2282, 2301). Decoration Achaemenid Wares: Carved horizontal lines and raised cordons with rectangular and circular section are among the most common decoration on ceramics from this phase. Phase B5a (Figure 3.132) Overall, 46 registered sherds come from Phase B5a contexts (loci 321-322), and a further 12 sherds come from a mixed Phase B5a-b deposit (Locus 323). In addition to Achaemenid ware, one piece of residual bevelled-rim bowl and some other residual prehistoric and Elamite sherds were also recovered. 61 Wares Achaemenid Wares: The wares of this phase are similar to those of B5b, with the difference that there is an increase in fine wares. Wares are wheel made and well-fired, with surface finish predominantly very fine or fine, with less frequent medium or coarse finish. Paste colour varies from red to orange, buff, and light grey. Temper is commonly fine-medium mineral grits and occasionally limestone fragments. A minority of sherds exhibit a red or orange slip on interior and exterior surfaces. Shapes Achaemenid Wares: As for the previous phase, carinated bowls with spherical body and everted rim occur frequently in Phase B4, and are characteristic of the Achaemenid period. New shapes in this phase include jars with outflaring neck, everted rim, and exterior groove below the rim (TNP 2299, 2240), a type characteristic of the Achaemenid period. Necked jars with outflaring flat rim are also common in this phase (TNP 2214). As for the previous phase, flat and convex bases are also common (TNP 2236, 2243, 2254). Decoration Achaemenid Wares: As seen in the immediately preceding phases, raised appliqué decoration is common, mostly in the form of parallel cordons with circular crosssection around the middle part of the vessel (TNP 2224). Likewise, incised horizontal grooves on the exterior vessel surface are a decorative motif found in earlier deposits that continue into Phase B5a (TNP 2240). Phase B4 (Figures 3.133-3.134) Overall, 50 registered sherds come from Phase B4 contexts (loci 318-320), and a further 30 sherds come from a mixed Phase B3b-B4 deposit (Locus 317). The majority of the ceramic sherds of this phase belong, as for the previous phase, to the Achaemenid period. However, a significant number of sherds from pre-Achaemenid periods are also present as the result of their inclusion in eroded mudbricks and through bioturbation. Wares Achaemenid Wares: Wares are wheel made and wellfired, with paste colour varying from a predominant orange or grey to brown and buff. Temper consists predominantly of fine to coarse mineral grits, limestone fragments and, rarely, fine sand. Exterior and interior surfaces of some sherds bear an orange, red, brown, buff or beige slip of varying thickness. Surface finish is usually medium, although there are some examples with a very fine surface finish and a number of sherds exhibit burnishing on interior and exterior surfaces. Shapes Achaemenid Wares: Shapes from Phase B4 which have parallels in the preceding phase include vessels with horizontal handles (TNP 2191), jars with outflaring necks and a groove at the lip (TNP 2176, 2202), and necked jars with flat vertical rim (TNP 2185). New shapes occurring in this phase include bowls with flat rounded rim (TNP 2205), jars with outflaring rim (TNP 2204), and characteristic flasks of the Achaemenid period. Decoration Achaemenid Wares: As in previous phases, horizontal raised cordons with triangular or round section are common, but carved decoration is no longer recorded. Phase B3 (Figures 3.134-3.135) Overall, 89 registered sherds come from Phase B3b contexts (loci 305-316), and a further 30 sherds come from a mixed Phase B3-B4 deposit (Locus 317). The recovered sherds of this phase are mixed, including residual sherds (Neolithic, Bakun, Lapui, and Elamite) as well as Post-Achaemenid material. Wares Achaemenid and Post-Achaemenid Wares: These wares are wheel made and well-fired, with paste colour varying from grey to orange, red, buff, light brown and brown. The temper consists of fine-medium mineral grits and occasionally limestone fragments, rarely with fine sand. Vessel finish is usually moderate to coarse, although there are some examples of fine finishing. A portion of the registered sherds is slipped, with slip colour ranging from orange-red to orange, brownishorange and light grey. Shapes Achaemenid and Post-Achaemenid Wares: As in the preceding phase, carinated bowls with round base and everted rim (TNP 2075, 2140), jars with everted rim with an exterior groove at rim (TNP 2149, 2150), and vessels with horizontal handle (TNP 2142) are common. Other common shapes in this phase include everted-rim jars (TNP 2074), hole-mouth jars (TNP 2088), jars with small vertical rounded rim (TNP 2065, 2095), hole-mouth jars with flat rim (TNP 2098), necked jars with everted round rim (TNP 2079) and hole-mouth jars with flattened club rim (TNP 2148). Other forms recorded in this phase include bowls with rounded small rim (TNP 2152), bowls with down-turned rounded rim (TNP 2153), and bowls with everted rounded rim which bear a deep groove on the exterior lip (TNP 2063). Decoration Achaemenid and Post-Achaemenid Wares: As in the preceding phase, the most common decorations in Phase B4 include raised cordons with rectangular or round section (TNP 2104), raised cordons with deep grooves (TNP 2064), and regular horizontal incised grooves around the body or neck (TNP 2045, 2063). One example of diagnostic decoration, found only in this phase, belongs to a body sherd with dashed impressions/incisions between two incised horizontal lines (TNP 2051). In addition, one painted piece of PostAchaemenid period was recorded which has no parallels in the earlier phases of Trench B. This jar (TNP 2136) has brown painted geometric design in the shape of horizontal and vertical bands at rim and shoulder. 62 Phase B2 (Figure 3.136) Overall, 32 registered sherds come from Phase B2 contexts (loci 301-304). In this phase a substantial number of residual (Neolithic, Bakun, Lapui, and Elamite) sherds were found alongside Post-Achaemenid wares, largely as a result of their incorporation into later mudbricks. Wares Post-Achaemenid Wares: Although the wares of this phase show similarities with the previous phase, there are also certain noticeable differences between them. PostAchaemenid wares have an even and smooth shape, are well-fired and wheel made. Paste colour varies from buff to beige and orange, whilst temper consists commonly of fine-medium mineral grits with occasional limestone inclusions. A small number of registered sherds were slipped in red or brown. Shapes Post-Achaemenid Wares: New shapes of this phase include necked jars with everted rim and groove at the lip (TNP 2011), necked jars with flattened out-turned rim (TNP 2030), and bowls with rounded flat rim (TNP 2034). In addition, a glazed flat base with pale oxidised turquoise glaze on the interior was also recorded (TNP 2012). Decoration As in the previous phase, incised horizontal grooves around the vessel are the most common kind of decoration. The turquoise-green glazed sherd represents the first appearance in the Trench B sequence of this decorative treatment. Phase B1 (Figure 3.137) Overall, 12 registered sherds come from Phase B1 contexts (Locus 300). Wares Post-Achaemenid Wares: All wares are well-fired and wheel made with a coarse surface finish and paste colour varying from orange to light or dark grey, buff and brown. The temper is fine-medium grit with occasional fine or coarse limestone inclusions. One example of chaff temper was recorded. Two examples of these wares have a thin slip in light brown or grey. Shapes Post-Achaemenid Wares: The shapes recorded in the Phase B1 assemblage include: bowls with everted pinched-rim and groove on the outer part of the rim (TNP 2004); bowls with rounded rim and a groove on the interior of the rim (TNP 2009); and bowls with downturned flat rim (TNP 2007). Examples of flat bases were also recorded. Decoration Post-Achaemenid Wares: No decoration. 3.3.4. Surface Collections from Tol-e Nurabad (Figures 3.187-3.188) Pottery from Tol-e Nurabad found outside Trenches A and B has not yet been registered or described in detail. Nevertheless, a small assemblage of surface pottery has been collected and provides some interesting complementary information on the occupational history of the site. The collected surface sherds shown in Figure 3.187 cover the span from the Neolithic period to the Bronze Age. The top row shows four chaff-tempered, burnished and painted Neolithic sherds. They form an interesting group which has few, if any, decorative parallels with the excavated Neolithic material from Trench A Phases A27-A19. This is potentially of importance, considering the long chronological gap which seems to exist between Phase A20 and Phase A19 (see Section 3.7). It may be that these unparalleled wares from the surface of the mound come from Neolithic deposits falling into the break in the sequence of Trench A deposits. Of course, this is only a surmise, and the decorative distinctiveness of the surface sherds may simply reflect the very small scale of the excavated Neolithic levels in Trench A. The remaining sherds on Fig. 3.187 cover the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages, and many can be paralleled quite readily with material excavated from Trench A. In particular, the brown/black on buff sherds of the second and third rows are readily paralleled in Phases A18-A14, and the red-slipped bowl in row three is closely comparable to Lapui material from Phases A13A12a and later. Likewise, the bevelled-rim bowl fragment in row three has numerous parallels in Trench A Phases A11-A6. A few of the Bronze Age painted sherds from rows four and five in Fig. 3.187 can be paralleled in Trench A, whereas others (row four numbers 1 and 2; row five numbers 2 and 3) are not so easily compared with excavated material from Tol-e Nurabad itself. The same is true for the painted Bronze Age sherd on row one of Figure 3.188. Interestingly, a number of these sherds show parallels with surface material collected in Kermanshah by Sir Aurel Stein (1937: Pl. XIX.25, 27, 28). The remaining sherds on Fig. 3.188 generally fall into later time periods than covered by the Trench A deposits. Row two shows two collared storage vessels of a type typical in the Middle Elamite period, which can be readily paralleled with excavated material from Tol-e Nurabad Trench B (Phases B9-B8), Tol-e Spid (Phase 14), and other Middle Elamite sites in Fars and in the lowlands. Similarly, the two “tulip bowl” sherds found on the surface of the site can be paralleled in Tol-e Nurabad Trench B (Phases B5b-B4) and Tol-e Spid (Phases 12-9) Achaemenid levels and at other Achaemenid period sites across south western Iran and more widely in the Persian Empire. 63 3.4. Chipped Stone from Tol-e Nurabad A very small assemblage of chipped stone artefacts was recovered from the Trench A and B deposits, numbering in total 161 registered objects. The registered chipped stone artefacts are listed in Table 3.3 at the end of this Chapter (along with the Tol-e Nurabad smallfinds that were registered in the same database). A small number of chipped stone pieces, mostly tiny examples of debitage, remain unregistered. The low frequency of chipped stone artefacts and debitage from the site reflects both the small size of the excavated trenches and the decline in the use of chipped stone that seems to have closely followed the introduction of pottery into Neolithic material cultures in western Iran (Hole et al. 1969: 74 ff.). The chipped stone from Tol-e Nurabad has not yet been studied in detail, and only basic information on the nature of the assemblage is presented in this report. 3.4.1. Trench A Chipped Stone Unsurprisingly, chipped stone artefacts and production debris are most common in the Neolithic levels at Tol-e Nurabad: 97 pieces come from Neolithic Phases A27A19, 22 from Chalcolithic Phases A18-A12a, and 11 from Bronze Age Phases A11-A2a. This pattern of diminishing frequency with time reflects both the prevalence of chipped stone tool use in the earlier periods of occupation at the site, as well as the improved recovery techniques employed for Neolithic deposits at the site (i.e. hand sieving of all contexts). The great majority of the chipped stone from Trench A is of chert or flint, occurring in a variety of colours from light grey through to dark grey, brown to dark brown and purplish-brown. There is little clear chronological variation in chert colour, although purple-brown/redbrown chert seems to be used predominantly from Phases A24b to A17, whilst the grey chert falls out of use in the Bronze Age (Phases A11-A2a). However, the sample is very small and unlikely to represent the true diversity of raw material sources in any one period. A significant percentage of the chert artefacts display traces of cortex, suggesting that the earlier stages of core reduction may have taken place on the site, although as yet only one core (TN-128, Locus 118, Phase A19-20) have been recorded from excavation at Tol-e Nurabad. Chert sources are likely to have been readily available locally, given the regional geology. The presence of worked limestone river cobbles as a rare component of the chipped stone assemblage indicates that chert nodules may have been prospected for and collected in the local river gravels, such as are readily accessible in the valleys of Dasht-e Rostam-e 1 and 2. With regard to other raw material types, coarser stone was also used for the production of chipped stone artefacts at Tol-e Nurabad, particularly in the later Neolithic phases, although at a low frequency in comparison to chert. Most of this raw material remains petrographically unidentified. Only one artefact of obsidian was reported from the site: a blade fragment (TN-227) with trapezoidal section found during surface collection that was made from translucent black obsidian. The evidence from Neolithic Susiana (Alizadeh 2003a: 21-22) and Deh Luran (Hole et al. 1969: 75) accords well with the data from Tall-i Mushki in the Kur River Basin (Fukai et al. 1973: 37) in indicating that obsidian use was rare in the lithic industries in southwestern Iran and largely concentrated in periods pre-dating the initial occupation of Tol-e Nurabad. The typological variety of the chipped stone assemblage from Trench A is very limited. Most pieces are unretouched flakes, most likely representing debitage. Recognisable tools include blades (e.g. TN-92, 100, 101, 102, 212, 224) and bladelets (e.g. TN-98, 125, 228, 229, 253) with triangular or trapezoidal section and limited retouch, which are relatively common in the assemblage. Truncated blades or blade fragments (e.g. TN-71, 88, 154 and 237) also occur. One notched blade (TN-74) was recorded from Phase A9 and another (TN-251) from Phase A24b, which also produced a borer of coarse stone (TN-231). The dominance of blades amongst the recognisable tool types is typical for contemporary chipped stone assemblages in southwestern Iran. Other tool types include scrapers, which occur in a limited number of types whose chronological distribution is limited to the Neolithic phases at Tol-e Nurabad. All examples were made on flakes rather than blades, and include small end scrapers of chert (TN-164, 246 and 252) and larger scrapers made from primary cortical flakes on chert and limestone river cobbles (TN-219, 220 and 250). Other tool types are extremely rare, and include two possible points (TN-93, Phase A13; TN-104 Phase A17) and one possible burin (TN-99, Phase A15-16). Large chipped stone tools are also very rare, but may be represented by TN-241, a limestone chopper. Blade or flake cores are entirely absent from the Tol-e Nurabad Trench A chipped stone assemblage. This is somewhat surprising, as “bullet cores” and other core types are common at Mushki period sites in the Kur River Basin (Fukai et al. 1973: Pl. LIII.34-45) and in aceramic and early ceramic Neolithic levels in Deh Luran and Susiana (Hole et al. 1969: Figs. 33-36; Alizadeh 2003a: Fig. 41; Delougaz and Kantor 1996: Pl. 253, 256). Similar cores were also recorded in the survey of Dasht-e Rostam-e 1 and 2 (see Chapter 6). Although the absence of cores at Tol-e Nurabad could be taken as indicating the lack of chipped stone artefact manufacture at the site itself, it is much more likely to reflect the limited extent of excavations and the chronology of the deposits. 3.4.2. Trench B Chipped Stone The Trench B chipped stone assemblage is very small, comprising only 31 pieces in total. This includes four pieces from Middle/Neo-Elamite Phases B9-B7, 16 64 pieces from Achaemenid phases B5b-B4, and 11 fragments from Post-Achaemenid phases B3b-B1. It is likely that, as for the prehistoric ceramics commonly recorded in Middle Elamite and later phases of the trench, the great majority of the chipped stone from Trench B is residual material incorporated into mudbricks or introduced through bioturbation. The very small average size of the chipped stone pieces from Trench B, none of which is larger than 56x23x11 mm, supports this hypothesis. Middle/Neo-Elamite chert assemblage consists of one small blade of light grey-brown chert (TN-211, Phase B9) with triangular cross-section, as well as a flake of banded grey-brown-white chert (TN-191), and a primary chert flake with possible retouch on one edge (TN-184) from Phase B7a. As for Trench A, virtually all of the chipped stone artefacts from Trench B were manufactured from chert. The variation in chert colour was also similar to that seen in Trench A, with brown, dark brown, purple-brown, grey, and grey-brown chert varieties the most commonly reported. Light brown, buff, and pinkish-brown chert artefacts were present but less common. The earliest Achaemenid phase in Trench B, Phase B5b, produced two blades with denticulated edges (TN-176, 181) and a blade fragment with trapezoidal section (TN180). Five chert flakes were also recorded (TN-174, 175, 182, 192, 193). Phase B5a produced a chert flake (TN173) and a small scraper or modified core with flake scars and burring on one end (TN-183). The later Achaemenid deposits of Phase B4 produced three blades of light brown and pinkish-brown chert with trapezoidal and triangular section (TN-146, 179, 185), in addition to three chert flakes (TN-147, 177, 178). The most notable object of the Middle/Neo-Elamite phases of Trench B is a bifacially flaked lanceolate blade/point of dark brown chert (TN-172, 56x20x5 mm) from Phase B8. This consummately flaked piece can be paralleled at Kaftari period Tall-i Nokhodi (c.f. Goff 1964, fig. 8.5 and Pl. IIb). The remainder of the The Post-Achaemenid phases B3b and B2 produced eight blades or blade fragments with triangular or trapezoidal section (TN-132, 133, 136, 137, 139, 141, 147, and 194). In addition, four chert flakes were recorded (TN-134, 138, 140, 188). All the examples came from mudbricks or mudbrick collapse. 3.5. Smallfinds from Tol-e Nurabad Smallfinds from Trenches A and B are listed at the end of this Chapter in Table 3.3 (along with the Tol-e Nurabad chipped stone artefacts which were registered in the same database). The smallfinds are discussed below in relation to their excavation context (Trench A or B) and in chronological order, earliest to latest. 3.5.1. Trench A Smallfinds Neolithic Contexts (Phases A27-A19) Labrets (Figure 3.189) A number of small clay objects, often referred to as “labrets” (i.e. a lip plug or lip ornament, see Hole et al. 1969: 235-7), were found in the Neolithic levels of Trench A. These objects are made from a well levigated, untempered, buff to light brown clay, with the exception of TN-225, which is of stone. There are two main shapes: a small cone-shaped or “golf tee” form with a length of c.3 cm and a maximum diameter of c.1-1.5 cm (TN-113, Ph. A19; TN-148, 160, 163, Ph. A20, TN-225, Ph. A22), and a flanged-disc form with a diameter of c.2.1 cm and a thickness of 1.35 cm (TN-149, Ph. 20). Parallels for these objects come from excavated Neolithic sites in the Kur River Basin, especially Tall-i Mushki (Fukai et al. 1973: Pls. XXXVIII, XXXIX.1a,b, 3, LIV.26-63, LV.9-14), Tall-i Jari A Level III (Egami et al. 1977: Pl. VI. 13,14) and from Toll-e Bashi (Abdi et al. 2003: 344; Bernbeck et al. 2004: 76). Further afield, similar items are found in Archaic Susiana contexts at Chogha Mish (Delougaz and Kantor 1996: Pl. 234.B-D) and Chogha Bonut (Alizadeh 2003a: Pl. 19.X), in Deh Loran at Tepe Sabz (Hole et al. 1969: 235-7), and in aceramic levels at Tepe Abdul Hosein (Pullar 1990: Fig. 65). At Tepe Sabz, cone shaped labrets are said to be restricted to the Sabz and Khazineh Phases, while flangeshaped or “cuff-link” labrets are found also in earlier periods in Deh Luran going back to the Mohammed Jaffar phase (Hole et al. 1969: 235-7 and Fig. 102). Similar objects are also found in Mesopotamia, in contexts dating to the Samarran and Ubaid periods (e.g. Hall and Woolley 1927: Pl. XIII.6,7; Woolley 1955: Pl. 15; Oates 1969: 130, Pl. XXX.b), and in the northern Gulf at the Ubaid-related site of As-Sabiyah in the later 6th millennium BC (Carter, R. 2002: 17, Fig. 5; Carter, R. and Crawford 2003: 87). The function of the labrets is far from certain. The term “labret” was first used in an Iranian context by Hole et al. (1969: 235-7, Figs. 102, 109) to refer to the aforementioned objects from Neolithic sites in Deh Luran. The functional implications of the term were supported by the evidence from burials of the Mohammed Jaffar Phase at Ali Kosh, where a bitumen “cuff-link” labret was found in situ on the mandible of a buried male individual. Likewise, at Chogha Mish, a small terracotta head has been suggested as depicting the use of such an object in a lip piercing (Delougaz and Kantor 1996: 297 and Pl. 234.A). Elsewhere, such objects have been referred to by the Japanese excavators of Tall-i Mushki and Tall-i Jari as “ear plugs”, envisioning a similar use to the labrets proposed by Hole et al., i.e. they were “put on pierced earlobes” (Fukai et al. 1973: 57). Material from Choga Mami is also relevant to this debate, as the site has produced not only labrets similar to those 65 from Deh Luran and Susiana (referred to as “studs” by the author), but also a number of terracotta figurine heads which appear to show females with nose and cheeks pierced by objects similar to the clay labrets (Oates 1969: 129, Pl. XXV-XXVI). More recently, in his discussion of the evidence for labrets from Tall-i Mushki, Hole (1987: 53) has stated that the large numbers of these objects may argue against their function as labrets. Likewise, Bernbeck et al. (2004: 77) regard the labret hypothesis as unlikely “in light of their many shapes and large numbers” at the site of Toll-e Bashi, and prefer to regard them as “memory tools, signifying a quantity or quality of some object or animal”. Similar materials from Chogha Bonut have been described as abstract figurines or tokens, and the wide range of previous functional interpretations of this class of artefact (including a possible use as ceramic mortars and pestles) was highlighted (Alizadeh 2003a: 68). Clearly, the issue of the use of these objects is far from resolved. In fact, it may be incorrect to group the many miscellaneous types of clay artefact that fall into this category as a coherent artefact class: it may well be that the typological variability of the small clay artefacts hints at significant functional diversity. It may be that typologically similar artefacts, such as the hundreds of disc-shaped clay artefacts from Tall-i Mushki, had multiple functions within the realms of economic transactions, social display etc. Miscellaneous Objects (Figure 3.189) A number of small, ochre-coloured beads were recovered from a mixed Phase A24a-b context, and registered under the one number (TN-218, Locus 154). The beads are discshaped, ranging in diameter from 6-7 mm, with a thickness of c.4 mm and significantly concave upper and lower faces. The diameter of the perforation is c.2 mm. The material of manufacture is not known with certainty, but may be bone. Other decorative objects are represented by TN-217 (Locus 165, Ph. A24b, 23x18x2 mm), a thin piece of mother-of-pearl that has been perforated to make a pendant. Parallels can be drawn with a similar object from the Neolithic levels of Tepe Guran (Meldgaard et al. 1963: Fig. 20.e). A few small clay items were also found. These include a disc of under-fired light brown clay (TN-226, Locus 147, Ph. A23, 29x25x13 mm), a biconical or barrel-shaped piece of light brown clay, possibly a bead blank or a token (TN-112, Locus 111, Ph. A19, 16x10x10 mm), and two clay balls: TN-268 (Locus 168, Ph. A25, 15.5x15x12.5 mm) made of light brown clay, and TN270 (Locus 164, Ph. A24b, 37.5x35x36) made of buff coloured clay with a grey core and some chaff temper. Furthermore, two possible figurine fragments were recorded from Phase A23, both of which were manufactured of fine, buff-coloured clay. The more convincing of the fragments (TN-266, Locus 145, 20x16.5x18 mm) shows the torso and two leg stumps, along with a possible crest or hump on the animal's back. The most ready comparison is with a bull. The remaining piece (TN-265, Locus 145, 26.5x15.5x24.5 mm) is much more fragmentary, possibly representing only a section of the torso of an animal. Also found in the Neolithic levels was TN-271 (Locus 147, Phase A23, Figure 3.xx), a block of dolomitic limestone (89x82x24 mm), squared on one end, with one flat, smooth upper face and an uneven, rough lower surface with clearly visible iron-bearing nodules. It probably functioned as a grinding stone, and if so represents the only example of this object category found in the Neolithic levels of Trench A. Bakun and Lapui Contexts (Phases A18A12a) Miscellaneous Objects (Figure 3.190) Smallfinds were rare in the Chalcolithic deposits at Tol-e Nurabad, consisting of only two notable objects. The first is the curved clay artefact TN-96 (Locus 85, Ph. A13, 75x34x11 mm), which is made of a buff sandy clay and covered with a dark brown slip. The bluntness of the edges of TN-96 excludes its being characterised as a sickle, such as are known from the Susa Acropole (“Jamdat Nasr period”; Steve and Gasche 1971: Pl. 28.33-36). In addition, a copper-base pin or awl was found in the Lapui period deposits (TN-95, Locus 81, Ph. A13, 82x4x3 mm). It has a relatively long, straight, roughly circular shaft with a bulbous head (diam. 8.5 mm). Banesh Contexts (Phases A11-A6) Ceramic Drains (Figure 3.191) During the excavation of Phases A6 to A8 at Tol-e Nurabad, two fragmentary square-sectioned ceramic pieces were recovered in secondary contexts. The latest is TN 70 (Locus 39, Ph. A6, 113x67x30 mm), which is made of dark grey clay with an orange core and coarse grit temper. From an earlier context comes the larger fragment TN-62 (Locus 45, Ph. A8, 265x58x58), which is made of brown clay with a grey core and coarse grey grits. Both are interpreted as fragments of drains or water pipes. Similar objects have been found in surface collections at a number of sites, including Chogha Mish (designated “Proto-historic”; Delougaz and Kantor 1996: Pl. 87.N) and Tall-i Kureh (Alden 2003a: Fig. D8.14). Excavated examples date to the late 4th or early 3rd millennium BC, and come from Tal-e Malyan (Op. TUV, BL1 and BL3A; Nicholas 1990: Pl. 27.l,m), the Susa Acropole (Acropole 1 Lev. 17B, Le Brun 1978b: Fig. 34.13; Locus 282 “L. Uruk – J. Nasr”; Steve and Gasche 1971: Pl. 29.19,23) and Ville Royale (Lev. 17, “Susa IIIB”; Carter 1980: Fig. 14.4,5), and from Tepe Yahya (Period IVC2, “Proto-Elamite”; Potts 2001: 5-6 and Figs. 1.1-1.3). These dates coincide with those suggested for Tol-e Nurabad Phases A8 and A6 based upon ceramics and radiocarbon dates (see Section 3.7 below). The excavated examples from Tal-e Malyan and Susa were all, unfortunately, found in secondary contexts and so provide little information on their original architectural function/disposition. The square-sectioned drains at Tepe Yahya, however, were found in primary architectural context, as part of the large mudbrick structure of Period IVC2 which was most likely built under a strong 66 “Western” influence at that site at the end of the 4th millennium BC (Potts 2001: 198-9). Miscellaneous Objects (Figure 3.192) A number of unusual clay objects were recorded from Banesh period contexts in Trench A. One is a cylindrical object (TN-66, Locus 44, Phase A8, 75x87x52 mm) manufactured of orange, grit-tempered clay. Another is a blunt clay “point” (TN-68, Locus 54, Phase A9, 59x20x13 mm) made of orange paste with a grey core. Also seen is the curved clay object TN-69 (Locus 60, Ph. A10, 65x38x9 mm) made of orange grit-tempered ware. The fact that the sharpest edge of TN-69 is the “outer” one suggests that it did not function as a sickle. This object may be similar to some artefacts labelled “potter’s instruments” from the Jamdat Nasr period on the Susa Acropole (loci 237, 267; Steve and Gasche 1971: Pl. 28.29-31), although the parallels are very general. Other smallfinds from Banesh period contexts in Trench A include a small bead blank of pale green stone (TN-83, Ph, A10, 7x7x3 mm), and a fragment of an alabaster vessel (TN-32, Locus 37, Ph. A6, 27x32x5 mm, diam. 15 cm). Kaftari and Qaleh Contexts (Phases A5-A1) “Wall Cones” (Figures 3.193-195) In total, 46 wall cone fragments were recovered during excavation of Trench A. The “wall cones” are made of clay, typically a fairly coarse, grit-tempered orange ware, often with a grey core. Although no complete examples were recovered, their typology can be reconstructed with reasonable confidence. They have a relatively long (up to 26 cm), solid, cylindrical or cone-shaped shaft, with maximum diameter in the 3-5 cm range. Evidence from a number of the wall cones (e.g. TN-53, 54), suggests that the shafts were sometimes shaped by shaving the clay. The shaft flares at one end into a large, flat, disc-shaped head (diameter 12-22 cm) with numerous circular depressions (diam. 6-11 mm) in the upper surface. The most complete excavated example of the head of a wall cone (TN-59) had 21 small holes, each with a diameter of 9-11 mm. A number of the excavated examples had their appearance modified by the addition of a slip/wash in either buff (TN-29, 40, 75) or red (TN-59). In the registered examples, this slip was only applied to the upper, decorated surface of the head of the wall cone, not to the shaft. The earliest occurrence of these objects is in Phase A5, when 20 examples were registered, and they occur in significant numbers in the subsequent Phases A4 (9 examples) and A3 (13 examples). They are also recorded at a low frequency in Phases A2a (1 example) and A2b (3 examples), where they are probably residual or re-worked material. None of the excavated examples were found in primary context, and thus their function remains uncertain. They are labelled as “wall cones” through comparison with the wall cones found in situ in buildings of the Uruk Period in Mesopotamia and Khuzestan, although they are typologically and chronologically divergent from these earlier objects. Parallels for these objects can be found at Susa, in both the Acropole and Ville Royale excavations, in contexts spanning the period from the late 4th to the late 3rd millennium BC (Steve and Gasche 1971: Pls. 25.44,45, 23.7, 15.7,9, 8.4,5, 2.19; Carter 1980: Pl. IX.4). These examples are, however, somewhat distinct from the Tol-e Nurabad examples, as they generally have a perforation running length-wise through the entire cone. This design feature is not seen in any of the Tol-e Nurabad examples. The best parallels with the Susa material come from later 3rd millennium levels on the Acropole (“Agadé Ancien” and “Ur III” periods), where a number of un-perforated examples of wall cones were recorded (Steve and Gasche 1971: Pl. 11.23, Pl. 8.5). Ground Stone (Figure 3.196) Numerous fragmentary and near-complete grinding stones were recovered from the upper layers of Trench A, particularly in Phase A3 deposits. They are invariably made from the locally available limestone, and show some degree of morphological variability. The recovered artefacts include: TN-15 (Locus 19, Ph. A3, 152x127x32 mm), a limestone grinding stone with concave upper surface; TN-16 (Locus 21, Ph. A3, 123x115x60 mm), a limestone grinding stone; TN-20 (Locus 20, Ph. A3, 155x129x51 mm), a light grey limestone grinding stone with a concave upper surface; TN-21 (Locus 24, Ph. A1, 128x98x41 mm), a rounded limestone grinding stone with concave upper surface; TN-22 (Locus 23, Ph. A4, 133x77x49 mm), a near-hemispherical grinding stone of grey-white limestone; and TN-25 (Locus 22, Ph. A3, 113x96x68 mm), a limestone grinding stone with concave upper surface. Miscellaneous Objects (Figure 3.197) Three fragmentary baked bricks were recovered from Phase A3 contexts: TN-85 (Locus 15, 98x68x30 mm, orange paste with dark grey core), TN-86 (Locus 20, 160x95x31 mm, orange paste with brown core), and TN87 (Locus 20, 85x50x18 mm, orange paste with grey core). Together, these fragments suggest a common baked brick size of c.95 mm (width) by c.30 mm (height) by greater than 160 mm (length). Other excavated objects include: TN-1 (Locus 30, Ph. A5, 17x12x6 mm), a small, tear-drop shaped carnelian bead; TN-2 (Ph. A3, 59x40x6 mm), a whetstone of light brown stone; TN-3 (Locus 15, Ph. A3, 38x12x6 mm), a copper-base point with curved edges and a squared-off base; TN-18 (Locus 15, Ph. A3, 134x93x48 mm), a limestone door socket with a shallow depression (diam. 30 mm) for centring the pivot; and TN-61 (Locus 19, Ph. A3, 53 mm high, diam. 9.5 cm), a fragment of a vessel or possibly a mortar made of reddish-pink stone. Also recovered was TN-14 (Locus 15, Ph. A3, 29 mm high, diam. 12 cm), a fragment of a cylindrical alabaster vessel which can be paralleled in many late 3rd to early 2nd millennium BC contexts across eastern Iran and the Persian Gulf. 67 3.5.2. Trench B Smallfinds (Figure 3.198) Small finds were rare in the Trench B deposits, and are illustrated in Figure 3.198. The earliest of note is a small spherical bead of carnelian (TN-221; 10x10x9 mm) from the Achaemenid Phase B4. Another bead, of marine shell, was recovered from a Phase B3b deposit (TN-145; 20x18x11 mm). Aside from these two beads, the only remaining smallfinds from Trench B include a heavily corroded iron fragment (TN-189; 52x29x12 mm) from Phase B3b and a twisted glass bangle fragment with an oval cross-section (TN-135; 50x6x5 mm) from the disturbed surface deposits of Phase B1. 3.6. Faunal and Botanical Samples from Tol-e Nurabad Flotation samples were not systematically processed from all contexts during excavations in Trenches A and B. Rather, specific features such as hearths (e.g. loci 26-31, Phase A4; Locus 103, Phase A16; loci 120-126, Phase A20) were targeted for the collection of soil samples. These soil samples have not yet been subject to flotation, with the result that the corpus of botanical samples from the site is minimal and remains unstudied. Charcoal samples, however, were systematically collected by hand at the point of excavation. Samples of varying size were recovered from Neolithic (35 loci), Chalcolithic (26 loci), and Bronze Age (24 loci) contexts in Trench A, and from all phases of Trench B. A number of charcoal samples have been submitted for radiocarbon analysis (see Section 3.7) but the remainder are unstudied. It is hoped that future analysis of this extensive collection will provide important evidence for the use of various woody plants at the site. Faunal bone samples, where present, were collected by hand at the point of excavation for all loci in Trenches A and B. In addition to hand collection, the recovery of faunal samples from Neolithic deposits in Trench A (Phases A19-A27) was improved by the dry-sieving of all material through a 3 mm mesh. In general, faunal bone was common in the excavated deposits, with relatively large concentrations occurring in final Neolithic and early Chalcolithic levels (Phases A16-A19). The results of the analysis of this bone material are presented in Chapter 5. 3.7. Radiocarbon Dates from Tol-e Nurabad In all, 21 samples from Tol-e Nurabad Trench A were submitted for radiocarbon analysis, as listed in Table 3.2 and illustrated in Figure 3.199-3.200. Samples were analysed by AMS at either the Waikato Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory, New Zealand (laboratory code prefix WK) or at the ANSTO facilities at Lucas Heights, New South Wales (laboratory code prefix OZI). All samples have been calibrated using OxCal version 3.10 (Bronk Ramsey 1995, 2001, using the default Intcal98 atmospheric data set). Of these 21 dates, two have been disregarded for further discussion: WK13995 had insufficient organic material for AMS dating, and WK13997 was contaminated with bitumen, leading to an extremely old radiocarbon determination of Pleistocene age. Two further samples are also likely to be contaminated. Firstly, WK13989 from the earliest occupation level at Nurabad (Phase A27) averages a few hundred years younger than the very consistent group of dates from the later deposits of Phases A26-20. Similarly, OZI130 from the earliest Bakun Period deposits of Phase A18 is a few hundred years older than the consistent dates for the preceding Phase A19 deposits. In this case, the radiocarbon results may represent the presence in Phase A18 of residual organic material, rather than the effects of sample contamination. The remaining 17 radiocarbon dates, whilst not always falling in the exact calendric ranges expected, have dates consistent with their stratigraphic position and are regarded as more-or-less reliable indicators of the age of the deposits from which they come. The reason for such qualified support for the dates relates to the fact that only one date comes from most phases, and assessing the presence of slightly contaminated samples is very difficult without a series of dates from the same or neighbouring strata. The dates from the Neolithic levels at Nurabad suggest that occupation at the site was underway by the early 6th millennium BC, and perhaps even by the late 7th millennium (given that the Phase A27 deposits are undated). This date for occupation equivalent to the broad Mushki-Jari transition in the Kur River Basin (as evinced by ceramic parallels) is significantly earlier than that proposed by Voigt and Dyson (1992: Fig. 2) and by Alden et al. (2004: Fig. 2), but agrees with the recent chronological periodisation for Fars presented by Sumner (2003: Tab. 12) and Alizadeh (forthcoming). The possibility exists that there is a short gap in the occupation of this part of Tol-e Nurabad between Phases A27 and A26. The lower levels at Toll-e Bashi in the Marv Dasht contain a ceramic assemblage that is clearly transitional between the Mushki and early Jari periods, and have been radiocarbon dated as early as 6100 BC (S. Pollock pers. comm.). Thus, Phase A27 deposits at Tol-e Nurabad, characterised by Mushki pottery, may date exclusively to the seventh millennium BC. However, it 68 may be that the change from the Mushki to the Jari period was not synchronous in the Kur River Basin and the Mamasani District, nor characterised by identical variations in ceramic assemblages. Regardless, radiocarbon determinations covering the span of eight Neolithic occupational phases at Tol-e Nurabad (Phases A26-A20) are stratigraphically consistent and indicate that the various architectural phases at Nurabad were of relatively short duration. Statistical analyses (using OxCal 3.10) of the dates WK13990-13993 and OZI128 suggest a total span for these phases of only 80-350 yrs (2σ range); the equivalent of one to three generations of use for each building level. Between Phases A20 and A19, however, there is a very long chronological gap of approximately a millennium indicated by radiocarbon dates WK13994 and OZI129. Such a long hiatus was not expected based upon the structural remains found in Phases A20 and A19. In particular, the superposition of the Phase A19 hearth feature (Locus 117) immediately above the hearth in Table 3.2. Radiocarbon dates from Tol-e Nurabad Trench A. Lab. Code Sample Type Calibrated Range Uncorrected (2σ [95.4%] range, Date BP yrs BC) WK13989 charcoal 6488 ± 54 WK13990 charcoal OZI128 Locus Phase Period Comments 5610-5590 (.012) 5560-5320 (.942) 174 A27 Mushki Contaminated/Intrusive? 6977 ± 56 5990-5940 (.125) 5930-5720 (.829) 170 A26 Neolithic charcoal 6950 ± 50 5980-5940 (.062) 5920-5730 (.892) 167 A25 Neolithic WK13991 charcoal 6952 ± 61 5990-5940 (.079) 5930-5720 (.875) 163 A24b Neolithic WK13992 charcoal 6938 ± 54 5980-5950 (.038) 5920-5710 (.916) 147 A23 Neolithic WK13993 charcoal 6810 ± 56 5800-5620 (.954) 123 A20 Neolithic 117 A19 Late Neolithic WK13994 charcoal 5850 ± 49 4840-4820 (.017) 4810-4580 (.915) 4570-4550 (.022) OZI129 charcoal 5910 ± 50 4940-4680 (.954) 113 A19 Late Neolithic WK13995 charcoal No data No data 111 A19 Late Neolithic Insufficient organic material for dating OZI130 charcoal 6290 ± 60 5470-5440 (.015) 5380-5190 (.794) 5180-5050 (.144) 109 A18 Early Bakun Contaminated/Residual? WK13996 charcoal 5785 ± 51 4780-4740 (.050) 4730-4490 (.904) 103 A16 Bakun WK13997 charcoal 26999 ± 493 Beyond calibration range 89 A13 Late Lapui OZI134 charcoal 4750 ± 40 3640-3490 (.762) 3440-3370 (.192) 78 A12b Late Lapui OZI132 charcoal 4620 ± 50 3650-3300 (.840) 3250-3100 (.114) 68 A11-12a Late LapuiInitial Banesh WK13998 charcoal 4682 ± 51 3640-3550 (.168) 3540-3360 (.786) 64 A10 Initial/Early Banesh WK13999 charcoal 4476 ± 46 3360-3010 (.954) 45 A8 M. Banesh OZI135 charcoal 4160 ± 50 2890-2580 (.954) 37 A6 Late Banesh OZI136 charcoal 3320 ± 50 1740-1490 (.954) 33 A5 Kaftari WK14000 charcoal 3350 ± 43 1740-1520 (.954) 29 A4 Kaftari OZI137 charcoal 3370 ± 40 1750-1530 (.954) 20 A3 Kaftari OZI138 charcoal 3205 ± 35 1610-1590 (.011) 1540-1410 (.943) 9 A2b Late Kaftari / Qaleh Phase A20 was regarded as indicative of continuity between the two phases. Likewise, there is a continuation in Phase A19 of the ceramic technology (i.e. chafftempered, thick-slipped and burnished wares) that characterises the preceding Neolithic levels at the site. However, as outlined below (Section 3.8), there is some evidence for a gap in the depositional sequence of Trench A between Phases A20 and A19. Firstly, changes in Contaminated with bituminous material ceramic decorative motifs and patterns are seen. These include the disappearance of wares with fine line motifs, including the shallow zigzag, which occur as early as Phase A24b and more commonly in Phases A22-20. Phase A19 also witnesses an increase in the proportion of plain red-slipped and burnished vessels, as opposed to the light brown or light orange slip that characterises most earlier Neolithic wares at Nurabad. 69 Overall, the ceramic parallels for the Tol-e Nurabad Neolithic sequence suggest that occupation contemporary with the later Jari period in the Kur River Basin (i.e. Talli Jari B strata 1-8) may not exist in the area sampled by Trench A. In support of this possibility, the deposits of Phase A19 are the first in a series which were deposited on a significant west to east slope. This slope may represent an erosion surface, which would support and occupational hiatus, and suggests that there was settlement at a higher level a short distance to the west which could account for the gap in the occupational sequence of Trench A. That is, the chronological gap is a localised phenomenon within Trench A, reflecting only the movement of habitation areas within the site. The late dates from Tol-e Nurabad Phase A19 are comparable to the radiocarbon dates from Tall-i Bakun B (level B1) from layers that produced Shamsabad ceramics, in particular sample P-438 (5990 ± 81, Stuckenrath et al. 1963: 90), which has a 2σ calibrated range spanning 5250-4650 BC (OxCal 3.10), and which from the description given comes from the latest burnt level of the Shamsabad occupation at Bakun B (i.e. “3 m below surface of newly-cut Japanese trench”; see Egami and Sono 1962: Fig. 4). Another Shamsabad period sample from Tall-i Bakun B (P-931, 6264 ± 70 Stuckenrath et al. 1966: 350) has an earlier calibrated range of 5380-5030 BC, but may have been sampled from a lower layer at the site. The dates for Chalcolithic deposits at Tol-e Nurabad come from a substantial burnt layer in Phase A18 (Locus 109), and from a concentrated, hearth-like patch of ash and burnt river cobbles (Locus 103) in Phase A16. As noted above, the date of c.5470-5050 for Phase A18 is likely to be inaccurate either due to contamination or the presence of residual material. Dates from Phase A19 place the end of the Neolithic deposits at the site c.48/4700 BC. The date for Phase A16 (WK13996) falls into the second quarter of the 5th millennium BC and is statistically indistinguishable from the Phase A19 dates at the 95% confidence level (based on a χ2 test). If reliable, the dates suggest the deposition of approximately 2 metres of cultural material (without observable architecture) in Trench A over a period of less than c.240 years (2σ range, OxCal 3.10 calculation). The calibrated date range for WK13996, c.4780-4490 BC, falls within the early to middle part of the Bakun period as proposed by most scholars (e.g. Sumner 2003: 52; Voigt and Dyson 1992: Fig. 2). WK13996 is consistent with the radiocarbon determination from Level 17 at Tall-i Gap (Gap Period Ia), which falls broadly into the first half of the 5th millennium BC when calibrated (Egami and Sono 1962: 23). However, the ceramic parallels for Phase A16, especially those for two of the three complete vessels (TNP1121, 1115) are strongest with the upper levels of Tall-i Gap (i.e. Gap IIb-c). The only other radiocarbon date from a Bakun context in Fars comes from the lowest excavated level (IVc) at Talli Nokhodi. This level at Tall-i Nokhodi is contemporary with Bakun A, based upon ceramic parallels, and has produced a carbon date with a 2σ calibrated range of 4250-3500 BC (BMI-171, 5050 ± 150 BP; from Hole 1987: Tab. 3, calibrated using OxCal 3.10). It is interesting to note the strong contrasts between the late fifth millennium ceramic assemblages from Tol-e Nurabad (which exhibit a predominance of plain buff ware vessels) and the highly decorated vessels from contemporary Late Bakun sites in the Kur River Basin. The latest Chalcolithic deposits at Tol-e Nurabad (comprising Phase A14) have not been radiometrically dated. However, a terminus ante quem is provided by a series of determinations on Lapui Period contexts at Tol-e Spid, the earliest of which (WK13980) has a calibrated range of c.3910-3660 BC (see Chapter 4.6). It is unfortunate that the charcoal sample from the earliest Lapui period deposits at Tol-e Nurabad (WK13997, Phase A13) was contaminated with bitumen. The Lapui Period date from Tol-e Nurabad comes from the Phase A12b mudbrick wall (Locus 78, OZI134). The general range of this date around the mid-fourth millennium BC indicate that these deposits date towards the end of the Lapui Period, a suggestion which is supported by the ceramic parallels with Tol-e Spid (especially the preponderance of very fine burnished redslipped buff wares seen in Phases A13-A12 at Tol-e Nurabad and in later Lapui deposits of Phases 20-19 at Tol-e Spid). One charcoal sample was analysed from Locus 68 (OZI132), a deposit that is stratigraphically mixed between Phases A11 and A12a. This locus was selected for dating as it witnessed the earliest occurrence of bevelled-rim bowls at the site. Due to a plateau in the calibration curve towards the end of the fourth millennium BC, this date has a very broad calibrated range spanning c.3600-3100 BC, although the highest probability is in the period from c.3650-3300 BC. The next dated context is Locus 64 from Phase A10 (WK13998), which can most likely be assigned to the Initial or Early Banesh Periods based upon the appearance of bevelled-rim bowls in Phase A10 and in earlier Phase A11 contexts and on various grit-tempered ceramic forms. The calibrated range of WK13998 (36403360 BC) covers the period of the Lapui-Banesh transition, based upon radiocarbon dates from Tall-i Kureh and Tal-e Malyan (Sumner 2003: Tab. 12; Alden 2003: Fig. D3). The exact chronological position of Phases A11 and A10 is somewhat difficult to determine: bevelled-rim bowls have been recovered from terminal Lapui period contexts at Tall-i Kureh, and Alden has further suggested that the occurrence of bevelled-rim bowls without Banesh trays is indicative of Initial or Early Banesh occupation (Alden 2003: 196-7). However, as Banesh trays were not found at all in Trench A, even though Middle Banesh occupation at the site is well established by ceramic typology and radiocarbon dates, this ceramic association may not hold for Tol-e Nurabad. Based upon the presently available evidence, the most likely chronological attribution for Phase A10 deposits is to the Early Banesh period. 70 Radiocarbon date WK13999 from Phase A8, with a calibrated range covering the last 350 years of the 4th millennium BC, falls squarely into the Middle Banesh period as defined by numerous radiocarbon determinations from Tal-e Malyan (Sumner 2003: Tabs. 12 and 13). This dating is supported by the pottery and smallfinds recovered from Phase A8 deposits, which include typical Middle Banesh period vessel types such as bevelled-rim bowls and chaff-tempered goblets, as well as a fragment of a square-sectioned ceramic drain pipe typical of late 4th millennium BC levels at Susa, Tale Malyan and Tepe Yahya (see Section 3.5 above). discussion of material from Phases A2b-A1, and it is clear that such comparandae deserve emphasis in light of the Phase A2b radiocarbon determination. A radiocarbon date from Phase A6 (Locus 37, OZI135) supports the proposed Late Banesh dating of this phase based upon ceramic parallels, and has a calibrated range of c.2900-2600 BC. This date agrees with the radiocarbon evidence from Tal-e Malyan which suggested an end to the Late Banesh period c.28/2600 BC, although it does not clarify this broad range with any more precision. Attention also focussed upon the Lapui, Banesh, and Kaftari period occupation (12 samples). These periods witnessed settlement at Tol-e Spid as well as at Tol-e Nurabad, and the integrated radiocarbon and ceramic evidence from the two excavated sequences has allowed for a detailed understanding of the start, end, and duration of these occupational phases in the Mamasani District (within the limits of precision of the calibrated dates). A significant component of this understanding is the demonstration of discontinuity in occupation at Tol-e Nurabad and Tol-e Spid from the (Middle or Late) Banesh Period to the (Middle or Late) Kaftari Period. This situation is, in many respects, paralleled in the Kur River Basin (e.g. Miller and Sumner 2004). Interestingly, limited recent soundings at Tal-e Malyan (trenches H5 and H1s; Miller and Sumner 2004; Alden et al. 2005) have provided some evidence for continuous occupation at the site through the 3rd millennium BC, in contrast to previous reconstructions of extensive abandonment of settlement in the region. The data from our excavations and radiocarbon dating programme in Mamasani have provided an additional perspective that accords, in many respects, with earlier reconstructions positing widespread disruption in settled life in Fars from the early to the late 3rd millennium BC (if not longer). The next three dates from Trench A come from the Phases A5 (Locus 33, OZI136), A4 (Locus 29, the foundation pit for the furnace, WK14000), and A3 (Locus 20, OZI137). They are consistent in dating these deposits to the second quarter of the second millennium BC. The chronological propinquity of Phases A5 to A3 is further suggested by the continuity of ceramic forms throughout these deposits, and especially by the presence of clay “wall cones” in significant numbers in Phases A5 and A3. These dates are later than initially expected, based upon prevalence of Middle Kaftari ceramics and other types with Susa VA parallels in Phase A3. Nevertheless, they fall within the general span given to the Kaftari Period in the Kur River Basin of c.2200-1600 BC (Sumner 2003: Tab. 12) and their internal consistency (including results from two laboratories) supports the reliability of the determinations and the assignation of Phases A5-A3 to the Late Kaftari Period. Comparable dates have been obtained for the similar Kaftari ceramic assemblages from Phases 17-15 at Tol-e Spid (see Chapter 4, Section 4.6). The latest date from Trench A comes from Phase A2b (Locus 9, OZI138) and provides a calibrated range of c.1610-1410 BC, suggesting occupation at Tol-e Nurabad in the so-called Qaleh period. Again, the date is slightly later than was expected, given that ceramics with parallels to the preceding Phase A3 and to Kaftari period Malyan are present in Phase A2b. Nevertheless, some parallels to Qaleh decorative motifs were noted in the In summary, the radiocarbon dating programme discussed above was most strongly oriented towards providing a chronological framework for the Neolithic deposits at the site (9 samples), as the absolute chronology of this period in Fars was particularly poorly understood. As a result, a reliable assessment of the absolute age of Neolithic occupation at the site and of discontinuity of Neolithic settlement was achieved. However, the radiocarbon dating programme from Tol-e Nurabad is not complete, and it is clear that more extensive excavations and further radiometric analyses will be required before some issues of absolute chronology and the continuity of settled occupation at the site, and in Mamasani generally, can be adequately discussed. In particular, radiocarbon dates from Tol-e Nurabad Trench B will help to clarify issues regarding the possibility of continuous occupation in the region from the Middle Elamite to the Achaemenid period, i.e. the possibility of Neo-Elamite and early Achaemenid settlement at the site, as well as the chronological limits of the Post-Achaemenid occupation at the site. 3.8. Summary of Excavations at Tol-e Nurabad In the preceding sections of this chapter, the wealth of material evidence from Tol-e Nurabad Trenches A and B has been presented in detail, following the reconstructed phasing of the excavated deposits. To conclude the chapter, a summary of the architectural sequence of the excavated deposits, their chronology, and their material culture (particularly ceramics) is given. This section focuses upon data and interpretations of specific relevance to our understanding of the occupation of Tol-e Nurabad itself. Of course, the excavations have produced many insights of broader relevance for the archaeology of southwestern Iran, such as the timing and nature of the 71 earliest Neolithic occupation in the region, regional relative and absolute chronologies, and the difficult interpretation of the relationship between changes in the material record of Fars and the histories of its human populations. These broader issues, upon which new evidence not only from Tol-e Nurabad, but also from excavations at Tol-e Spid and the surveys of Dasht-e Rostam-e 1 and 2 can be brought to bear, are discussed in Chapter 7 at the conclusion of this volume. 3.8.1. Occupational Phases at Tol-e Nurabad In general, the excavated remains from Tol-e Nurabad are of the quality and consistency expected from two very small soundings in a very large and complex site. That is, the quality of the excavated deposits from trenches A and B was highly variable. For some periods, we were lucky enough to encounter very well stratified deposits of superimposed architecture and/or living spaces. The best examples from Trench A are the Neolithic deposits of Phases A26-A20 and, to a certain extent, the Banesh period deposits of Phases A10-A7, whilst good architectural deposits from Trench B included Phases B9, B4 and B2. Such deposits tend to have produced the best material assemblages, and inevitably repay the effort of excavation and analysis to a far greater degree than the sloping wash deposits that typify the Chalcolithic period deposits of Phases A18-A14, for example. The inherent limitations of archaeological sample size, and our “luck” in the choice of trench locations, should be borne in mind when reading the summaries presented below and assessing the impact of the excavation programme at Tole Nurabad. Neolithic Contexts (Phases A27-A19) Phase A27 provides evidence for the initial occupation of Tol-e Nurabad in the Mushki period, characterised by only a small, ephemeral, ashy fireplace and overlying fill. It seems likely, based upon the appearance of residual sherds in higher levels of Trench A, that more substantial Mushki period occupation existed in as-yet-unexcavated areas of the site, although this will have to be proven by further excavations. In contrast to the earliest occupational phase, the majority of the Neolithic occupation in Trench A consists of superimposed substantial mudbrick and pisé (Persian “chineh”) rectilinear buildings. In Phases A26 to A20, architectural phases were preserved up to nearly a metre in some instances (e.g. Phase A24b) but more commonly to a height of 30-50 cm. A general continuity in the alignment of buildings, in ceramic types, and the evidence from radiocarbon determinations, indicates that these phases were deposited over the course of a handful of generations in the first half of the 6th millennium BC. The mudbrick or chineh walls often exhibited a thick mud plaster coating, particularly in the surviving structures of Phases A26-A24. As described below, such coatings are seen at a number of other Iranian Neolithic sites. The use of mudbricks for construction was not observed in contemporary levels at Toll-e Bashi (Abdi et al. 2003), where buildings were rare in contrast to occupation surfaces without associated architecture. Likewise, at Tall-i Jari A (Level III) rectilinear buildings were produced of straw-tempered mud segments (chineh) rather than of mudbricks (Egami et al. 1977: 7 and Pl. II; Egami 1967: 2938). Both chineh and mudbricks were used to construct sub-circular structures at Tall-i Mushki Levels I-II, with mudbricks (12x10x25-28 cm) commonly used at the base of walls in Level I (uppermost: Fukai et al. 1973: 16-20). Walls in Level II also showed a surface application of mud plaster approximately 2 cm thick (Fukai et al. 1973: 20). In contrast, the lowest building level at Tall-i Mushki was characterised by a symmetrical, rectilinear structure made of chineh without any straw temper (Fukai et al. 1973: 21). Looking beyond Fars, at the contemporary site of Hajji Firuz Tepe in northwest Iran, buildings of all phases were largely rectilinear, with those of the earliest phases (L-G) probably made of chineh, whilst mudbricks became common in the upper phases (F-A) (Voigt 1983: 31-34 and Tab. 9; Voigt notes potential difficulties in recognising bricks in damp deposits at the time of excavation, p. 33-34). Wall thicknesses at Hajji Firuz were of a similar size to those from Tol-e Nurabad, averaging about 40cm thick (Voigt 1983: 34 and Tab. 9). At Tepe Guran in the central western Zagros, the earliest buildings were of wood, but by Level M houses were built exclusively of (oval) mudbricks, often on a stone foundation and with a straw-tempered mud-plaster facing (Meldgaard et al. 1963: 110-111). Levels M-H at Tepe Guran are characterised by “standard painted ware”, which shows some parallels with the “shallow zigzag” motif from Tol-e Nurabad Phases A24b-A20. In Khuzestan, mud and mudbricks are used as early as the aceramic Neolithic. For example, the late aceramic levels at Ali Kosh were characterised by the use of “large, untempered, clay-slab bricks averaging 40 by 25 by 10 cm” in mud mortar, which frequently had a surface coating of smooth mud plaster (Hole et al. 1969: 347). Architecture of the Mohammed Jaffar Phase was likewise characterised by the use of clay-slab bricks on a foundation of river pebbles (Hole et. Al. 1969: 350). The Surkh Phase at Ali Kosh saw the use of long, cigarshaped mudbricks (Hole 1977: 33). Despite this earlier evidence, however, Hole (1977: 36) regards the Choga Mami Transitional Period (largely contemporary with Tol-e Nurabad Phase A26-A20) as the time when “substantial brick houses” first appeared at Ali Kosh. A dramatic change is seen in the nature of the Trench A deposits after the latest of the Neolithic phases. Phase A19 has no clear architectural remains, although a concentration of river cobbles and burning in the southwest corner of the trench indicates a fireplace in a location very similar to that seen in the immediately preceding Phase A20. The continuity in the location of the fireplace/hearth from Phases A20-A19, and the occurrence of Neolithic chaff-tempered pottery in Phase A19 initially suggested continuous occupation from one 72 phase to the next, but this theory was contradicted by a close examination of the pottery sequence and by radiocarbon dates. Overall, the available evidence supports a gap in occupation in Trench A of up to a millennium between Phase A20 and A19. Bakun Contexts (Phases A18-A14) The lack of architectural remains that characterises the Late Neolithic of Phase A19 is also a feature of the Bakun period archaeological remains of the subsequent Phases A18 to A14. Only a few clearly in situ deposits were recorded, such as the fireplace in Phase A16 (Locus 103), and the great majority of deposits in Phases A18 to A14 exhibit a strong slope from west-southwest to eastnortheast or thereabouts. Combined with the lack of architectural remains, this suggests that the Bakun Period deposits in Trench A are largely comprised of re-worked material that was washed, eroded, or otherwise deposited from higher levels at the site. Lapui Contexts (Phases A13-A12a) The character of the deposits in Trench A changes again with Phase A13, which dates to the early 4th millennium BC based upon the first appearance of red-slipped Lapui pottery. Phase A13 deposits are again non-architectural, but seem to provide an in-filled, level surface upon which the substantial Phase A12b mudbrick wall was built. The concentration of red-slipped and burnished pottery in the Phase A12a deposits overlying this wall suggest that these phases can also be dated to the Lapui period. Banesh Contexts (Phases A11-A6) Phases A11 to A8 are again without substantial architectural remains, but exhibit much less of a slope than the deposits of the Bakun Period. The existence of a number of relatively level, superimposed, floor-like deposits may indicate that even in the absence of architecture, we are dealing with material that is less reworked than in the Bakun period deposits. For example, the deposits of Phases A11-A8 could represent intra- or (more likely) extra-mural habitation and working areas in the immediate vicinity of houses. Judging by the ceramic remains and radiocarbon determinations, these phases can be dated from the Terminal Lapui/Initial Banesh to the Middle Banesh period, i.e. in the second half of the 4th millennium BC. Phase A7 consists predominantly of a relatively dense layer of small limestone river cobbles that can be seen to run across large areas of the site on a significant east-west slope. The nature of such a deposit is unclear, and given the height of the mound above the surrounding plain at this time, it seems clearly to have been anthropogenic in origin. The function of this cobble layer remains unknown, but parallels can be drawn with a level of river cobbles that underlay the Level II (Kaftari Period) buildings across the entire excavated area at Tall-i Nokhodi (Goff 1963: 46). Phase A7 also likely dates to the Middle Banesh Period, based upon ceramic finds, although the subsequent Phase A6 deposits, which also produced areas of river cobbles, have been radiocarbon dated to the Late Banesh period in the early 3rd millennium BC. Kaftari and Qaleh Contexts (Phases A5-A2a) The next substantial structural remains are those of the pyro-technological installation of Phase A4, radiocarbon dated to the early 2nd millennium BC and with some parallels to smaller Kaftari period furnaces/hearths from Tall-i Nokhodi (Goff 1963: 46 and Fig. 3). The precise function of this structure remains unknown, although its role in high temperature activities is clearly established by the parallels cited above, and by the evidence for burning of each of the re-built base levels. It is a very substantial structure, with a deep, boulder-filled foundation trench, and was clearly used frequently and re-built at least twice. A date for this structure in the Kaftari period is also established by the ceramic assemblages from the overlying layers of Phase A3 and Phase A2b. The architectural remains of Phase A3 consist only of a small wall at the eastern end of the trench. The deposits associated with the base of this wall seem to represent an in situ floor deposit, with significant numbers of small finds and a higher frequency of grinding stones than seen in any other deposits from Trench A. The overlying fill has a very bricky texture and is most likely mudbrick collapse, suggesting that the deposits of Phase A3 were within or directly adjacent to a building. As noted above, the ceramics from this phase indicate that it dates to the Kaftari period, and the radiocarbon date from Phase A4, if accurate, would suggest occupation towards the end of this period. Elamite Contexts (Phases B9-B6) Although there are possible post-Kaftari ceramics in the upper deposits of Trench A (Phases A2a-A1), it is likely that there is a chronological gap between the latest deposits excavated in Trench A and the earliest deposits of Trench B. The first settlement phase of Trench B, Phase B9, included a substantial mudbrick structure which continued across most of the extent of the excavations. It has proven impossible to develop a reliable idea of the dimensions and function of this structure, as it is mostly unexcavated. Broader excavations will be required to answer these questions. By way of comparison, we can mention the existence of large mudbrick structures dated to the Middle or NeoElamite period from Tal-e Malyan (Carter 1996) and Susa (Gasche 1973) and other excavated sites of this period. Although the ceramic evidence is equivocal, it is possible that this phase can be placed chronologically in the transition between the Middle and Neo-Elamite periods. In phases B8 and B7a-b, there is also a thick mudbrick wall which was built from mudbricks similar in size to those seen in the previous phase. The Neo-Elamite nature of the ceramic assemblage from these phases seems clearer, and it is possible that this Neo-Elamite architecture was built directly on top of the Middle/NeoElamite structure of Phase B9. Another possibility is the 73 re-use of Middle Elamite or early Neo-Elamite structures in the Neo-Elamite period proper. In Phase B6, which appears to be transitional from the Neo-Elamite to the Achaemenid periods, part of a mudbrick wall was found in the corner of the trench, most of which was outside the excavated area. A damaged paved cobble floor also belongs to this phase. Achaemenid and Post-Achaemenid Contexts (Phases B5b-B1) Trench B phases B5a-b and B4, dated to the Achaemenid period, produced no intact standing architecture, being comprised predominantly of loose soil and mudbrick collapse. A paved floor found in Phase B5b represents the only possible structural element. Phase B3b is transitional between the Achaemenid and Parthian (Post-Achaemenid?) periods. As for the preceding phases, Phase B3b contains no intact architecture. The deposits were predominantly comprised of mudbrick collapse, and were disturbed by several pits and holes. Phase B2 belongs clearly to the Post-Achaemenid period and contained a thick mudbrick wall (mudbrick dimension 45x50x9 cm). Phase B1 produced no architectural remains, only disturbed surface deposits which contained Post-Achaemenid ceramics and other cultural material. 3.8.2. The Ceramic Assemblages at Tol-e Nurabad Surface surveys and excavations at Tol-e Nurabad attest to a very long, possibly interrupted, period of occupation at the site from as early as the terminal 7th millennium BC to the Post-Achaemenid period. The section below focuses on the excavated ceramic assemblages, which showed a number of features typical of assemblages from multi-period settlement sites. Most significantly, such assemblages are generally characterised by a substantial proportion of residual or re-worked material. This is seen at Tol-e Nurabad most clearly in the Trench A Terminal Lapui and Banesh period deposits of Phases A11-A8, where residual Bakun period buff wares occurred at frequencies as high as 40-50% of the assemblage by sherd count. In the discussion below, it is a basic assumption that the dating and cultural associations of each particular phase at Tol-e Nurabad are best established by consideration of the most recent ceramic material in the associated deposits, not the oldest. Thus, residual materials are generally not mentioned below, other than when they provide evidence for occupation at the site which is otherwise unattested in the assemblages of non-residual pottery. This approach has allowed for the creation of a robust and plausible chronology for the Trench A and B deposits, which was considerably aided by the fact that, unlike residual material, intrusive material (i.e. material displaced downwards from more recent levels) was rare. Neolithic ceramics (Phases A27-A19) Broadly, the early pottery of Fars can be placed within the so-called “soft ware” tradition that characterises many Neolithic pottery assemblages from western Iran to Central Asia (Dyson 1965; Hole 1987: 30). The Neolithic pottery from Tol-e Nurabad is yet another example of this tradition, and moreover appears to represent a local variety of the “sequential slab construction” technique defined and described by Vandiver (1987). One feature of this technique is the use of reed baskets in the initial stages of forming and shaping vessels, recorded for example at Neolithic sites in lowland Khuzestan (Alizadeh 2003a: 47, Pl. 22.A; Delougaz and Kantor 1996: 227-228, Pl. 205) and northwestern Iran (Vandiver 1987: 18). At a number of sites in Fars province (e.g. Toll-e Bashi, Kushk-e Hezar, sites in the Qara Aghaj Valley), characteristic slip flaking has likewise revealed basketry impressions on the coarse chaff-tempered vessel core. The thick slip of the Nurabad Neolithic wares has a similar tendency to crack and flake away from the inner chaff-tempered core, but as yet, no characteristic reed impressions have been observed on the registered ceramics from Tol-e Nurabad. This widespread and long-lived soft ware pottery horizon raises interesting questions regarding the transfer of ceramic production technology across time and space, and about the conservatism of vessel production techniques. Such technological conservatism contrasts very strongly with the development of elaborate, regionally-distinct styles of painted pottery decoration that are so characteristic of early ceramic production across Iran. With specific regard to Fars, Alden et al. (2004: 37) have noted that an examination of the painted motifs on Neolithic ceramic assemblages highlights strong patterns of sub-regional chronological and geographical diversity. The Neolithic ceramics from Tole Nurabad certainly conform to this idea, being defined by a relatively consistent ceramic production technology that formed the canvas for a highly diverse and changeable tradition of painted decoration. In general, the Trench A Neolithic pottery has typological and stylistic parallels with the pottery produced during the earliest phases of settled agricultural life in the Kur River Basin, at Tall-i Mushki, Tall-i Jari A3, and the lower levels of Toll-e Bashi. These parallels are the clearest and most specific for the earliest phases at Tol-e Nurabad (i.e. Phases A27-A25), and much more general in nature after that point. In particular, the ceramic assemblage of Phase A27 (although very small) appears identical to Mushki period pottery from the Kur River Basin, as defined by excavations at Tall-i Mushki Levels I-V (Fukai et al. 1973). The residual Mushki-style sherds found in Phases A25 and A26 are further indication that there was a significant Mushki period occupation at the site, perhaps located to the west of Trench A closer to the stream bed. The decorative motifs on later pottery from Trench A (Phases A26-A20) can be paralleled in the upper levels of Tall-i Mushki (TMB trench, Fukai et al. 1973: Pl. XXIV) and at Jari A3 (Egami et al. 1977), Toll-e Bashi 74 (Bernbeck et al. 2004; Abdi et al. 2003), and rarely at Jari B (where only the “basketry” pattern occurs; Maeda 1986). The ceramic parallels suggest that Phases A26A20 are contemporary with the early Jari period or a perhaps transitional Mushki-Jari phase (represented by the “Mushki-Bashi” period in Fars; Bernbeck et al. 2004). Alongside these abrupt changes in painted motifs, however, there also appears to have been a more gradual or evolutionary change in ceramic vessel forms through time in the Fars Neolithic. Specifically, there is a general trend to move from assemblages dominated by carinated forms in the earliest periods (e.g. Tall-i Mushki, Kushk-e Hezar, early levels of Toll-e Bashi) to assemblages dominated by more sinuous sided bowls and jars in subsequent periods (e.g. upper levels at Toll-e Bashi, Tall-i Jari B). The small proportion of carinated sherds from Tol-e Nurabad phases A26-A20 fits neatly with the other indicators for the chronology of the deposits, particularly the evidence of ceramic motifs and the radiocarbon dates. There is little stylistic resemblance between the decoration on the Tol-e Nurabad Neolithic ceramic assemblage and that found at late Jari period sites in the Kur River Basin, as typified by the material assemblage from Tall-i Jari B Strata 1-8 (Maeda 1986). Indeed, the radiocarbon dates from Trench A suggest a long gap (2σ range 820-1110 years, OxCal 3.10 calculations) between the deposition of Phases A20 and A19. In support of such an hypothesis, Phase A19 pottery shows some differences to ceramics of Phase A20, particularly in the predominant slip colour (orange/red as opposed to buff/light orange), although manufacturing techniques were similar. This is not to say that Tol-e Nurabad was abandoned between Phases A20 and A19, as occupation may have existed on the mound at a location not sampled by the very small Trench A sounding. The lack of good parallels between Tol-e Nurabad and Jari B may also reflect the development of regionally-specific ceramic styles in Fars by the later Neolithic period. One particularly characteristic component of the production of Tol-e Nurabad Neolithic pottery is the use of bichrome painted decoration, which forms a significant component of the Trench A assemblages from Phases A26-A20. At first glance this tradition seems unique to the Mamasani District, and certainly the specific bichrome painted designs in Nurabad pottery find their best parallels at other Neolithic sites in Mamasani (see Chapter 6) and from surface survey at the site of Tall-i Morge near Kazerun (Sumner 1977: Fig. 4). Nevertheless, traditions of bichrome decoration can be documented in contemporary (and earlier) pottery assemblages from neighbouring regions of southwestern Iran. Vessels with such decoration are relatively rare in the Kur River Basin, although a few bichrome sherds were recovered during the Japanese excavations at Tall-i Mushki and some of these bear a close resemblance to the Nurabad bichrome material in terms of their overall design composition (Fukai et al. 1973: Pl. XXII.2:5, 6, 8). In the Kur River Basin, sherds with bichrome decoration have also been recorded in surface survey at the site of Kushk-e Hezar (Alden et al. 2004: Fig. 6.6, 6.14), although their design composition differs substantially from that seen at Nurabad. In general, bichrome wares seem to be a regional phenomenon concentrated more in areas to the (north)west of the Kur River Basin. For example, ceramics with bichrome decoration are common at Qale Rostam in the Bakhtiari Mountains (Bernbeck 1989; 2004: Fig. 7), although again the decorative motifs are different than the Mamasani material, generally consisting of the use of a red pigment/wash on the lower portion of the vessel below the carination. A similar use of red-wash on the lower portions of vessels is recorded in Susiana, in the later Archaic levels at Chogha Mish (Delougaz and Kantor 1996: 229, Pls. 213.A; 215.H, J; 216.B). There is a certain resemblance of the plain wares with late Neolithic material from sites such as Tall-i Jari A (Level 2) and Tall-i Bakun B (Level B1) in the Kur River Basin, generally referred to as Shamsabad ware. However, painted chaff-tempered wares are still common in Phase A19 at Tol-e Nurabad (also occurring in Phase A18 deposits), whereas Shamsabad wares in the Kur River Basin seem to have been almost exclusively undecorated (although see Alizadeh 2004: 6). Overall, however, the ceramic and radiocarbon evidence supports the proposition that Phases A26-A20 were deposited over a relatively short time period in the first half of the 6th millennium BC, and that there was a long gap in the occupation of that part of the site between the early Jari period and the final Neolithic period in the early 5th millennium BC. The evidence of Neolithic pottery from surface collections at Tol-e Nurabad (described above in Section 3.3.4) may also support the notion of shifting Neolithic occupation at the site and a break in the Trench A stratigraphic sequence, as these surface sherds have no parallels in the excavated material from Phases A27-A19. Bakun ceramics (Phases A18-A14) Phase A19 sees the first appearance of painted buff wares, which become predominant in Phase A18. These buff wares are comparable to pottery excavated from Tall-i Bakun B Level B2 (Egami and Masuda 1962; Alizadeh 2002) and Tall-i Jari A1 (Egami et al. 1977), and in later variants from Tall-i Gap (Egami and Sono 1962); Tall-i Bakun A Levels I-IV (Egami and Sono 1962; Langsdorff and McCown 1942), and Tall-i Nokhodi (Goff 1963, 1964). Buff wares of Phases A19 and A18 co-occur with slipped and burnished chafftempered Neolithic wares similar to earlier phases at Tole Nurabad. Phases A19-A18 therefore appear to coincide with the transition between the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods. The early Bakun pottery from Phase A18 is distinguished from later Bakun phases at Tol-e Nurabad by a number of features, particularly the presence of bowls with elaborate interior decoration (i.e. more than just a painted line inside the rim). While these represent about 15% of the registered assemblage from Phase A18 (12 examples from 80 painted sherds), in Phase A17 only about 6% (4 of 70) sherds have elaborate interior decoration, and similarly low proportions are reported from Phase A16 75 and mixed Phase A15-A16 deposits. Elaborate interior decoration is completely absent from later Bakun period phases at Tol-e Nurabad. Bowls with interior decoration are known from early Bakun period contexts in the Kur River Basin, for example at Tall-i Bakun B (Level B2, Egami and Masuda 1962: Fig. 17). At Tol-e Nurabad, bowls with elaborate interior decoration that do come from later Bakun period contexts (Phases A16-15) generally have a decorative scheme of grouped straight or wavy lines, a feature which to some extent also characterises the later Bakun period in the Kur River Basin (e.g. Tall-i Bakun A; Egami and Masuda 1962: Fig. 11; Langsdorff and McCown 1942: Pls. 28, 29). Also significant in distinguishing Phase A18 from later pottery was the prevalence of dense, cross-hatched decoration of geometric forms, and a greater frequency of depictions of anthropomorphic and especially zoomorphic forms. Another transition seen is to the production of vessels with thinner walls. That is, Phase A17 and particularly Phases A16-14 have produced fewer of the large, thickwalled storage vessels that characterise Phase A18 and a much higher proportion of the thin-walled vessels of the deep bowl/beaker variety. This distinction may, however, reflect the limited extent and nature of the excavated contexts as much as chronological factors. Phase A17 sees the introduction of deep buff ware bowls/beakers, either plain or decorated with simple geometric patterns such as thick vertical lines, which are common in Susiana in the Middle Susiana Period. Subsequently, plain deep bowls become particularly prominent in Phases A16 and A15, forming the majority of the assemblage by sherd counts. Aside from these vessels, Phase A16 is useful chronologically for having provided three complete or near-complete painted buff ware vessels. The small deep bowl TNP 1121, in particular, can be paralleled in the upper levels of Tall-i Gap (Period IIb), in Tall-i Ghazir Step Trench Levels 1-6, and in Level III at Tall-i Bakun A, suggesting a date in the later part of the Middle Bakun Period. Likewise, the use of small dots to fill the empty field of the cup TNP 1115, although seen as early as Tall-i Bakun B2, is a motif typical of Tall-i Gap Levels 2-6 (Period IIb-IIc) and is also seen at Tall-i Bakun A. The age of the deposits comprising Phase A14 is bracketed by the late Middle Bakun ceramics of Phases A15-16 and the first appearance of red-slipped and burnished Lapui ceramics in Phase A13. It is difficult to assign a more precise date to Phase A14, in part because of the non-architectural and steeply sloping nature of the deposits meant that many excavated loci contained mixed material from two phases. However, the pottery from the upper Bakun period levels at Tol-e Nurabad does not show the elaborate decoration typical of the later Bakun period sites in the Kur River Basin, i.e. Tall-i Nokhodi (Lev. III-IV; Goff 1963, 1964) and especially Tall-i Bakun A itself (Lev. III-IV; Langsdorff and McCown 1942; Egami and Masuda 1962). An increasing frequency of plain buff wares characterises the later prehistoric sequence in Deh Luran, the Bayat and Farukh phases in particular (Hole et al. 1969: Fig. 69; Wright (ed.) 1981: 23-26). This ware was commonly used to produce fine “bell-shaped bowls” and “deep bowls with vertical to slightly flared walls” (Hole et al. 1969: 124-132, Fig. 48.g, h, p-s; Wright (ed.) 1981: Figs. 13 and 14) that are typologically similar to the vessels that dominate the Tole Nurabad assemblage in Phases A16-A14. The radiocarbon date from Phase A15 suggests that the plain buff wares from Tol-e Nurabad represent a regional variation of the Fars Late Bakun sequence. A number of residual Bakun period sherds from higher up in the Trench A sequence (e.g. TNP 361, Phase A4, and TNP 606, 614, Phase A9) have decoration more comparable with Bakun A ceramics from the Kur River Basin, and their presence is further testament to occupation at Tol-e Nurabad during the late Bakun period and to contacts with the Kur River Basin. Further excavations at the site, in addition to excavation of the as-yet unsampled Bakun Period deposits at Tol-e Spid, will no doubt shed light on these issues. Lapui ceramics (Phases A13-A12a) As noted above, Phase A13 sees the introduction of redslipped burnished wares known as Lapui Fine ware in the Kur River Basin. Such wares were first recorded in mixed Phase A13-14 contexts, but it is most likely that their introduction dates to Phase A13 proper. Buff wares characteristic of the Bakun period occur at significant frequencies alongside the new ware in Phase A13. This is interesting, as buff ware is not normally found associated in excavation with Lapui material, at least in the Kur River Basin (some Lapui wares were found in Level IV at Tall-i Bakun A, but are interpreted by the excavators as intrusive from the surface of the site; Langsdorff and McCown 1942: 32). The Buff ware sherds from Tol-e Nurabad may therefore represent residual material from the lower layers at the site. However, given the high frequency of this ware in the Phase A12 assemblage and the fact that much of the buff ware is plain (rather than painted as is typical of Late Bakun ceramics from Tall-i Bakun A and Tall-i Nokhodi), it is possible that the Buff ware tradition continues alongside the new Lapui ware, at least in this region of Fars. Parallels for this situation can be drawn with the lowland regions to the north-west of Mamasani, as buff wares and red-slipped wares occur side by side at Susa in Period I (Acropole I Levels 27-23; LeBrun 1978b), and in Levels 1-6 of the Step Trench at Tall-i Ghazir (Caldwell 1968: 349 and Figs. 1-5). Standing against such an hypothesis is the lack of a significant frequency of buff ware sherds in Lapui layers at Tol-e Spid, although it must be noted that possible transitional layers between the Bakun and Lapui periods have not yet been excavated there (see Chapter 4). Also to be noted is the occurrence of high frequencies of Buff ware, comprising 20-40% of the excavated assemblage, as late as Phase A9 at Tol-e Nurabad. As this material is clearly residual, it may be that the abundant buff wares from Phase A13 (and A12) are also residual. The excavation of larger and better archaeological contexts at Tol-e Nurabad is required before this issue can be clearly resolved. With regard to the Lapui wares, the shapes recorded in both the fine red-slipped and burnished wares and in the 76 unslipped grit-tempered wares of Phases A13 to A12a are very similar. They include bowls with everted or outflaring rim, hole-mouth jars, and jars with out-turned rim, whose shapes are paralleled in the Lapui period deposits excavated at Tol-e Spid (Phases 19-24) and further afield in Lapui period assemblages from the surface of Tall-i Bakun A (Langsdorff and McCown 1942: Pls. 19-21; Egami and Masuda 1962: Fig. 12) and from survey collections at other sites in the Kur River Basin (Sumner 1972, 1988: Figs. 2-3). Both the unslipped grit-tempered wares and the redslipped and burnished wares continue into Phases A11A10 and later. It seems likely that the grit-tempered Lapui wares are the predecessors to the grit-tempered wares that characterise the Banesh period deposits at Tole Nurabad and in Fars generally. This is suggested, at least for Tol-e Nurabad, by the fact that some shapes (such as the bowl with incurving rim and the hole-mouth jar) continue to be found in grit-tempered ware of one variety or another from Phase A13 to Phase A6 and even later. The continued use of red-slipped burnished wares into the Banesh period is somewhat unexpected, as this ware was not found alongside typical Middle Banesh gritand chaff-tempered forms at Tal-e Malyan. Nevertheless, the continued use of red-slipped wares in Phases A10 and later contexts at Tol-e Nurabad is paralleled at Tol-e Spid Phases 18 and 19 (see Chapter 4) and elsewhere at Tall-i Ghazir (Step Trench Levels 28-38; Caldwell 1968: 351). Although occurring less frequently and in more restricted range of forms, red-slipped wares are also reported from Susa at about this time (Acropole I Level 17B, Le Brun 1978b: Fig. 32). Banesh ceramics (Phases A11-A6) Phase A11 most likely represents the first appearance of bevelled-rim bowls at Tol-e Nurabad, although they were recovered from mixed Phase A11-A12a contexts. This typical “Western” form occurs alongside red-slipped burnished wares and other coarse grit-tempered wares similar to the Lapui period. However, a number of sherds from Phase A11 (e.g. TNP 808, 871) are better paralleled in the Initial or Early Banesh period. Thus, the overall ceramic assemblage from this phase and the radiocarbon dates obtained from the subsequent Phase A10 deposits (see Section 3.7 above) suggest that the loci comprising Phase A11 were deposited during the transition between the Lapui and Banesh periods. The dating of the subsequent Phases A10-A7 to the Early and Middle Banesh periods seems clear, based upon the prevalence of bevelled-rim bowls in these deposits and the less frequent appearance of other typical Banesh period ceramic markers such as conical cups (e.g. in Phase A7) and, rarely, chaff-tempered goblet rims (in Phases A9 and A8). It is probable that Phase A6 dates to the Late Banesh period. A number of ceramic forms from Phase A6 have parallels with Middle Banesh Tal-e Malyan, as does a square-sectioned drain of typical “Proto-Elamite” type (see Section 3.7 below). However, the radiocarbon date from this phase indicates occupation in the Late Banesh period (see Section 3.7 below), and some of this material may well be residual. Kaftari and Qaleh ceramics (Phases A5-A2a) The chronological position of Phase A5 is difficult to discern based purely upon pottery assemblages. The number of bevel-rim bowls drops away significantly (2 sherds), to about the same frequency as observed for the post-Banesh period deposits of Phases A4 to A1. A few sherds (e.g. TNP 426, 427) with shapes and/or decoration similar to Late Banesh contexts at Tal-e Malyan Operation BY8 (Sumner 1985) are likely intrusive from preceding Late Banesh deposits of Phase A6 and Period IV at Susa (Ville Royale 1 Levels 12-7, Carter 1980; see also Steve and Gasche 1971: Pls. 5-22). Additionally, Phase A5 is distinguished from preceding Banesh period phases at Tol-e Nurabad, and linked with subsequent Kaftari period contexts, by the appearance of numerous clay wall cone fragments in loci 33, 32, and 30 (20 examples). These continue to be found in significant numbers in Phase A4 (Locus 23, 7 examples) and Phase A3 (13 examples). As discussed in detail above (Section 3.5), these wall cones find their best parallels in the second half of the 3rd millennium BC at Susa, and yet are clearly radiocarbon dated to the early-mid 2nd millennium BC at Tol-e Nurabad. The phases following A5 produced ceramics generally comparable to the chaff-tempered and painted Kaftari wares known from the Kur River Basin. Only a limited selection of pottery was recovered from Phase A4, as this phase was predominantly represented by the remains of a large pyro-technological installation (most likely a kiln or furnace). Although there is a significant proportion of residual material in the fill of the furnace foundation trench (Locus 29), a number of the sherds have clear parallels in the Kaftari period in the Kur River Basin and at Tol-e Spid. Regardless of the small ceramic corpus on which to date Phase A4, its chronological position appears reliably established by a radiocarbon date from the furnace foundation trench which falls into the early 2nd millennium BC. A much larger assemblage is available from Phase A3, and it is here that the chafftempered wares with brown painted geometric decoration characteristic of the Kaftari period first become prominent in the Tol-e Nurabad assemblage. Painted Kaftari-like vessels are also found in a chaff/grittempered ware in this phase. Undecorated grit-tempered wares remain common in Phase A4, particularly for the production of closed vessel forms such as jars with short everted necks. A few vessels were also recovered which had parallels in late 3rd or early 2nd millennium BC levels at Susa (Susa VA and VB, Ville Royale 1 Levels 6-3; Carter 1980). The Kaftari assemblages from Tol-e Nurabad, like those from Tol-e Spid, seem to show some differences with the contemporary material from the Tale Malyan and the Kur River Basin: particularly noticeable is the absence of the left-facing Kaftari painted bird, which is the leitmotif of the Kaftari period further to the east. Phase A2b and A2a pottery has parallels predominantly in the Kaftari period, including both chaff-tempered painted forms and red-slipped wares. However, a number of forms in Phase A2a and A2b have clear post-Kaftari parallels, in both Tol-e Spid Phase A14 and in the Kur 77 River Basin, dating as late as the Qaleh period. Thus, these phases are difficult to date precisely and it may be that Phases A2a-A2b (as well as Phase A1) are mixed deposits resulting from the great amount of earth moving that has taken place on the upper levels of Tol-e Nurabad during the course of agricultural and other activities. Elamite Ceramics (Phases B9-B6) One of the notable features of the ceramic assemblage from Tol-e Nurabad Trench B is the considerable proportion of residual prehistoric ceramics. These ceramics usually come from mudbricks and mudbrick collapse, but also reflect the effects of bioturbation. The earliest non-residual ceramics from Trench B (Phase B9) show good similarity with Middle and Neo-Elamite types. Although there are few ceramics from this phase, the tall goblet with thin body and neck has close parallels at Middle Elamite Chogha Zanbil (Ghirshman 1966 LXXXVIII: G.T.Z. 893) and Tal-e Malyan (Carter 1996: Fig. 40.9) and in later Neo-Elamite layers at Susa (Miroschedji 1981: Fig. 12.17). Due to our small ceramic assemblage from this phase, and also due to the limited availability of comparable excavated material, it is difficult to arrive at a precise date for this phase. It is possible that this phase may be transitional between the Middle and Neo-Elamite periods, although further excavations will be required to support or reject this hypothesis. Ceramics with close parallels to Middle and Neo-Elamite ceramics from other sites in southwestern Iran were also recovered from Phases B8 and B7a-b. However, due to the strong similarities between most of these sherds and the Neo-Elamite material from Susa reported by Miroschedji it seems likely that these phases date to the Neo-Elamite period. Characteristic ceramics of these phases include small carinated jars with everted rim and thin round or rectangular cordon between neck and body, which has parallels at Neo-Elamite Susa (Miroschedji 1981: Fig. 22.2). Similar sherds have been reported by Carter and Stolper (1984; Fig. 11.23) and Gasche (1973, 131.7) from Middle Elamite Susa. Production of these ceramics was common from the Kaftari period at Tal-e Malyan (Nickerson 1983: Fig. 63.f). Long necked goblets with thin body still occur in these phases, as do sherds with the characteristic decoration of the Middle and Neo-Elamite periods, such as chain and raised cordon with round or rectangular section. Other characteristic vessels of these phases that were commonly manufactured during the Middle and Neo-Elamite periods include necked jars with vertical rounded rim, which bear raised rectangular bands around the middle of the vessel body. Parallels come from Neo-Elamite Susa (Miroschedji 1981: Fig. 25.8) and from Middle Elamite Tal-e Malyan (Carter 1996: Fig. 23.12, 42.11). Other characteristic forms of this period include pithoi with flat inverted triangular rims, which usually have raised cordons with rectangular section below the rim (TNP 2375). The manufacture of this vessel form began in the Kaftari period at Tal-e Malyan (Nickerson 1983: Fig. 54.f), whilst similar specimens are reported from Middle Elamite Tal-e Malyan (Carter 1996: Fig. 22.13) and NeoElamite Susa (Miroschedji 1981: Fig. 26.1). The most notable aspect of the ceramic assemblage from these phases is the complete absence of painted ceramics of Qaleh or Shoga Teimuran type. These ware types represent the typical local versions of Middle Elamite ceramics in the Kur River Basin, and have been recorded in significant quantities in the survey of Dasht-e Rostame Yek and Do (see Chapter 6.3.1). The ceramics from Tol-e Nurabad are mostly undecorated wares and are in general comparable to Middle and Neo-Elamite ceramics from Susa and the undecorated material from Middle Elamite Tal-e Malyan. The transition from the Neo-Elamite period to the Achaemenid period is a time of critical importance in the history of Fars. A mixed Neo-Elamite and Achaemenid ceramic assemblage was recorded from Phase B6, and it is possible that this phase represents a transitional occupation between the Neo-Elamite and Achaemenid periods. However, it is also possible that Phase B6 represents a mixture of discrete of Neo-Elamite and Achaemenid ceramic assemblages, due to specific site formation processes or bioturbation. Characteristic ceramic types of this phase include necked jars with exterior horizontal incised groove under the rim, whose manufacture is common from the Kaftari period onwards. Achaemenid and Post-Achaemenid Ceramics (Phases B5b-B1) The ceramics from Phases B5a-b and B4 show strong difference to material from earlier phases, representing the first phase in which sherds of the Achaemenid period predominate. Characteristic Achaemenid types appearing from Phase B5b include flat-rimmed bowls with an acute carination in the body (TNP 2287). Parallels for this form come from Achaemenid Susa (Miroschedji 1987 et al.: Fig. 9.1) and Chogha Mish (Delougaz and Kantor 1996: Pl. 173.K), and Wenke’s surveys in northern Khuzestan (Wenke 1975: Pl. 139.737). Other characteristic forms include carinated bowls with hemispherical base and everted rim which have parallels at Pasargadae, Susa, and Chogha Mish. Manufacture of this vessel form was common also after the Achaemenid period, and late examples have been recorded at Pasargadae (Stronach 1978). The ceramic assemblage of Phase B3b shows a mixture of Achaemenid and Post-Achaemenid wares. In fact, one of the characteristics of the pottery of Fars in this period is the continuity of ceramic traditions from the Achaemenid to Post-Achaemenid periods, such that distinguishing wares of the two periods can be difficult. As with Phase B6, the possibility exists that Phase B3b represents a pottery assemblage transitional between two highly important cultural/historical periods in the history of Fars, in this case between the Achaemenid and PostAchaemenid periods. From this phase we have necked jars with vertical rim which in its rim neck and body has a geometric design in the form of horizontal and vertical brown painted bands. This vessel has parallels with 78 painted Post-Achaemenid ceramics in Fars and from the design and ceramic ware and typology is similar to painted ceramics from Tal-e Malyan (Haerinck 1983). Characteristic ceramic types of this phase include carinated bowls with everted rim (TNP 2140, 2075), a characteristic Achaemenid type whose manufacture continues into the Post-Achaemenid period. Similar specimens are reported from Pasargadae (Stronach 1978: Fig. 106.12) and Sumner’s surveys in the Kur River Basin (Sumner 1986: Ill. 2j). Decorations such as raised cordons with round or rectangular cross-section (sometimes grooved), or with incised horizontal grooves on the ceramic body have parallels at Achaemenid Jin Jun (Atarashi and Horiuchi 1963), Persepolis (Schmidt 1957), and Istakhr (Kleiss 1972). Phases B2 and B1 are considered to be exclusively PostAchaemenid, based upon characteristic ceramic types including a turquoise-glazed vessel base which in its material and glaze type is similar to Parthian ceramics from Khuzestan (Miroschedji 1987; Haerinck 1983). 3.8.3. Conclusions The archaeological remains recovered from Tol-e Nurabad have provided an important new body of evidence for the discussion of the prehistory and early history of southwest Iran. The earliest deposits from Trench A, incorporating 8 metres of Neolithic and Bakun period occupation, represent a unique archaeological sequence within Fars, and it seems certain that further work at the site will support new and improved reconstructions of the origins of farming communities in Fars and of the development of Chalcolithic societies. The later deposits from Trench A overlap, in many instances, with the lower deposits excavated at Tol-e Spid, and serve to reinforce the archaeological observations that can be reconstructed from that sequence. Particular attention should be drawn to the evidence for continuity from Lapui period into the Banesh period observed at both sites, and to the long occupational hiatuses observed at both sites from the (middle or late) Banesh period to the (middle or late) Kaftari period. No doubt these “gaps” in our evidence will figure in our reconstructions of the development of complex urban societies within highland southwest Iran. In the later levels recorded in Trench B at Tol-e Nurabad we have again recovered a range of archaeological phases with parallels to Tol-e Spid. Examples include the evidence for large mud-brick structures in the Middle Elamite period and substantial occupation in the Achaemenid and Post-Achaemenid periods. One potentially significant difference between the sites is the tantalising possibility of continuous occupation at Tol-e Nurabad between the Middle Elamite and Achaemenid periods, although the relevant Neo-Elamite occupational phases in Trench B remain to be confirmed by further excavation. Nevertheless, archaeological deposits of this date are apparently extremely rare in Fars, and they may offer a pathway into the examination of the vexed issue of Persian origins. In all instances, the results of our deep soundings can be placed within the context of the archaeological survey undertaken within the Dasht-e Rostam-e Yek and Do. The survey data both challenge and reinforce the inferences that have been drawn from our excavations, and it is clear that a proper understanding of the archaeological record of Mamasani will depend on the continuation and integration of all the components of our fieldwork in the region. 79 Table 3.3. Smallfinds and chipped stone artefacts from Tol-e Nurabad Trenches A and B. TN- Tr. Loc. Phase Object Material L W H Description 1 A 30 A5 bead carnelian 17 12 6 teardrop-shaped bead of red carnelian 2 A - A3 whetstone stone 59 40 6 whetstone of light brown stone 3 A 15 A3 point(?) copper-base 38 12 4 A 9 A2b burnishing tool(?) ceramic 58 53 5 A 4 A2b wall cone frag.(?) ceramic 52 49 6 A 8 A2b chipped stone stone 23.5 17 7 A 7 A2a wall cone frag. ceramic 44 37 8 A 27 A4 chipped stone stone 18 11 9 A 16 A3 chipped stone stone 17 19 3.5 small fragment of brown chert with bulb of percussion 10 A 3 A2a chipped stone stone 26 7.5 4.5 small piece of brown chert debitage 11 A 9 A2b chipped stone stone 35 14.5 12 A 8 A2b wall cone frag. ceramic 84 41 13 A 8 A2b wall cone frag. ceramic 81 40 14 A 15 A3 vessel stone 29 120 17 base of thick, cylindrical alabaster vessel 15 A 19 A3 grinding stone stone 152 127 32 grinder of light-coloured limestone(?) with concave grinding surface 16 A 21 A3 grinding stone stone 123 115 60 grinding stone of light-coloured limestone 17 A 20 A3 stone stone 167 120 50 unusual stone of natural conglomerate rock 18 A 15 A3 door socket stone 134 93 48 19 A - A3 grinding stone(?) stone 84 83 18 fragment of smooth flat, rounded limestone 20 A 20 A3 grinding stone stone 155 129 21 A 24 A1 grinding stone stone 128 98 41 rounded fragment of light-coloured limestone grinding stone, concave grinding surface 22 A 23 A4 grinding stone stone 133 77 49 near-hemispherical fragment of light-grey/white limestone grinding stone, with one flat surface 23 A 23 A4 wall cone frag. ceramic 101 88 59 fragment of the head and part of the shaft of a clay wall cone, orange exterior with a dark-grey core 24 A 22 A3 hammer stone stone 81 71 40 round river cobble with cracked face 25 A 22 A3 grinding stone stone 113 96 68 fragment of light-coloured limestone with concave depression in grinding surface 26 A 33 A5 wall cone frag. ceramic 53 25 17 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone, with orange surfaces and brown core and 1 hole. 27 A 33 A5 wall cone frag. ceramic 58 32 13 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone, with orange paste and 1 hole. 28 A 33 A5 wall cone frag. ceramic 70 21 40 fragment of the clay wall cone, with orange paste and 1 hole. 29 A 32 A5 wall cone frag. ceramic 58 49 20 30 A 32 A5 wall cone frag. ceramic 77 50 17 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone with brown paste and 2 holes (joins TN33, prob. same piece as TN29) 6 small point with curved edges and a squared-off base 11.5 ceramic sherd with deliberately modified edges. 17 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone 6 two small fragments of grey-black flint debitage (measurements for the largest piece) 32 fragment of the shaft of a clay wall cone 3 small piece of purple-brown chert debitage 4.5 small double-edged blade of light brown chert 36 fragment of clay wall cone shaft with orange exterior and interior 44 fragment of clay wall cone shaft with red/orange surface and orange interior small block of light-coloured limestone, rectangular with rounded edges, with a deep round depression (30 mm diam.) in the centre of one surface 51 sub-rectangular block of light-grey limestone with concave grinding surface fragment of the head of clay wall cone, with orange paste and buff colour wash on exterior surface and 5 holes on it (probably the same piece as TN30, TN33) 80 Table 3.3. Smallfinds and chipped stone artefacts from Tol-e Nurabad Trenches A and B (continued). TN- Tr. Loc. Phase Object Material L W H Description 31 A 2 A1-2a bone bone 68 22 32 A 37 A6 vessel frag. alabaster 27 32 7 grey ( burnt ) bone tool(?) 33 A 32 A5 wall cone frag. ceramic 105 44 34 A 21 A3 wall cone frag. ceramic 29 17 35 A 19 A3 wall cone frag. ceramic 60 65 7 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone, with brown paste and grey core, 3 holes 36 A 30 A5 wall cone frag. ceramic 54 38 14 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone, with 6 holes, orange paste and grey core 37 A 30 A5 wall cone frag. ceramic 53 22 15 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone, with orange to brown paste and dark grey core 38 A 30 A5 wall cone frag. ceramic 63 40 20 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone, with orange core and (burnt?) grey surface 39 A 30 A5 wall cone frag. ceramic 93 34 14 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone, diameter 14 cm, trace of a hole, dark grey core and orange exterior 40 A 32 A5 wall cone frag. ceramic 95 41 18 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone, diameter 18 cm, buff wash on surface, orange core 41 A 30 A5 wall cone frag. ceramic 65 35 42 A 23 A4 wall cone frag. ceramic 80 39 15 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone, diameter c.14 cm, orange surfaces and dark grey core 43 A 23 A4 wall cone frag. ceramic 70 35 9 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone, diameter 16 cm, orange exterior with dark-grey core 44 A 23 A4 wall cone frag. ceramic 81 34 13 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone, diameter 14 cm, orange exterior with orange-brown core 45 A 23 A4 wall cone frag. ceramic 48 36 13 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone, diameter 18 cm, orange exterior and core 46 A 19 A3 wall cone frag. ceramic 34 25 10 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone, orange paste 47 A 21 A3 wall cone frag. ceramic 31 18 5 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone, diameter 12 cm, orange paste 48 A 20 A3 wall cone frag. ceramic 86 41 14 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone, diameter 16 cm, orange paste 49 A 15 A3 wall cone frag. ceramic 50 28 15 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone, diameter 22 cm, orange paste, one hole 50 A 15 A3 wall cone frag. ceramic 89 50 13 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone, diameter 15 cm, two holes in upper/outer face 51 A 13 A3 wall cone frag. ceramic 83 25 29 tip fragment of the shaft of a clay wall cone, orange exterior, dark grey core 52 A 31 A4 wall cone frag. ceramic 70 85 70 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone, with 12 holes (diam. c.6-7 mm) in the upper/outer surface, orange exterior, dark-grey core 53 A 30 A5 wall cone frag. ceramic 165 45 43 end fragment of the shaft of a clay wall cone, perhaps shaped by shaving (clear lines on shaft), orange paste. 54 A 30 A5 wall cone frag. ceramic 260 52 46 end fragment of the shaft of a clay wall cone, possibly shaped by shaving, orange-brown exterior and dark grey core 55 A 30 A5 wall cone frag. ceramic 178 47 42 end fragment of the shaft of a clay wall cone, orange paste 56 A 23 A4 wall cone frag. ceramic 125 34 37 fragment of the shaft of a clay wall cone, orange exterior and dark-grey core 57 A 13 A3 wall cone frag. ceramic 120 30 30 fragment of the shaft of a clay wall cone, orange exterior, dark-grey core 58 A 19 A3 wall cone frag. ceramic 112 32 59 A 29 A4 wall cone frag. ceramic 115 115 5 everted rim fragment of an alabaster vessel, white 21 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone, with brown-orange paste and 6 holes (joins TN30, probably same piece as TN29) 8 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone, with orange paste 9 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone, diameter c.22 cm, orange-brown core 34 end fragment of the shaft of a clay wall cone, orange exterior, dark-grey core 95 fragment of the head and shaft of a clay wall cone, with 21 irregularly-placed holes in upper/outer surface (c.7-9 mm diam.), orange exterior, dark grey core, red wash on outer surface 81 Table 3.3. Smallfinds and chipped stone artefacts from Tol-e Nurabad Trenches A and B (continued). TN- Tr. Loc. Phase Object Material L W H 125 110 Description 60 A 30 A5 wall cone frag. ceramic 54 fragment of the head and shaft of a clay wall cone, with 8 holes in upper/outer surface (c.9-11 mm diam.), orange exterior with a dark grey core 61 A 19 A3 mortar stone 95 53 18 base of mortar of reddish-pink stone 62 A 45 A8 water drain ceramic 265 58 58 fragments of a square-section ceramic water channel or drain, brown paste with a dark grey core and coarse grey grits 63 A 15 A3 wall cone frag. ceramic 48 21 10 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone, diameter 14 cm, orange paste with a grey core 64 A 45 A8 unidentified ceramic 54 35 10 small ceramic object with two sharp pointed ends, one end with chamfered edges, top surface is smooth but base has a deep lengthwise incision, orange paste with a grey core - possibly a reworked potsherd 65 A 43 A8 cylindrical vessel(?) ceramic 68 90 45 thick-walled clay cylinder fragment, diameter 10 cm, with lengthwise perforation of variable size, dark brown exterior 66 A 44 A8 cylindrical vessel(?) ceramic 75 87 52 thick-walled clay cylinder fragment, diameter 10 cm, with lengthwise perforation of variable size, orange paste. 67 A 30 A5 disc ceramic 45 43 7.5 reworked potsherd made into a near-circular disc, orange paste with a grey core, burnt, diameter c.4.5 cm 68 A 54 A9 point(?) ceramic 59 20 13 fragment of the end of a curved clay point, orange paste with a grey core, perhaps burnt 69 A 60 A10 disc/ring(?) ceramic 65 38 70 A 39 A6 water drain ceramic 113 67 71 A 65 A11 chipped stone stone 16 9 72 A 23 A4 wall cone frag. ceramic 77 31 29 fragment of the shaft of a clay wall cone, orange paste with a grey core 73 A 15 A3 wall cone frag. ceramic 120 36 34 fragment of the shaft of a clay wall cone, orange paste with a grey core 74 A 58 A9 chipped stone stone 24 10 75 A 30 A5 wall cone frag. ceramic 65 42 76 A 30 A5 chipped stone stone 20 9 77 A 15 A3 wall cone frag. ceramic 39 35 19 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone, diameter c.18 cm, orange paste, one hole (diam. 9 mm) in outer surface 78 A 49 A8 chipped stone stone 20 16 3.5 fragment of a double-edged blade of purple/white chert 79 A 30 A5 wall cone frag. ceramic 36 31 14 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone, diameter c.22 cm, orange paste 80 A 64 A10 fragment shell 21 13 81 A 33 A5 wall cone frag. ceramic 95 49 82 A 32 A5 wall cone frag. ceramic 83 A - A10 bead blank stone 7 7 84 A 15 A3 unidentified ceramic 35 28 15 unidentified object, curved shape, one surface is flattened, burnished surfaces, orange paste, coarse grit inclusions 85 A 15 A3 brick ceramic 90 68 30 fragment of a baked brick with one stepped edge, orange paste, well-fired, dark grey core 86 A 20 A3 brick ceramic 160 95 31 fragment of a baked brick with two edges, orange paste, brown core 9 fragment of a curved clay object, diameter c.24 cm 30 fragment of a square-section ceramic drain pipe or water channel, dark brown clay with orange core and coarse grits 2 small, double-edged blade fragment of chert 3 fragment of a double-edged brown chert blade, denticulated on one edge 22 fragment of the head of a clay wall cone, diameter c.18 cm, orange paste, possibly with a buff slip or wash, three holes in outer surface, diameter c.10 mm 2 fragment of double-edged dark-brown chert blade. 2 fragment of a shell, species unknown 46 3 fragments of the shaft of a clay wall cone, orange paste with a grey core end fragments of the shaft of a clay wall cone, orange paste with a grey core 3 sub-circular disc of green stone, unpierced, but possibly a bead blank 82 Table 3.3. Smallfinds and chipped stone artefacts from Tol-e Nurabad Trenches A and B (continued). TN- Tr. Loc. Phase Object Material L W H Description 87 A 15 A3 brick(?) ceramic 85 50 18 fragment of a baked object, with bevelled edge, grey core, orange paste 88 A 66 A11 chipped stone stone 23 15 3.5 broken brown chert blade segment, trapezoidal cross section 89 A 68 A11-12a chipped stone stone 18 12.5 90 A 69 A12a chipped stone stone 29 21 6.5 small blade or debitage fragment of grey chert, trapezoidal section 91 A 69 A12a chipped stone stone 17 16 4.5 small piece of red-brown chert 92 A 69 A12a chipped stone stone 29 12 3.5 small blade fragment of grey-brown chert, trapezoidal cross-section 93 A 81 A13 chipped stone stone 14 11 3.5 small piece of dark brown chert debitage 94 A 81 A13 chipped stone stone 22 14 95 A 81 A13 nail/pin copper-base 82 3 96 A 85 A13 sickle(?) ceramic 75 34 97 A 93 A14 chipped stone stone 20 16 98 A 99 A15-16 chipped stone stone 19 8 99 A 101 A15-16 chipped stone stone 17 7 2.5 fragment of light grey chert blade, trapezoidal section 100 A 102 A16 chipped stone stone 31 7 3 small blade of grey-brown chert, triangular section 101 A 105 A17 chipped stone stone 24 10 102 A 107 A17 chipped stone stone 39 12 103 A 107 A17 chipped stone stone 13 14 104 A 107 A17 chipped stone stone 29 22 105 A 108 A17 chipped stone stone 22 12.5 7 small piece of debitage (?) of purple-brown chert 106 A 108 A17 chipped stone stone 14 7 1.5 small piece of debitage (?) of purple-brown chert 107 A 108 A17 chipped stone stone 21 15 108 A 108 A17 chipped stone stone 21 13 4 small piece of debitage (?) of grey chert, some cortex remaining 109 A 109 A18 chipped stone stone 23 10 6 small piece of debitage (?) of dark grey chert 110 A 109 A18 chipped stone stone 15 7 111 A 109 A18 chipped stone stone 33 31 112 A 111 A19 bead blank(?) ceramic(?) 16 10 10 burnt object with biconical or barrel shape, not perforated 113 A 111 A19 labret(?) ceramic 26 14 14 small ceramic object shaped like a cone 114 A 111 A19 chipped stone stone 20 13 115 A 112 A18 chipped stone stone 31 18 116 A 113 A19 grinding stone stone 57 34 117 A 114 A19 chipped stone stone 19 10 4 small brown chert flake 6 fragment of dark brown chert blade or flake 4 2 fragments of nail or pin with bulbous head (diam. 8.5 mm). 11 curved clay object with dark brown slip 3 brown chert debitage or blade fragment with bulb of percussion 2 thin blade of light brown chert, trapezoidal section 3 blade of light brown chert, trapezoidal section 4 long blade of translucent brown chert, trapezoidal section 2.5 small piece of light brown-grey chert 6 small tool of brown chert, leaf shaped with retouched edges 5 small piece of debitage (?) or a blade fragment of purple-brown chert 1.5 small blade (?) of grey-brown chert 7 flake of grey-brown chert 4 small piece of grey chert debitage(?) 7 piece of purple-brown chert 34 small limestone fragment with rounded edges and squarish section, 4 smooth surfaces 3 small piece of dark grey chert 83 Table 3.3. Smallfinds and chipped stone artefacts from Tol-e Nurabad Trenches A and B (continued). TN- Tr. Loc. Phase Object Material L W H Description 118 A 113 A19 chipped stone stone 65 58 119 A 107 A17 chipped stone stone 8 8 10 coarse limestone flake with clear striking platform and bulb of percussion 120 A 114 A19 chipped stone stone 14 7.5 121 A 114 A19 chipped stone stone 10 8 122 A 117 A19 chipped stone stone 29 23 6 flake of brown chert 123 A 117 A19 chipped stone stone 27 21 5 flake of grey-brown chert 124 A 114 A19 chipped stone stone 17 8 125 A 118 A19-20 chipped stone stone 16 5 126 A 118 A19-20 chipped stone stone 20 14 4 flake of light brown chert 127 A 118 A19-20 chipped stone stone 14 6 2.5 small blade(?) of grey chert 128 A 118 A19-20 chipped stone stone 68 30 21 core of coarse grey stone with flake scars 129 A 118 A19-20 hoe(?) stone 86 95 25 grey limestone with rounded, abraded end 130 A 118 A19-20 chipped stone stone 23 35 9 broken flake of light grey-brown stone 131 A 118 A19-20 chipped stone stone 13 20 5 small pointed fragment of grey stone 132 B 301 B2 chipped stone stone 23 14 6 blade(?) fragment of dark brown chert 133 B 301 B2 chipped stone stone 20 13 4 blade of banded grey-brown chert, trapezoidal section 134 B 304 B2 chipped stone stone 23 18 4 fragment of buff chert 135 B 300 B1 bangle glass 50 6 5 fragment of twisted glass bangle 136 B 302 B2 chipped stone stone 137 B 303 B2 chipped stone stone 11 9 2 fragment of light brown chert blade, trapezoidal section 138 B 303 B2 chipped stone stone 17 16 11 fragment of dark brown chert 139 B 303 B2 chipped stone stone 24 15 11 fragment of light brown chert blade with trapezoidal section 140 B 303 B2 chipped stone stone 18 12 4.5 fragment of grey-brown chert 141 B 303 B2 chipped stone stone 20 15 142 B 311 B3 musket ball(?) iron 9 9 143 B 313 B3 bead frag. turquoise 12 9 144 B 313 B3 chipped stone stone 20 15 145 B 313 B3 bead shell 20 18 146 B 319 B4 chipped stone stone 14 6 147 B 319 B4 chipped stone stone 31 24 148 A 119 A20 labret ceramic 13 16 2 small flake of grey chert 2.5 small flake of grey chert with trapezoidal section 2 small flake of brown chert 5 flake of purple-brown chert 1.5 tiny blade of purple-brown chert, trapezoidal section blade of buff chert, triangular section 6 blade(?) fragment of purple-brown chert 9 small iron sphere 5 fragment of bead(?) with evidence for perforation hole and smooth outer surface 4 fragment of blade of light brown chert, trapezoidal section 11 bead of marine shell, perforated 2 blade of brown chert, triangular section 4 flake of light grey-brown chert 15 head of small clay nail-shaped object 84 Table 3.3. Smallfinds and chipped stone artefacts from Tol-e Nurabad Trenches A and B (continued). TN- Tr. Loc. Phase Object Material L W H Description 149 A 126 A20 labret ceramic 22 21 150 A 129 A21 chipped stone stone 9.5 9 151 A 129 A21 labret ceramic 18 10 152 A 130 A21 chipped stone stone 26 21 7 flake of coarse light brown stone 153 A 132 A21 chipped stone stone 14 14 4 flake of grey-brown chert 154 A 122 A20 chipped stone stone 18 10 4 fragment of banded orange-brown chert blade, trapezoidal section, rounded end 155 A 126 A20 awl(?) bone 59 18 7 pointed bone fragment, possibly an awl 156 A 128 A21 chipped stone stone 29 17 6 fragment of light grey chert blade(?) 157 A 128 A21 chipped stone stone 29 20 4 fragment of light grey chert 158 A 133 A21 chipped stone stone 18 14 3 flake of light brown chert 159 A 131 A21 chipped stone stone 19 12 160 A 119 A20 labret ceramic 15 14 13 head of small clay nail-shaped object 161 A 129 A21 chipped stone stone 20 10 3 flake of coarse purple-brown stone 162 A 120 A20 chipped stone stone 16 14 163 A 119 A20 labret ceramic 15 14 164 A 129 A21 chipped stone stone 21 19 165 A 129 A21 chipped stone stone 10 8 166 A 129 A21 chipped stone stone 18 15 167 A 129 A21 chipped stone stone 20 14 5 flake of coarse brown stone 168 A 129 A21 chipped stone stone 23 18 4 blade(?) of light grey chert 169 A 129 A21 chipped stone stone 14 9 170 A 129 A21 chipped stone stone 16 10 2 flake of coarse grey stone 171 A 129 A21 chipped stone stone 24 10 2 blade of grey-brown chert, trapezoidal section 172 B 343 B8 chipped stone stone 56 20 5 bifacially retouched point of dark brown chert, lanceolate shape 173 B 321 B5a chipped stone stone 16 14 6 flake of grey-brown chert 174 B 326 B5b chipped stone stone 16 12 175 B 326 B5b chipped stone stone 28 23 6 flake of grey-brown chert 176 B 326 B5b chipped stone stone 28 23 6 blade of grey-brown chert, denticulated edges 177 B 320 B4 chipped stone stone 22 19 4 flake of brown translucent chert 178 B 320 B4 chipped stone stone 15 13 5 flake of orange-brown chert 179 B 320 B4 chipped stone stone 27 18 4 blade of pink-brown chert, triangular section 13.5 small disc of clay with concave sides, burnt, possibly an earring or ear plug(?) 3 small flake of grey stone 11 small fragment of clay disc with concave sides, burnt 8 flake of grey-brown chert 1 flake of light grey chert 28 small clay nail-like object with concave head 5 blade(?) of grey chert 10 small core(?) of coarse dark grey stone 7 flake of grey-brown chert 4 flake of coarse dark grey stone 10 small fragment of purple-brown chert 85 Table 3.3. Smallfinds and chipped stone artefacts from Tol-e Nurabad Trenches A and B (continued). TN- Tr. Loc. Phase Object Material 180 B 326 181 B 325 182 B 183 184 L W H Description B5b chipped stone stone 14 9 B5b chipped stone stone 19 16 325 B5b chipped stone stone 30 27 B 321 B5a chipped stone stone 27 207 B 332 B7a chipped stone stone 37 26 185 B 318 B4 chipped stone stone 16 10 186 B 325 B5b ball carbonate 19 18 14 ball of gypsum(?) or carbonate, possible raw material for flooring? 187 B 332 B7a ball limestone(?) 21 16 14 small rounded piece of pinkish limestone 188 B 315 B3 chipped stone stone 22 18 189 B 313 B3 unknown iron 52 29 190 B 332 B7a screw iron 23 7 191 B 332 B7a chipped stone stone 30 20 192 B 325 B5b chipped stone stone 20 17 193 B 326 B5b chipped stone stone 39 24 24 fragment of coarse light brown chert 194 B 310 B3 chipped stone stone 56 23 11 blade(?) of grey-brown chert 195 A 137 A21 chipped stone stone 18 9 196 A 137 A21 chipped stone stone 39 30 197 A 137 A21 chipped stone stone 19 12 198 A 118 A19-20 199 A 137 A21 200 A 139 201 A 138 202 A 203 204 205 A 138 206 A 165 207 A 147 208 A 209 A 210 A 147 3 blade of grey-brown chert, trapezoidal section 6 fragment of purple-brown chert blade, denticulated edge 12 flake of purple-brown chert with some cortex remaining small scraper or remodelled core of grey chert, flake scars on one surface and burring on end 18 primary flake with cortex and possible retouch on 1 edge 4 light brown chert blade(?), trapezoidal section 6 flake of purple-brown chert 12 heavily corroded iron fragment 3 modern screw 14 fragment of grey-brown-white banded chert 3 flake of light brown chert 4 flake of dark grey chert 18 fragment of chert nodule, dark grey core with buff cortex 3 flake of coarse-grained dark grey stone stone stone 19 19 stone flake stone 22 18 11 small rounded pebble of burnt limestone(?) 4 flake of brown chert with cortex A22 chipped stone stone 19 16 5 flake of slightly coarse-grained dark grey chert(?), 1 denticulated edge A22 chipped stone stone 15 12 3 blade(?) fragment of slightly coarse light grey chert(?) 138 A22 chipped stone stone 23 18 9 fragment of coarse grey stone A 138 A22 chipped stone stone 59 37 A 138 A22 chipped stone stone 9 6 A22 chipped stone stone 16 13 A24b stone ball stone 40 39 39 spherical stone A23 chipped stone stone 44 36 13 flake of grey chert with cortex 141 A22 bone point bone 37 12 6.5 small bone point 149 A24a labret ceramic 10 15 13 head of small clay nail-shaped object A23 chipped stone stone 30 20 20 piece of coarse black stone, triangular section, with some possible flake scars 2 flake of brown chert 6 flake of dark brown-grey chert 8 flake of green chert with cortex 86 Table 3.3. Smallfinds and chipped stone artefacts from Tol-e Nurabad Trenches A and B (continued). TN- Tr. Loc. Phase Object Material L W H Description 211 B 355 B9 chipped stone stone 25 13 212 A 162 A24b chipped stone stone 24 13 213 A 147 A23 chipped stone stone 60 27 214 A 147 A23 bone point? bone 43 9 215 A 143 A22-23 chipped stone stone 19 11 3 flake of brown chert 216 A 151 A24a stone artefact stone 43 38 8 small sub-rectangular piece of limestone(?) with circular depression (c.5mm diam.) in centre of one face 217 A 165 A24b pendant mother of pearl 23 18 2 thin piece of mother of pearl with circular perforation at one end 218 A 154 A24a-b beads bone? 0.7 0.7 0.4 5 small circular disc beads, perhaps of bone, with red covering like ochre 219 A 149 A24a chipped stone stone 59 53 10 large flake of grey-brown chert with abraded edges 220 A 140 A22 chipped stone stone 52 44 14 large flake of quite coarse grey stone 221 B 319 B4 bead carnelian 10 10 9 small spherical bead of carnelian 222 A 147 A23 chipped stone stone 30 16 6 flake of grey-brown chert 223 A 158 A24b chipped stone stone 24 16 6 flake of coarse grey stone 224 A 158 A24b chipped stone stone 25 11 225 A 140 A22 stone artefact stone 14 13 226 A 147 A23 disc ceramic 29 25 13 small disc of clay, sub-circular blade obsidian 14 8.5 1.5 fine blade of black obsidian, trapezoidal section 228 A 168 A25 chipped stone stone 27 9.5 2.5 blade of brown chert, rounded end, retouched edges, trapezoidal section 229 A 167 A25 chipped stone stone 23 9 230 A 167 A25 chipped stone stone 27.5 22.5 231 A 163 A24b borer? stone 51 35 232 A 163 A24b chipped stone stone 11.5 5 1.5 small flake of red-brown chert, triangular section 233 A 155 A24b chipped stone stone 25 8 2 blade of brown and grey chert, triangular section 234 A 155 A24b chipped stone stone 20 8.5 235 A 151 A24a chipped stone stone 34 19 236 A 151 A24a chipped stone stone 17.5 14 237 A 139 A22 chipped stone stone 33.5 16.5 238 A 139 A22 chipped stone stone 36.5 27.5 239 A 173 A27 chipped stone stone 13.5 10 240 A 173 A27 chipped stone stone 20.5 13.5 227 Surface 2 blade of light grey-brown chert, triangular section 3 blade of grey chert, trapezoidal section, some cortex 14 limestone piece with 1 sharp abraded edge 3 pointed fragment of bone, possible tool 2.5 blade of grey-brown chert, trapezoidal section 6 small object of grey stone, like half of a truncated cone 2.5 straight sided blade of grey-brown chert, triangular section, retouched edges 7.5 Scraper(?) of brown chert, retouched edges 12 pointed piece of coarse-grained pink-red river cobble, smooth cortex 4 small flake of grey-brown chert 7 unifacial chipped stone scraper(?) of red-brown chert, sub-rectangular, retouched edges 7.5 debitage of dark grey chert 5 straight sided blade of dark brown chert, triangular/trapezoidal section, retouched edges with denticulation 11 debitage of light brown-grey chert with white cortex 2 small flake of brown chert 1.5 small diamond-shaped flake of light grey chert 87 Table 3.3. Smallfinds and chipped stone artefacts from Tol-e Nurabad Trenches A and B (continued). TN- Tr. Loc. Phase Object Material 241 A 145 242 A 147 243 A 244 245 246 A 247 A 248 A 166 249 A 165 250 A 172 251 A 157 A24b 252 A 157 A24b 253 A 157 A24b 254 A 147 A23 255 A 147 A23 256 A 147 A23 257 A 147 A23 258 A 147 A23 259 A 147 A23 260 A 147 A23 261 A 170 262 A 263 A 264 265 L W H Description A23 chipped stone stone 97 72 A23 chipped stone stone 82 57 154 A24a-b chipped stone stone 22.5 14.5 A 154 A24a-b chipped stone stone 21 12 A 154 A24a-b chipped stone stone 19 13 154 A24a-b chipped stone stone 12.5 9.5 166 A24b-25 chipped stone stone 38.5 24 A25-26 chipped stone stone 32.5 15 A24b chipped stone stone 30.5 22 A26-27 chipped stone stone 71 63 19 large fragment of a rounded grey chert cobble with much cortex and a large bulb of percussion, and a possible retouched cutting edge chipped stone stone 19 9.5 2.5 fragment of light-grey chert blade, trapezoidal section, retouched edges chipped stone stone 19.5 14.5 chipped stone stone 22 8.5 chipped stone stone 18 15.5 chipped stone stone 12 20 chipped stone stone 16.5 14.5 chipped stone stone 13.5 14 chipped stone stone 15 12.5 1.5 flake of coarse purple-brown chert chipped stone stone 16.5 16.5 5.5 flake of light grey chert with trapezoidal section chipped stone stone 28.5 22 13 fragment of purple-brown chert with brown cortex A26 chipped stone stone 33 19 8.5 flake of coarse pinkish stone, with smooth cortex, naviform section 145 A23 chipped stone stone 50.5 33.5 145 A23 chipped stone stone 25.5 17.5 A 145 A23 chipped stone stone 25 13.5 A 145 A23 figurine(?) ceramic 26.5 15.5 266 A 145 A23 figurine(?) ceramic 20 16.5 267 A 168 A25 labret(?) ceramic 16 11 268 A 168 A25 clay ball ceramic 15.5 15 269 A 168 A25 labret(?) ceramic 26 7.5 7.5 fragment of the shaft of a cone-shaped clay labret(?) 270 A 164 A24b clay ball ceramic 37.5 35 36 spherical clay ball, fragmentary, buff surface, grey core, some chaff temper, c.37 mm diam. 32 piece of flat grey stone, flaked(?) at one end 22 fragment of white limestone river cobble with smooth cortex and one sharp edge 4.5 semi-circular piece of yellow-grey chert with bulb of percussion 4.5 fragment of yellow-grey chert 4 fragment of grey chert with brown cortex 3 small semi-circular flakes of light-grey/brown chert, triangular section 12.5 dark brown chert flake 8 flake of light pink, coarse river cobble with smooth cortex, and retouched or abraded edges 4 flake of light-brown/grey coarse stone 4 flake of grey and brown chert 2 blade of grey-brown chert, triangular section 2.5 flake of dark brown chert 3 semi-circular flake of coarse grey river stone with smooth cortex 4 flake of brown and orange chert 2.5 flake of dark grey chert, trapezoidal section 16.5 fragment of burnt(?) grey-brown chert 6 flake of dark grey chert with bulb of percussion 3 flake of light-brown/grey chert 24.5 fragment of a clay animal figurine(?), perhaps of the torso of the animal 18 fragment of a small clay animal figurine(?) showing the torso and two leg stumps, possible crest or hump on the animal's back 10 fragment of the shaft of a clay cone/nail-shaped labret 12.5 broken fragment of a small irregular clay sphere 88 Table 3.3. Smallfinds and chipped stone artefacts from Tol-e Nurabad Trenches A and B (continued). TN- Tr. Loc. Phase Object Material L W H Description 89 82 24 squared-off block of dolomitic limestone with iron-bearing nodules 271 A 147 A23 squared block stone 272 A 170 A26 ochre piece ochre wall cone frag. ceramic 70 39 36 fragment of the shaft of a clay wall cone, orange exterior with a grey core 43 36 17 fragment of orange clay plaster from hearth 273 Surface 274 A 121 A20 floor plaster ceramic 275 A 122 A20 plaster ceramic lump of ochre fragment of plaster with chaff inclusions from hearth 276 A 140 A22 unknown ceramic 19 16.5 5.5 fragment of a small, thin clay disc(?), diameter c.2 cm 277 A 151 A24a chipped stone stone 30 33 7.5 flake of light grey chert with white cortex 278 A 149 A24a chipped stone stone 19 13.5 3.5 small flake of coarse grey stone 279 A 145 A23 chipped stone stone 17.5 23.5 6.5 flake of light grey chert with white cortex 280 A 150 A24a chipped stone stone 28 17 5.5 flake of coarse grey-brown stone, triangular section 281 A 167 A25 chipped stone stone 14.5 7.5 2.5 small flake of dark grey chert 282 A 167 A25 chipped stone stone 16 15 2 flake of grey chert 283 A 149 A24a chipped stone stone 40 27 9 flake of grey-brown stone 284 A 149 A24a chipped stone stone 26 22 7.5 flake of grey chert with light brown cortex 285 A 147 A23 chipped stone stone 29 20 8.5 flake of olive-brown stone 286 A 147 A23 chipped stone stone 25.5 28.5 7 flake of coarse dark grey (burnt?) stone