This fascinating book is for anybody interested in the study of dryland systems. How the dryland people live their life and manage the scarce natural resources. The current impacts of climate change and the climate change scenarios for the future climate. This book is recommended for those that are willing to explore much about climate change and its impacts on dryland people and natural resources. Abubakar Ahmed (Ed.) Ahmed Abubakar, Geography Department Sule Lamido University, Kafin Hausa, Jigawa State, Nigeria. BSc Geography from Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria and MSc Natural Resource Management and Climate Change, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria. Research Interest: Climate Change, Livelihood diversification, Urban growth, Environmental Management. 978-613-9-44966-8 Climate Change and the Dryland Resources of Nigeria Abubakar Ahmed (Ed.) Climate Change and the Dryland Resources of Nigeria i Abubakar Ahmed (Ed.) Climate Change and the Dryland Resources of Nigeria LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing ii Imprint Any brand names and product names mentioned in this book are subject to trademark, brand or patent protection and are trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective holders. The use of brand names, product names, common names, trade names, product descriptions etc. even without a particular marking in this work is in no way to be construed to mean that such names may be regarded as unrestricted in respect of trademark and brand protection legislation and could thus be used by anyone. Cover image: www.ingimage.com Publisher: LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing is a trademark of International Book Market Service Ltd., member of OmniScriptum Publishing Group 17 Meldrum Street, Beau Bassin 71504, Mauritius Printed at: see last page ISBN: 978-613-9-44966-8 Copyright © Copyright © 2019 International Book Market Service Ltd., member of OmniScriptum Publishing Group iii Forward The devastating effects of natural resources degradation in the drylands of Nigeria has gain less consideration by government and non-governmental actors in response to degradation. Natural resources constitute the major of livelihood in (Rural) Nigeria, which are on alarming degradation by natural factors such as global warming, drought and desertification as well as natural factors such as overgrazing, deforestation among others. To maintain sufficiency, security, and sustainability there is urgent need to address these issues in both short and long term measures to tackle the devastating effects of natural and anthropogenic disasters that hits the dylands of Nigeria such as drought, desertification, desiccation and farmers-herdsmen conflicts which ravage Northern Nigeria. This problem will continue to persist unless substantial and sustainable measures and approaches are taken to address the problems This introductory book aims at exposing pioneer researchers and students of geography, natural resources managers as well as environmentalists to gain hands on knowledge on the drylands of Nigeria. Each of the sections/chapters were composed by expert in the area as to get relevant information, challenges and way forward. This is fascinating book recommended for every students seeking knowledge in dryland systems. Ahmed Abubakar HOD Geography, Sule Lamido University, Kafin Hausa, Jigawa State, Nigeria iv Executive summary The book have been categorized into six chapters relevant to the drylands of Nigeria which presents various challenges and way forward for better management of natural resources in Nigeria. Chapter one discusses climate change impacts at global level, Africa as well as Nigeria’s context. It goes further to discuss climate change scenarios or plausible explanations of future global climate. It also presents challenges and possible adaptation and mitigation measures of climate change in Nigeria Chapter two highlights environmental hazards and their consequences on the natural environment with reference to the drylands. This chapter highlights devastating impacts drought, desertification and climatic variability. The chapter goes on to discuss natural and anthropogenic causes of environmental hazards. Suggestions of possible adaptation and mitigation measures to these natural hazards were made. Chapter three dwell on soil and water conservation practices in Nigeria. The chapter presents the techniques used in soil and water conservation and various methods adapted by farmers at various location and different techniques of crop management in Nigeria. Chapter four presents the role of smallholder farmers in crop production in Nigeria. Agroecological zones specializations of various crop productions in Nigeria, rural livelihood diversification strategies and the challenges faced by smallholder farmers in Nigeria and the way forward. Chapter five examines and assesses the ecosystem services in the drylands of Nigeria. The chapter discusses various services such as supporting services, provision services, regulating services, cultural services as well as spiritual services in the drylands of Nigeria. Chapter six discusses the agro-ecological zones of Nigeria. The specialization in terms crop productions and other agricultural activities which differ from one zone to another. This chapter highlights various locations of agro-ecological zones their prospects and challenges as well as natural resources found in each of the zones. v Acknowledgement I the Chief-editor on behalf of my colleagues (Co-Authors) would like to thank Mrs. Hiteesha Bachoo for her enormous encouragement to come up with book like this. Meanwhile, sincere appreciation goes to Lambert Academic Publishing Company for taking responsibility in publishing this fascinating book. vi Table of Contents Forward Executive summary Acknowledgement Table of Contents List of Abbreviation About the contributors CHAPTER ONE UNDERSTANDING THE CLIMATE CHANGE Climate Change: The Global Focus Climate Change Scenarios Climate Change: The Africa Focus Impact of Climate Change on Africa’s Development Impacts of Climate Change on the Drylands of Nigeria Climate Change and Drylands of Nigeria Adaptive Strategies to Climate Change in Drylands Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies Conclusion Recommendations References CHAPTER TWO CONCEPT OF DRYLANDS AND DRYLANDS OF NIGERIA Extent of Nigeria’s Dryland Drylands Environment Characteristics of Nigeria’s drylands Environmental hazards Conclusion Remedies to Drought and Desertification References CHAPTER THREE SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION PRACTICES IN NIGERIA History of Soil and Water Conservation in Nigeria Soil and Water Conservation Techniques Conclusions Recommendations References CHAPTER FOUR SMALLHOLDER FARMERS AND RURAL LIVELIHOOD DIVERSIFICATION STRATEGIES Definition of smallholder agriculture Smallholder Farmers Diversification strategies Role of smallholder farmers Smallholders face a range of challenges Key interventions to help smallholders ‘move up’ vii iv v vi vii ix xi 1 2 4 5 6 8 9 9 11 12 12 16 17 17 17 17 18 26 26 28 29 29 30 37 38 40 42 43 44 45 45 45 Concept of Livelihood Rural Livelihood Diversification system Rural Livelihood Diversification System: The Nigerian content Livelihood Diversification System in Nigeria Livelihood-Based Coping Strategies in Nigeria Conclusion and recommendations Reference CHAPTER FIVE ECOSYSTEM SERVICES OF THE DRYLANDS OF NIGERIA Introduction to the Drylands of Nigeria Nigerian Dryland Ecosystem and Services Supporting Services Regulating Services Provisioning Services through Biological Production and freshwaters Cultural Services Conclusion Recommendations Reference CHAPTER SIX AGRO-ECOSYSTEMS OF NIGERIA Concept of Agro-ecosystem Energy Flow in Agro-ecosystem Agricultural Systems and Specialization of Agro-ecological Zones of Nigeria The Mangrove Forest and Coastal Vegetation The Freshwater Swamp Forest The Tropical High Forest Zone The Derived Guinea Savannah The Guinea Savannah The Sudan Savannah (Short grass savannah) The Sahel Savannah (Marginal savannah) Montane Vegetation Conclusion Recommendations References 46 47 47 49 50 51 52 55 55 55 56 57 59 60 61 62 63 65 65 67 67 67 67 68 68 68 69 69 70 72 72 73 List of Figures Figure 1: Planting pits 32 Figure 2: Close-up of planting pits 33 Figure 3: Agro-ecological zones of Nigeria 72 List of Tables Table 1: Agro-Ecological Zones of Nigeria viii 71 List of Abbreviation CDM Clean Development Mechanism FAO Food and Agriculture Organization HDI Human Development Index IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change UNAIDS Joint United Nations programme on HIV and AIDS UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNICEF United Nations International Children’s and Emergency Funds WHO World Health Organization HOD Head of Department DRC Democratic Republic of Congo SSA Sub Saharan Africa AD Anno Domini UNCCD United Nations Conventions to Convert Desertification NAP National Action Plan USA United States of America IMF International Monetary Fund CTIC Conservation Tillage Information Centre SWC Soil Water Conservation SDGs Sustainable Development Goals UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development USD United States Dollar WFP World Food Programme IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development HLPE High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition FDI Foreign Direct Investment SL Sustainable Livelihoood IDPs Internally Displaced Persons ix LCSI Livelihood Coping Strategy Index IUCN International Union of Conservation of Nature FMWR Federal Ministry of Water Resources GDP Growth Domestic Products FGN Federal Government of Nigeria USAID United States Agency for International Development x About the Contributors Ahmed Abubakar, Geography Department Sule Lamido University, Kafin Hausa, Jigawa State, Nigeria. BSc Geography from Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria and MSc Natural Resource Management and Climate Change, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria. Research Interest: Climate Change, Livelihood diversification, Urban growth, Environmental Management, Political Ecology. Address, Geography Department, Sule Lamido University, Kafin Hausa, Jigawa State, Nigeria. abubakar8550483@gmail.com, +2348032679791 Samir Shehu Danhassan, Department of Geography Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. BSc Geography from Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria and MSc Geography from Johdpur National University, India: Research Interest: Climate Change, Sustainable Agriculture, Disaster risk Management and Sustainable Consumptio Address: Geography Department Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. : +2348037300992 samirshehudanhassan@gmail.com Aminu Hussaini, Holds BSc (Ed) Geography from Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria and MSc Natural Resource Management and Climate Change from Bayero University, Kano. He published several papers in reputable Journals: Research Interest: Agricultural Development, Sustainable development, climate change, urban growth. Address: Geography Department, Bayero University, Kano. Ah1700007.mge@buk.edu.ng, ahabbaura@gmail.com Mukhtar Suleiman, Holds BSc and MSc Geography from Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Research interest: Geomorphology, Climate change, dryland agriculture, urban growth, sustainable development. Address Department of geography, Federal University, Gashua. smukhtar27.sm@gmail.com: +2347034994525 Musbahu Jibrin Abubakar, Holds BSc (Ed) Geography, Masters of Business Administration, Masters in development Studies and MSc Natural Resource Management and Climate Change all from Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria and also fellow Certified Financial Analyst. Research Interest: Environmental Management, Sustainable development, Climate Change, Dyland Studies. Address: Department of Geography, Bayero University Kano: musbahujibrin@yahoo.com: +23433361251 Najib Abdullahi, Holds BSc (Ed) Geography and MSc Geography, from Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria. Research Interest: dryland Resources, Ecosystem Management, Urban growth and population Studies. Address: Deparment of Geography, Sule Lamido University, Kafin Hausa, Jigawa State, Nigeria. Najibabdullahi44@gmail.com. +2348038127213 Ahmed Chadi Aliyu, Holds BTech in Urban and Regional Planning from Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi and MSc Natural Resource Management and Climate from Bayero University, Kano. Research Interest: Dryland Environment and Livelihood, Indigenous Practices, Enironmental Management, Natural Resource Management. Address; Ayya Academy, No. 204 Hausawa Kumbotso, Kano State, Nigeria. ahmedchadi963@gmail.com, +2348036464462 xi CHAPTER ONE Samir Shehu Danhassan* Ahmed Abubakar* UNDERSTANDING THE CLIMATE CHANGE Introduction The exponential increase in surface temperature of the earth and the global sea level in the last few decades is a major aspect of climate change that has attracted both researchers and policy makers in recent times. The earth’s atmosphere creates natural greenhouse effect which keeps the earth’s surface warmer than it would have been otherwise. Life is an integral part of the earth system and all living things influence the composition of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere by “inhaling” and “exhaling” carbon dioxide and oxygen, thereby maintaining a chemical balance in the atmosphere. A range of human activities, which include majorly the burning of fossil fuels, industrial activities and the cutting down of forest for agricultural purposes and urbanization, are substantially increasing the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, thereby upsetting this atmospheric chemical balance. The details of our complex climate systems are not sufficiently known to enable us predict the exact consequences of the increasing greenhouse gases on global temperature in particular and climate change in general. Our ability to accurately quantify human influence on global climate change is therefore limited; the expected signals are still emerging from the noise of natural climate variability and uncertainties. These include the magnitudes and patterns of long term natural variability and the time-evolving patterns; and responses to changes in the concentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols, and land surface changes. However, not everyone agrees that the surface temperature of the earth is on the increase, and if global warming is real, not all accept the fact that human activities are mainly responsible to it. Also, not all accept that climate change is bad. Thus, sceptics and opponents of global warming do not see the need to take measures to slow down or reverse global warming and climate change. Some have argued that such actions to curb global warming and climate change are too premature and are not cost effective. An international environmental treaty, called Kyoto Protocol, linked to the United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) mandated the governments of industrialized nations to take appropriate measures that would control and stabilize global warming by reducing greenhouse gas emissions to a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate systems. But this accord, which was adopted in Kyoto, Japan on December 11, 1997 and entered into force on February 16 16, 2005, has been largely contested by opponents. The increasing energy demand by the growing population, the need for economic growth and improved standard of living in the developing countries, lack of political will and institutional weakness to make and implement appropriate environmental policies, as well as lack of related information and misinformation are the major factors that have militated against measures to reduce greenhouse gases emissions and mitigate the effects of climate change. What then should we do? Should we all pretend that all is well with our “beloved planet Earth”, and that global warming and climate change does not matter much? Should we seek for greater knowledge of our complex climate system and more evidence of global warming? Should we continue to do “business as usual” by emitting more greenhouse gases into the atmosphere or should we evolve possible mitigation measures to combat the adverse effects of 1 global warming and maintain stability in the climate? This book attempts to show that global warming in particular and climate change in general are real, and are greatly affecting the biosphere. Climate Change: The Global Focus Observations made from surface temperature measurements at weather stations, sea level rise and borehole temperature profiles show that the earth’s surface has warmed significantly in the last century. Global climate change – desert encroachment, deforestation, more turbulent weather, increased flooding and drought, and many more – attributed to the global warming are being witnessed across the globe. The most likely explanation of the observed warming and consequently climate change is enhanced greenhouse effect due to increasing concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The concept of global warming and the consequent climate change has not been generally accepted by all players; most governments have not made reasonable efforts to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases. This is because the following hypothesis could explain global warming and climate change: possible variations in solar radiation or natural variations in earth’s temperature independent of human activities, which are yet to be understood, may be responsible for the observed warming and climate change; the complexity in earth’s climate system may exceed the complexity in human behaviour and reaction to change; and genuine scientific uncertainties about global warming and climate change prediction has made the concept of global warming and climate change difficult for policy makers and planners, and a major weapon of attack for sceptics with varying agenda (Pollack, 2003). A helpful analysis of the uncertainties in the predictions of global warming both in terms of the magnitude and changes, and the related climate effects was provided by Mahlman (1997). According to him, issues that are more certain about global warming include: • • • • • • • • • • Atmospheric abundance of greenhouse gases is increasing due to human activity. Increased concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere leads to warming at the earth’s surface. Carbon dioxide build up is particularly serious because it remains in the atmosphere for decades to centuries. Build-up of aerosols, anthropogenic or natural, inhibits incoming solar radiation and thus tends to offset global warming by cooling. The earth’s surface has warmed on the average by 1°C over the past century. The global mean amount of water vapour in the atmosphere will increase with increasing global mean temperature. Other predictions of Mahlman, which are less curtained but have greater than ninety per cent chances of being true, include: The 20th century global warming is consistent with model predictions of expected greenhouse warming. Doubling carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere from 270 to 540 ppmv will lead to a total warming of about 1.5 to 4.5°C. Sea level could rise by 25 to 75 cm by the year 2100 caused mainly by thermal expansion of sea water, and melting of ice sheets could lead to a further sea level rise. 2 • Higher latitudes of the northern hemisphere will experience temperature changes much more than the global experience temperature changes much more than the global mean increase. The range in the above predictions is caused by the uncertainties in modelling based on two important mechanisms: forcings and feedbacks, which determine the direction of changes in the climate system. Climate forcings are the initial drivers of climate change. Solar irradiance is one important climate forcings that scientists are not too confidence about. The sun has a well-known eleven-year irradiance cycle that produces 0.08% variations in output (IPCC 2007c) which have been incorporated into climate models. Evidences from proxy measurements show that solar output also varies over long periods of time; these longer terms solar variations are not well understood and cannot be relied on. Aerosols forcing is another substantial uncertainty in the prediction of climate change. Aerosols from both natural and man-made sources have different effects on climate. Sulphate aerosols from the burning of fossil fuels and volcanic eruption tend to cool the earth, but other kinds of atmospheric particles have opposing effects. The global distribution of aerosols has only been tracked for about a decade, from the ground and satellites, and these measurements cannot accurately distinguish between particulates. Climate feedbacks are processes that change as a result of a small change in forcings, and cause additional climate change. Feedbacks that amplify a small change in a particular direction are called positive feedbacks, while those that attenuate an initial response are negative feedbacks. An example of a positive climate feedback is water vapour; increased water vapour in the atmosphere from a warmer climate implies increased evaporation will enhance greenhouse effects which will lead to more evaporation. The reflectivity of ice sheets is another climate positive feedback process. Increased melting of ice sheet will decrease the reflectivity of light rays from the sun. This will lead to more warming which results in more melting of ice sheets and consequently more sea level rise. Clouds radiation system is a much more complex climate feedback process which has enormous impact on the climate. Cloud sometimes cools the earth’s surface by blocking or reflecting back into space the incoming solar radiation which would have otherwise results in warming. Cloud system can also act like a thermal blanket which absorbs the outgoing thermal radiation resulting in warming of the earth. Warming can significantly change cloud patterns and this would alter the amount of solar radiations absorbed or reflected by the clouds. A small change in the cloud pattern – amount, location and type – could speed, slow or reverse warming. The ocean system is another complex climate feedback that has significant influence on climate. The ocean system provides most of the water vapour in the atmosphere, modulates weather by redistributing heat around the globe through internal circulation. The ocean structure and dynamics should therefore be included in any accurate prediction modelling of climate change. Global ocean data set became available only from early 1990s, so the prediction of future changes in the ocean is largely uncertain. Carbon cycle is another climate feedback process that is not clearly understood. Natural processes remove about 50% of the carbon dioxide emissions from the atmosphere each year. The major repository of this carbon dioxide are oceans and land biota, but what is not clearly understood is which of them absorbs more. The ability of the earth system to continue to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere may decline with increasing warming. The incomplete understanding of the climate forcings and feedback mechanisms has limited the ability to predict the exact timing, magnitude and the regional patterns of climate change. This has made planning difficult for policy makers. Complexity in the system is a clear indication that 3 surprises in the effects of global warming on climate change cannot be ruled out. The complexity in understanding global warming and climate change as well as the element of genuine scientific uncertainties does not preclude the reality of global warming and consequent effects of climate change. Climate Change Scenarios Scenarios is a probable and often simplified description of how future may develop based on coherent and internally consistent sets of assumptions about driving forces and key relationships. In climate change a scenario is also described as plausible description of how the future climate may develop based on coherent and internally consistent and logical sets of assumptions about key relationships and driving forces considering the level and the rate of technology change, economy, governance etc Note that scenarios are neither predictions nor forecast. Scenarios are grouped into different categories and types including, CO2 emission all sources, base line scenarios, socioeconomic scenarios, global warming future scenarios etc. Climate Scenarios for Future Climates and Change Scientists projected to produce five possible scenarios for future climates, should in case the greenhouse gases are not reduced and stabilised. These are assumptions of what may likely happens in various parts of the world should the global average temperature rises to10 Centigrade, 2, 3, 4 or even 50. The 10C Temperature Rise These effects would be more in low-lying island states. The Arctic sea ice is already disappearing and, after a 10C global average temperature rise, it would disappear for good in the summer months. Heatwaves and forest fires will become common in the sub-tropics, worst hit will be the Mediterranean region, South Africa, Australia and South-West United States. Most of the world corals will die including the Great Barrier Reef. Glaciers that provide crops for 50 million people with fresh water will begin to melt and 300,000 people will be affected every year by climate related diseases each year such s malaria and diarrhea. The 20C Temperature Rise This is the temperature limit the scientist assumes as the biggest tolerance. The heat waves seen in Europe 2003 which kills thousands of people will come back every year with a 20C global average temperatures rise. Southern England will regularly see temperatures around 400C in summer. The Amazon turns into desert and grasslands, while increasing carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere make the world ocean too acidic for remaining coral reefs and thousands of other marine life forms. More than 60 million people, mainly in Africa, would be exposed to high rate of malaria. Agricultural yields around the world will drop and half a million people will be at greater risk of starvation. The west Antarctic ice sheet collapses, the Greenland ice sheet melts and the world sea level begin to rise by seven meters over the net few hundred years. Glaciers all over the world will recede, reducing the fresh water supply for major cities including Los Angeles. Coastal flooding affects extra more than 10 million extra people. A number of world’s plant and animal species will become extinct as the 20C rise changes their habitats too quickly for them to adapt. 4 The 30C Temperature Rise After a 30C global temperature rise, global warming may run out of control and effort to mitigate it will be in vain. Millions of square kilometres of Amazon rainforest could burn down, releasing carbon from the wood, leaves and soil and thus making the warming even worse, perhaps by another 1.50C, in South Africa, Australia, and the Western USA deserts take over. Billions of people are forced to move from their traditional agricultural lands, in search of scarcer food and water. Around 20-40% less water will be available in Africa and around the Mediterranean. In UK, summers of drought are followed by winters of floods. Sea level rises to engulf small islands and low-lying areas such as Florida, New York and London. The Gulf Stream, which warms the UK all year round, will decline and changes in weather patterns will lead to higher sea levels at the Atlantic coasts. The 40C Temperature Rise At this stage the arctic permafrost enters the danger zones. The methane and carbon dioxide currently locked in the soils will be released into the atmosphere. At the Arctic itself, the ice cover will disappear permanently, meaning extinction of polar bears and other native species that rely on the presence of ice. Further melting of Antarctic ice sheets would mean a further 5m rise in the sea level, submerging many sea island nations. Italy, Spain, Greece and Turkey become deserts and Mid-Europe reaches desert temperatures of almost 500 in summer. Southern England’s summer climate could resemble that of modern southern Morocco. The 50C Temperature Rise It is regarded as highly unlikely and could be a nightmare scenario with 50C rise global average temperatures would be hotter than 50 million years. The arctic regions sees temperatures rise much higher than average up to 200C meaning the entire Arctic is now ice free all year round. Most of the tropics, sub-tropics, and even lower mid-latitudes are too hot to be inhabitable. The sea level rise is now sufficiently rapid that coastal cities across the world are largely abandoned. Above 60C, there would be a danger of runaway warming, perhaps spurred by release of oceanic methane hydrates. Could the surface of the earth become like Venus entirely uninhabitable and human population would be drastically reduced. Climate Change: The Africa Focus Africa and the Global Response to Climate Change About a quarter of the 192 parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that gathered at Copenhagen in December 2009 to try to reach agreement on global action to combat climate change for the period after 2012 — successor to the Kyoto Protocol — will come from Africa. What is Africa’s interest in this global effort to meet key climate change objectives? How will Africa perform in Copenhagen? Will Africa make a difference to the outcomes of the negotiations and the Copenhagen Agreement, given its passive role in Kyoto? Most analyses of the impacts of climate change that have influenced UNFCCC agreements focus on medium- to long-term projections of carbon emissions and forecasting models of global warming, and cover mainly countries and regions for which relevant data are readily available. This leaves out most developing countries and regions, particularly Africa, due to unavailable data and trajectories. From an African perspective, this omission is serious and costly. As the poorest continent, Africa is 5 considered most susceptible to climate change due to its vulnerability and inability to cope with the physical, human and socioeconomic consequences of climate extremes. Moreover, existing adaptation mechanisms and resources under the Kyoto agreement designed to mitigate climate change’s effects on Africa (and other developing regions) have been directed at limiting future carbon emissions, rather than addressing the region’s vulnerability and lack of resilience to the impacts of climate change on its economies and populations. As late as April 2007, a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) warned that Africa was not acting quickly enough to stem the dire economic and environmental consequences of greenhouse gas emissions (IPCC, 2007). What this report seemed to have missed or overlooked is that Africa’s concern about climate change is not mainly in terms projections of carbon emission and future environmental damages. It is more about the links between climate change and droughts, desertification, floods, coastal storms, soil erosion — contemporary disaster events that threaten lives and livelihoods, and hinder the continent’s economic growth and social progress. Due to the limited relevance of past and current global climate change agreements to Africa’s climate and environmental problems, the hardest hit region has benefited least from the international climate change regime, which relates almost exclusively to funding and investments for green, low carbon growth. For example, Africa’s participation to date in the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and carbon trading arrangements under the Kyoto Protocol has been minimal.1 Africa’s negligible role in previous international climate change negotiations can be remedied by concerted action on the part of African leaders in the Copenhagen round of negotiations. Africa has much at stake. The key question is: how can Africa make a Copenhagen deal relevant to the impact of climate change on its economies and populations? To address this question, we need to explore the link between climate change and socioeconomic conditions that intensify underdevelopment and poverty in Africa, and examine the different pathways through which climate change affects Africa’s development. There is also need to highlight the opportunity that Copenhagen can create for Africa to adapt to new, more efficient patterns of development that reduce its vulnerability and improve its resilience. Impact of Climate Change on Africa’s Development Climate change is already a reality in Africa. There are prolonged and intensified droughts in eastern Africa; unprecedented floods in western Africa; depletion of rain forests in equatorial Africa; and an increase in ocean acidity around Africa’s southern coast. Vastly altered weather patterns and climate extremes threaten agricultural production and food security, health, water and energy security, which in turn undermine Africa’s ability to grow and develop. Climate and environmentally related disasters which threaten human security can induce forced migration and produce competition among communities and nations for water and basic needs resources, with potential negative consequences for political stability and conflict resolution. Pathways through which Climate Change and Development Interact Agriculture and food security: Agriculture, which provides a livelihood for about three-quarters of Africa’s population, is mainly rain-fed. Severe and prolonged droughts, flooding and loss of arable land due to desertification and soil erosion are reducing agricultural yields and causing crop failure and loss of livestock, which endangers rural and pastoralist populations. The Horn of Africa’s pastoralist areas (Ethiopia-Kenya-Somalia border) have been severely hit by recurrent 6 droughts; livestock losses have plunged approximately 11 million people dependent on livestock for their livelihoods into a crisis and triggered mass migration of pastoralists out of drought-affected areas. Climate change is also contributing to oceanic acidification and an increase in surface water temperatures around the African continent, negatively affecting fish stocks and threatening the livelihood of coastal and small-scale fishing communities. The impacts of climate change on agriculture and other key economic sectors in the food production and supply chain, such as forestry and energy, threaten food security across sub-Saharan Africa. Health: Increases in temperature, climate change-induced natural disasters and scarcity of safe drinking water due to droughts are major contributors to the spread of infectious and water-borne communicable diseases in Africa. Many more millions are being exposed to malaria already a leading cause of death in Africa due to temperature increases and intensifying rains which affect previously malaria-free areas such as the Kenyan and Ethiopian highlands. A recent joint UNEPUNAIDS study has established complex links between climate change and the HIV/AIDS epidemic in Africa (UNEP and UNAIDS, 2008). Climate change also has indirect effects on health in the region through ecosystems degradation and unsafe water and poor sanitation, which contribute to malnutrition, cholera and diarrheal diseases and increase in child mortality. Poor water and sanitation is linked to climate-induced droughts and floods, and, according to WHO and UNICEF (Joint News Release, March 2008), accounts for more than 20 per cent of the burden of disease in Africa. Diarrhoea is the second leading cause of death for African children. Forced migration: Weather extremes, shifts in climate and the degradation of ecosystems threaten livelihoods and erode human security, causing forced migration and population displacement. Already, droughts and the drying of river basins in southern and eastern Africa as well as floods and rising sea levels in western Africa have induced migration of individuals and communities in search of alternative livelihoods. Examples of climate change-related migration in Africa include: the continuous movement of pastoralist communities of northern Kenya ravaged by both droughts and floods; rural-urban migration in Ethiopia due to adverse environmental changes in its highlands; and internal displacement of population in the low-lying and flood-prone plains of the river Niger in Nigeria. These migrants and refugees represent a major policy challenge for African governments in terms of humanitarian assistance and sustainable long-term solutions, in addition to national security concerns linked to competition for scarce resources between migrants and local populations. Conflict: Climate change may seriously threaten political and economic stability, as, for example, when communities and nations struggle to access scarce water resources or when forced migration puts previously separate groups into conflict over the same resources. Given the history of ethnic, resource and political conflicts in Africa, climate change could aggravate territorial and border disputes and complicate conflict resolution and mediation processes. Conflict zones and potential flashpoints in Africa, such as Darfur, the Sahel, the Horn of Africa, the DRC and northern Kenya, all have populations living in fragile and unstable conditions making them vulnerable to climate change’s effects and the risk of violent conflict. Declining water resources and diminishing arable land are already intensifying competition for those resources, and creating tensions for displaced populations or those moving in search of improved livelihoods. 7 Armed conflict and intensified national security concerns minimize capacity to cope with climate change. Energy: Deforestation caused by illegal logging, the felling of trees for firewood and charcoal for cooking, and “slash and burn” farming practices has reduced biodiversity in Africa, and weakened the ability to adapt to climate change. Yet this situation reflects the reality of energy insecurity in Africa in terms of increasing demand due to population growth and dwindling supply of traditional fossil fuels. Heavy reliance on non-renewable fuel sources for domestic energy supply in most of sub-Saharan Africa contributes to ecosystem degradation, which is threatening wildlife and endangered species, and destroys natural forests. Unfortunately, loss of biodiversity is considered a marginal issue on climate change agendas in Africa, even though it could have negative economic consequences due, for example, to declines in eco-tourism. Conserving nature and restoring ecosystems should be an important policy consideration that links climate change adaptation with critical energy infrastructure and renewable energy supply such as solar, wind, hydro and geothermal power. Impacts of Climate Change on the Drylands of Nigeria What are the drylands? Different people define drylands in different ways. In terms of the absolute amount of rainfall, for example, the Convention to Combat Desertification defines drylands as areas with between 0 and 600 mm of rainfall per year, depending on altitude and latitude. In terms of the length of the wet season and the temperature, for example, areas with less than three months of enough moisture to support plant growth, and with an average temperature of at least 80° Fahrenheit (27°C). By comparing the annual rainfall with the amount of ‘potential evapotranspiration’ (roughly, the amount of water that evaporates from a pond or a well-irrigated field in one year). One definition is those areas where the rainfall is less than 40% of the potential evapotranspiration. In terms of vegetation, drylands are areas where conditions favour perennial grasses rather than annual cereals. Rain fed cropping therefore has an inherent risk of failure. In terms of land use, some farming systems are more sensitive to drought than others: for example, cattle in wetter areas may not eat dry grass during a drought. Pastoralists may regard grazing areas as drylands, in contrast to the wetter areas, usually highlands, where crops are grown. The definition of dryland varies from country to country. For example, most of Uganda has relatively high rainfall. If the maize crops fail once in five years, people regard the area as dryland. Such a definition is of little use in countries such as lowland Kenya or Ethiopia, where rainfall levels are generally much lower. Some 80% of Kenya is classified as dryland. Some areas normally regarded as wet may in fact be dryland. For example, not all the East African highlands are wet. Certain areas on the shores of Lake Victoria lie in a rain shadow and receive only 600 mm of rain a year. There is no firm boundary between dryland and wetter areas. One grades into the other and the boundary changes from year to year. Prolonged drought, unseasonal rains and other climate changes may mean the area expands or contracts. 8 Climate Change and Drylands of Nigeria Extensive research shows that Northern part of Nigeria has already experienced noticeable changes in climate and predicts that more changes will occur in the near future. Much of these changes are having and will continue to have negative impact on the environment. Some of these negative impacts are readily recognised: higher temperature, prolonged drought destroying farmer’s crops, desertification and flooding. This region is especially subject to climate change leading to reduction of the area suitable for rain-fed agriculture, more extreme weather events, decrease of water availability, and decrease in agricultural productivity among others. The Northern region of Nigeria constitutes of large land mass with a substantial part of its area extending into the Sudano-Sahelian belt, which, together with the neighbouring northern Guinea Savannah constitutes part of the drylands of the country. (Nasiru M.I., 2015). Adaptive Strategies to Climate Change in Drylands Problems and possible solutions Farmers use slash-and-burn to open up bush land, and their cropping practices are not always environment-friendly. Environmental degradation is caused by many interrelated factors, both manmade and natural. The more widespread causes are reviewed below. Overgrazing Large herds grazing within limited areas deplete the vegetation. Inter-community actions and government assistance can allow pastoralists to secure access to unused grazing areas. Conflicts can be resolved by traditional methods or other acceptable ways. Water points must be maintained and strategically allocated. Deforestation Pastoralists usually protect forests as their last resort during serious droughts. However, crop farmers may clear forests to plant crops. Charcoal-making is an important source of income for both groups, with traders often also involved. Deforestation may be confined to certain areas. Rangelands temporarily abandoned due to insecurity quickly revert to bush. Governments can help secure tenure rights for communities and rally locals to conserve and manage forested areas jointly. Some crop farmers and agro pastoralists plant trees on their homesteads to check soil degradation. Bush fires Pastoralists have used fire to manage rangelands for centuries. Fire stimulates the growth of fresh grass and kills ticks and unwanted bush species. It has also been used in tsetse-control schemes to clear fly-infested bush. If controlled, fires do not necessarily degrade the productivity of the range, and uncontrolled fires are the exception rather than the rule. However, outsiders have seen fires as a bad practice and have banned them. This is the topic of a fierce debate amongst environmentalists. Because of serious damage caused by uncontrolled bush fires, the regional government in Boranaland in southern Ethiopia has banned any form of vegetation burning. Good rangelands have quickly been invaded by hardy tree species that are very difficult to control. 9 Soil erosion Soil erosion is more prevalent on cultivated fields, as they are exposed to the elements for a greater part of the year. It is less a problem on rangelands, except in overgrazed places where herds crowd around settlements and water points. Possible solutions are described in the sections on Land-use planning and titling Soil and water conservation. Deterioration of water supply Water supplies are deteriorating in terms of both quantity and quality. Springs, wells and rivers dry up because of deforestation and soil erosion. Water is polluted by excessive or improper use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers, usually in large-scale irrigation schemes. Cotton – a popular dryland cash crop – requires heavy use of pesticides. Measures to improve water supplies include protecting the soil by planting trees and banning bush fires, providing information and training on better cropping practices, promoting integrated pest and soil-fertility management, and ensuring effective regulation at the community level. Salinization The build-up of soil salinity is the biggest risk in irrigation projects. Improper water management and inadequate drainage cause salts to accumulate in the soil. This harms the soil structure, often irreversibly. Crop yields fall, and cultivation may be abandoned. Salinization could be reduced by improved irrigation practices and more water efficient methods such as drip irrigation. Waste handling In most towns waste management is a matter of burning heaps of rubbish on vacant plots. The wind scatters garbage, and carelessly dumped waste pollutes groundwater. Solutions may be found through proper policies such as urban planning, establishing sanitary dumping sites, and creating opportunities for collection, sorting, transport and recycling of refuse. Smallholder Farmers Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change Climate change poses a serious threat to agricultural sustainability and poverty alleviation in the poorest and most vulnerable regions as impacts affect the dependence on rain fed agriculture, results to increased high level of poverty, low level of human and physical capital development, inequitable land distribution and poor infrastructure development. Although climate change has strong impact on health, water resources and land use, coastal infrastructure and environment, the most affected is agriculture especially in developing countries like Nigeria were irrigation is seldom practiced. Agriculture is highly sensitive to climate change variability and weather extremes such as droughts, floods, and severe storms. Climate change can manifest as fewer wet days and higher rainfall, flooding, increasing surface air temperature, sea level rise and accelerated soil erosion depending on the region. These can result in adverse consequences in human livelihood such as poor yields of crops and animals, loss of revenue by individuals and communities, increased poverty and hunger and damager to existing infrastructure. 10 Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies Agriculture depends largely on environment and any prolonged fluctuations in average weather can affect its productivity. To address climate change and promote sustainability in agriculture, tangible progress on implementation of strategies for adaptation and mitigation of the agricultural sector need to be harnessed and pursued, such as those discussed below. Smallholder Farmers Mitigation and Adaptations Strategies to Address the Impacts of Climate Change 1. Indigenous land husbandry practices Land husbandry is the art of implementation and management of preferred system of land use in order to prevent degradation and improve land quality in terms of stability, usefulness and productivity for the chosen land use (Chukwu et al., 2006). Consequently, land husbandry encompasses microclimate management and ethno-engineering which are briefly discussed below a. Microclimate management Microclimate management involves all sustainable farming practices aimed at deliberately changing the flow of energy, sunlight, humidity, and other climate conditions in a small localized area, to forestall adverse effects in agriculture (Stigler, 1987). b. Ethno-Engineering adaptation Ethno-engineering according to Jodha (1990) is a term that covers indigenous conservation practices such as terracing, contour/mountain slopes cultivation, harvesting run off water and developing small drainage system. 2. Improve agricultural infrastructure Such activities include, accelerating the construction of support facilities for large scale watersaving for irrigation, building water harvesting schemes, water storage ponds and improve irrigation and drainage systems to combat drought. Efforts need to be made to build new small-scale irrigation and drainage project in areas that are currently not irrigated to fight drought. Strengthen the control and restoration of middle and low yield fields subject to salinization and alkalinisation in the main grain production areas. Accelerate the construction of water collective and utilization engine in hill mountainous areas. 3. Strengthen research and development for new technologies Government and non-governmental organizations should invest in the research and development of agricultural technology especially in systems that are dominated by small holder investments and large private agricultural reproduction/propagation research companies. Specifically, efforts should be made to expand breeding programs to encourage research on seed and offspring varieties with traits that promote resistant to drought, high temperature, diseases and pests, and water logging for plants and animals. In addition to these programs, the government should encourage research to better understand the magnitude, source and mechanism of climate change and its consequences. For technologies already developed, the government needs to establish the means for transferring and promoting them to all farmers. 11 4. Strengthen the establishment and implementation of laws and regulations Nigeria should improve its system of laws and regulations based on existing regulations on land use. It should create a policy environment that promote the protection of farmland and pasture land and strictly control any redevelopment of land that is being used for carbon storage or as part of a fragile ecosystem. As well as promulgating and adopting laws to reduces activities influencing climate change. 5. Intensify ecological agriculture in highly intensive production areas Nigeria should begin to implement projects to prevent and control agriculture non-point source pollution and extend technologies concerning the reasonable use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides to improve the farm land quality and reduce carbon-emission. Farmers should be taught how to better manager fertilizer application and promote the increased use of organic fertilizer as a means of increasing soil fertility and reducing emissions of nitrous oxide. 6. Shifting to planting of crops according to local climate conditions For farmers to adapt to impact of climate change, farmers in warmer places should shift to planting of crops that scan survive in their places eg. cotton, wheat, oil crops and maize for the dried north. In wet locations, farmers are more likely to plant rice, soybeans, sugar, vegetables and potatoes which are water loving plants. 7. Breed stress-resistant varieties Select and cultivate new well-bred animal and crop varieties with high yield potential and quality, superior integrative stress resistance and wide adaptability. Select and cultivate stress resistant varieties with specific abilities of resistance to drought, water-logging, high temperature and diseases and pest invasion. 8. Prevent aggravation of grassland desertification Prevent further development of desertification by building artificial grassland, controlling grazing intensity, recovering vegetation and increasing vegetation coverage of grassland. Strengthen the development of animal husbandry in the farm belt to improve the productivity of animal husbandry. Conclusion The impacts of climate change in Africa and some other parts of the world have been confirmed that the impacts of climate change are real. Climate change has affected the ecosystem, human health, infrastructure and, food and water. Furthermore, climate change has displaced a lot of people from their homes and they are forced to migrate to other safety parts. The most common types of climate events in Africa are drought, flooding, desertification, wildfire and soil degradation. While international and national efforts have been concentrated in the mitigation of the impacts of climate change in Africa, there are still some barriers and limitations to adaptation. The local people on their own used forced migration and in some cases cash transfers as their adaptation strategies. Recommendations In order to effectively control global warming and climate change, the emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere should be drastically reduced. This can be achieved by improving energy 12 conservation and efficiency as well as the production and efficient utilization of non-fossil fuels. The use of non-fossil fuels can be greatly improved by unleashing our engineering, economic and political entrepreneurs. This could help us in moving towards greater use of renewable energy resources and non-fossil fuels. Technological development geared towards energy efficiency, renewable sources and non-fossil fuels could allow developing countries to skip the carbon intensive energy production stage of industrialization. This approach could simultaneously reduce the excessive energy consumption in developed countries, thereby controlling global warming and climate change in the short-to-medium term. Other ways carbon dioxide emission could be reduced include establishment of stringent standards for power plants, development and marketing of high efficiency but cost effective automobiles, and provision of financial incentives for energy efficiency in industries and homes. Apart from reducing the emission of greenhouse gases, a number of innovative geo-engineering models have been proposed so as to achieve a cooler planet and thereby control climate change and other effects of global warming. One of the most interesting proposed techniques that could be used to control and stabilize carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is iron fertilization. The planting of more trees is a more direct and practical way of combating global warming and climate change because forests sequester a large amount of carbon dioxide in the leaves and soil. However, this would require vast regions and would compete for lands needed for agricultural purposes to feed the growing population. Improvement in agricultural technology and productivity for crops like rice, wheat, maize and barley is required to best make use of the limited crops lands. Storing carbon in forest and agricultural areas is an important and cost effective part of the bigger strategy that should be used to control carbon dioxide emission into the atmosphere. Pollution model is another proposed technique that could be used to combat global warming and climate change. Sulphur could be injected into the stratosphere so as to block incoming solar radiation and thereby produce cooling at the earth’s surface. Other sunscreen schemes envision sending Mylar balloons or thousands of small, reflective particles into orbits around the earth to block partially the incoming solar radiation. Changing the reflectivity of the land and ocean surface could also increase the amount of solar radiation reflected back into space. The oceans could be made to absorb more carbon dioxide by increasing its alkalinity. These proposed methods are not cost effective and could alter rainfall pattern across the globe, cause more damage to the ozone layer, and have other unexpected environmental draw backs on the long run. Global population growth should be brought under control especially in developing countries that are already densely populated. Both the developed and developing countries should work towards achieving high standard of living within the sustainable per capita energy consumption range of 100 to 150 GJ. The developed nations, especially Canada, Australia and the United States should reduce their excessive energy consumption. Developing countries should strive to maximize their HDI at the least growth in energy consumption, using feasible and realistic models other than those used in the developed world. Individuals can also make a difference in controlling and stabilizing carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere. The strategies could include using a fuel-efficient car and driving less; living closer to place of work and walking or riding a bicycle; making sure one’s house is well sealed and insulated to reduce heating during cold weather and cooling during hot weather; using compact fluorescent light bulbs and/or tubes, and energy-efficient home appliances; planting trees and shrubs 13 around homes, schools religious worship centres; and, through the democratic process, encouraging elected officials to deliver policies that properly take the environment into account. Preferred actions To continue to do business as usual in terms of the emission of greenhouse gases would be a dangerous course to follow. This assertion is based on the reality of population growth, energy consumption as it relates to standard of living, and energy production to meet the demand of the growing population. The world population has continued to increase and currently stands at about 6.8 billion with an annual growth rate of about 1.39%. Much of the growth in world population is in the developing countries which compares the rapid growth of five-year age brackets in Kenya of about 20% to the slow growth rate in USA of about 7%. The global population growth rate indicates a global predicament as rapid growth countries (developing countries) still significantly outnumber slow growth countries (developed countries); thus global population will continue to rise even as birth rates decline. The developing countries generally have a natural desire for an improved standard of living. The Human Development Index (HDI), developed by the United Nations, is a measure of the quality of life based on life expectancy, educational level and per capita gross domestic products. The HDI is measured on a scale of zero for the poorest nation to one for an ideal performance. Current trend shows that standard of living increases with increasing per capita energy consumption. About 90% of the present global energy need is produced by burning of fossil fuels, coal, oil and natural gas, which substantially increase atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases, principally carbon dioxide and methane. Thus, the drive towards higher standard of living especially in the developing countries combined with the growing global population will aggravate the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere which will result in more severe effects of global warming and climate change. The developing countries are still seen as relatively small players on the energy scene. They accounted for only 15% of global demand for commercial energy in 1970 and increased to 26% in 1990 despite the crippling effects of oil price rises and heavy indebtedness. To expect the developing countries to cut down on fossil fuel consumption may seem unfair, given that there are enormous disparities between their stages of development and fossil fuel consumption. Also, it would be inequitable and unfair to propose that the developing countries forego opportunities for bettering their standards of living in order to solve a global problem which in any case is not of their making. As high-population countries such as Nigeria, India, Pakistan, China, and Indonesia increase their standard of living, the total global energy consumption will increase significantly. Thus, the energy consumption path these countries choose will have major implications on global energy demands and demands and will influence greenhouse gas emission on the long run. Differences in the emissions between the scenarios result from different assumptions about population growth, use of fossil fuel, technology, and global sustainability ethic. Scenario A2, for example, is doing “business as usual” with global population increasing to15.1 billion by 2100, and heavy reliance on fossil fuel. Emissions of greenhouse gases rise from the current 8 Mt of carbon dioxide annually to 30 Mt of carbon dioxide in 2100. This scenario results in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations of 800 ppmv in 2100. Scenario B1, at the other extreme, follows a “balanced” path with global population rising to 8.7 B by 2050 but decreasing to 7.0 B by 2100. Considerable emphasis is on technology, non-fossil energy sources, and a global commitment to solve environmental problems. Emissions of 14 greenhouse gases rise slightly until mid-century but decrease steadily until 2100 when the emissions are 25% less than today. Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration increases slowly but more steadily through the next century reaching 560 ppmv or a doubling of the historic carbon dioxide level (2 × 280 ppmv) only by 2100. The projections of global mean temperature of the earth surface to the year 2100 with a fluctuation of about 0.5oC amplitude and decadal periods for the last thousand years, relative to the present day surface temperature. There is a week evidence for global medieval warm period about 1100 AD a little ice age, particularly pronounced in Europe from 1500 to 1700 AD. The 1°C increase in surface temperature of the current warming episode and the prediction of a global mean temperature increase of 3°C in the next century are very unusual. This prediction is even more alarming as regional warming, for example in the arctic, is expected to be 3 times as great as the global mean. 15 References Boyd PW Jickells T, Law CS, Blain S, Boyle EA, Buesseler KO, Coale KH, Cullen JJ, de Baar HJW, Follows M, Harvey M, Lancelot C, Levasseur M, Owens NPJ, Pollard R, Rivkin RB, Sarmiento J, V. Schoemann V, Smetacek V, Takeda S, Tsuda A, Turner S, Watson AJ (2007). Meso scale iron enrichment experiments 1993-2005: Synthesis and future directions. Science 315(5812): 612, dio:10.1126/science.131669. Buersseler KO Doney SC, Karl DM, Boyd PW, Caldeira K, Chai F, Coale KH, de Baar HJW Falkowski PG, Johnson KS, Lampitt RS, Michaels AF, Naqvi SWA, Smetacek V, Takeda S, Watson AJ (2008). Environment: ocean iron fertilization –moving forward in a sea of uncertainty, Science 319 (5860): 162, dio:10.1126/science.1154305. Chukwu, G. O. & Okoro, B. O. (2006). Sustaining agriculture inn Africa, needs benefits and methods. Proceeding of the Academic Seminar, Golden Jubilee Edition, Federal College of Agriculture, Ishagu (pp. 90- 94). IPCC. (2007). Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University, Press. UK. IPCC (2007c). UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Fourth Assessment Report, Technical Summary, Section 2.7. p. 30, Lanchenbruch H, Marshall BV (1986). Changin climate geothermal evidence from permafrost in Alaska Arctic, 234 Science, 689. Jodha, N. S. (1990). Mountain agriculture: the search for sustainability. Journal of Farming System Research and Environmental Extensions. 1(1), 55-75. Mahlman JD (1997). Uncertainties in projections of human-caused climate warming. 278: 1416. Science, Nasiru, M.I. (2015). Nigeria: Adaptation to Climate Change in Drylands Nigeria. AllAfrica.com Pollack HN (2003). Uncertain Science, Uncertain World. Cambridge University Press, 268. London p. Stigter, K. (1987). Traditional manipulation of microclimate factors: knowledge to be used. IIeta Newsletter, 3(3), 5- 6. 16 In CHAPTER TWO Mukhtar Suleiman CONCEPT OF DRYLANDS AND DRYLANDS OF NIGERIA Introduction Drylands occupied almost about 40% of the earth surface and 70% of which are degraded and are inhabited by by over 2 billion people (UNCCD, 1996). Drylands are generally subjects to climate regimes that are not highly favourable to crop production. Low rainfall and high variability in rainfall patterns presents difficult challenge for growing crops. The degradation of drylands is due mainly to climatic variability and unstable human activities. It involves the loose of biological and economic productivity and ecosystem goods and services caused by soil erosion, deterioration of the physical, chemical, biological and economic properties of soil and the long term loss of natural vegetation. Desertification is the major environmental problem for Nigerian drylands. Desertification undermined the goal of sustainable development by increasing poverty, poor health, malnutrition, impaired child development and susceptibility to diseases. Nigeria has concluded the process of preparation of its national action plan (NAP) to combat desertification. Extent of Nigeria’s Dryland The drylands of Nigeria forms undulating plains at a general elevation of about 450-700m above see level. It lies approximately within latitudes 100N and 140N of the equator and comprises Adamawa, Bauchi, Jigawa, Kaduna, Kano, Katsina, Kebbi, Sokoto, Yobe and Zamfara states of Nigeria. The total human population in Nigeria’s drylands is estimated at 33.5 million with an average density of 158 persons/km2. Drylands Environment Average annual rainfall in the drylands of Nigeria varies from less than 250mm in the northeast to about 700mm in the south, unreliable in many parts. Unpredictability and unreliability characterized the rainfall pattern in Nigeria as in other arid and semi-arid regions of the world. It is not just the amount of rainfall that matters but the timing and distribution. In this respect the pattern of the rainfall in the region is highly variable in spatial and temporal dimensions, with an interannual variability of 15-20%. In addition to high interannual variability, the rainfall regimes of the drylands of Nigeria are characterized by high concentration of in few months, intermittence and violent storms. Thus, the drylands are by nature prone to recurrent and sometimes intense and persistent period of drought. Characteristics of Nigeria’s drylands The rainfall is low, erratic and scattered, and is concentrated in a few heavy storms. The rains may be delayed, and droughts are frequent. Rains may occur at times when they do not benefit crops in the field. The soils are thin and easily eroded. They are low in organic matter content and dry out quickly. Some soil types occur only in dryland areas. Within the drylands there are scattered patches with better soils or a wetter climate. The vegetation is sparse, leaving a large proportion of the soil surface exposed. This allows rain to compact the surface, forming a crust which stops water from seeping into the soil. The water runs off instead, causing erosion and flash floods 17 Environmental hazards Drought and desertification are global environmental problems affecting developed and developing countries in many regions of the world, where the required causal synergistic climatic variations and anthropogenic inputs thrive. They are accompanied by the reduction in the natural potential of the land, the depletion of surface and groundwater have negative repercussions on the living conditions and the economic development of the people are affected by it (Abahussain et al., 2002). Drought and desertification processes integrate climatic elements with human activities in transforming productive land, into an ecological impoverished area generally refers to as desert. Drought and desertification cause degradation of once a fertile land through long term changes in the soil, climate and biota, which results in desert-like conditions. Nigeria is one of the countries south of the Sahara faced with a rapid desert encroachment, with notable effects on the northern part of the country. Drought Drought is a complex climatic phenomenon characterized by natural reduction in precipitation that results in negative impacts on the environment and human activities. Three major types of drought are generally recognized. These are meteorological drought, agricultural drought and hydrological drought. When droughts affect the well-being, livelihood and life of the people, it is seen as a socioeconomic drought Meteorological drought occurs when there is a prolonged absence or deficiency in normal or poor distribution of precipitation. Agricultural drought is said to occur when moisture is not sufficiently available at the right time to meet the water demand of crops, vegetation, pastures and other agricultural systems. Hydrological drought occurs when groundwater recharge has declined to such an extent that the water table continues to fall. It is obvious that the three types of drought are characterized by a situation of water deficit. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification defines drought as “a naturally occurring phenomenon that exists when precipitation has been significantly below normal recorded levels, causing serious hydrological imbalances that adversely affect land resource production systems”. Socio-Economic drought this form of drought is associated with human activates. It occurs when various human activities are impaired due to reduced precipitation or water availability. Generally, the phenomenon can be attributed to inadequate seasonal precipitation, a prolonged dry season or a series of sub-average rainy season (Sheikh and Soomro, 2006). The chief characteristic of a drought is a decrease of water availability in a particular period over a particular area. Drought is a condition of severe reduction in water availability and the deficiency could extend over a significantly long period. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD, 1994) defined drought as the naturally occurring phenomenon that exists when precipitation has been significantly below normal recorded levels, causing serious hydrological imbalances that adversely affect land resources productive systems. Thus, drought is a creeping phenomenon, characterized by extended periods with rainfall far below average, prolonged periods of dryness, high temperatures, high evapotranspiration demand, very low humidity, and reduced stream flow and reservoir water levels (and in some cases completely dried-up water sources). For example in 1972, the annual rainfall of Kano lasted for three months instead of the normal five and the area received 48% of its normal (long-term) average total. 18 Drought and Climate Change The magnitude of droughts and their known effects under the “normal” or current climate conditions have been outlined above. The overall challenges of dryland agriculture under the current “normal” climate may be summarized by the following personal observations. The various riparian ecosystems have been altered by the expansion of fadama cultivation so extensively that wildlife and wildlife habitat have basically disappeared, fisheries have already been severely reduced, social conflicts are becoming more intense and the hydrological regime of rivers bears little resemblance to natural conditions. Field researches have shown that the following are the physical problems mentioned by a majority of respondents in the investigated fadama areas: lowering of water table as indicated by drying out of fadama lands and village wells; disappearance of some local plants; the invasion of new, but inferior plants including weeds; decreasing local herbs, flooding and limited soil erosion. The argument therefore is that if this is the situation under the current climate conditions, it is clear to see what it could be under a worsening climate change scenario. That is to say the intensity and effects of droughts driven by climate change in Nigeria would be a worsening of the current climate-driven hazards which may easily attain disastrous proportions. The inter-play of rainfall and high temperature poses serious threats to water availability that could result in more severe agricultural drought and greater crop failure as well as deficient and inferior water availability for human and animal consumption. Indeed, if the problem of uncertainty is so problematic under “normal” climate, the effects of the emerging climate change can then be imagined. Adebayo (2010: 22, quoting Ojo, 2003) has indicated there are five aspects of direct implications of climate change on agriculture. Three of these are very relevant to agriculture in the dryland. These are: (a) Decreased rainfall and rising air temperatures (b) increased rainfall intensities and variability in rainfall (c) changes in agro-climatic and agro-ecological zones. Commenting further, he explained that increase in temperature (global warming) would lead to increase in the number of extremely hot days and a reduction in rainfall and soil moisture, both of which may result in accelerated crop development, premature ripening and lower yields particularly of cereals. In the same vein, Olofin (2010) argued that the response of other climatic parameters to global warming would vary from one place to another. In the tropics, for example, the specific effects would include: increasing incidents of drought and aridity; the decline in agricultural productivity, and the incursion of desert-like conditions, among others. Although West Africa is one of the regions of the world that presents the most uncertainty, and the most disagreement among models, as regards future trends in precipitation (Anderson 2008), nonetheless, Ouan (2008) believes that Africa's drylands face the prospect of increasing aridity and climate variability, undermining the sustainability of rain-fed agriculture. Arguably, an average of the major models suggests a modest increase in rainfall for the Sahel with little change on the Guinean coast, but there are models which project either strong drying or strong moistening. Thus, it is wise to prepare communities in the drylands of Nigeria for both droughts and floods events, so that whichever comes, they will be in a position to minimize the risk and use opportunities presented to avoid disaster. 19 Desertification Desertification as a concept was first discussed by European and American scientists prior to Aubrevile in 1949, in terms of increased sand movements, desiccation, desert and Sahara encroachment and manmade desert. According to the United Nation Convection to Combat Desertification (UNCCD, 1994), desertification is land degradation in arid, semi-arid and humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities (UNCCD, 1997). The following aspects are important in the definition of desertification. (a) Climate and human activities as the causal factors (b) Vulnerability of arid and semi-arid lands and (c) Land degradation and loss of biodiversity consequences. On this basis, Campbell (1986), Mortimore (1989) and Oladipo (1993) have similar definitions of desertification: a process that causes land degradation due to some prevailing climatic conditions and human activities such that it resulted into the inability of the environment to sustain the demands being made upon it by socioeconomic systems at existing levels of technology and economic development. Desertification entails the formation and expansion of degraded areas of soil and vegetation cover in arid and semi-arid and seasonally dry areas, caused by climatic variations and human activities (Wright and Nebel, 2002). It involves denuding and degrading a once fertile land, initiating a desert producing cycle that feed on itself and causing long term changes in soil, climate and biota of an area (Cunningham and Cunningham, 2005). Desertification could be seen as a process whereby the productivity of arid or semi-arid land falls by 10% or more (Miller, 1999). Miller (1999) classified desertification as mild, serious and severe based on soil productivity. Mild desertification is a 10 to 25% drop in productivity, serious desertification is a 25 to 50% drop and severe desertification is a drop of more than 50% in productivity. Desertification is an advanced stage of land degradation where soil has lost part of its capability to support human communities and ecosystem. In areas undergoing desertification, people in their quest for food and desired livelihood to support the population, pursue land management and cultivation practices that deplete soils of their nutrient and organic matter content and promote erosion; overgrazing of rangelands, and cut trees and bushes for fuel wood and other purposes (Acosta-Michlik et al., 2005). The direct effect of desertification on land degradation is either decrease of land productivity or the complete abandonment of agricultural land, which ultimately lead to the food crisis experienced in many arid and semi-arid regions especially Africa. There is direct relationship between drought, desertification and food security. Causes of Drought and Desertification The causes of drought and desertification are numerous and complex, but like many other issues of environmental degradation, they are basically the resultant interactions of climatic influence and human activities in the environment. The causes include Climatic variability Climatic variability is a major driver of many environmental degradation phenomena. Alteration of climatic conditions leads to naturally occurring phenomena of drought and desertification. There has been increasing level of greenhouse gases causing global warming which in turn increase the 20 variability of climate conditions. This alteration in the climatic conditions has manifested as follows; 1. A decrease in the amount of rainfall in dry lands making arid and semi-arid lands more vulnerable to desertification. 2. High temperatures, combined with low rainfall which would lead to the drying up of water resources - drought. 3. Poor growth of vegetation leading to the formation of a desert-like condition. A study conducted from 1901 to 2005 showed that Nigeria is not excluded from the impacts of climatic variability and global warming with prominent localized effects in the highly industrialized cities and Northern Nigeria which has resulted into the observed environmental degradations. Increased temperature of average 1.1°C and decrease rainfall of average 81 mm were reported (Onyeanusi and Otegbeye, 2012). Anthropogenic activities The anthropogenic factors have been the major cause of desertification just like many ecological degradation problems. Human contribute to desertification through poor land use and the ever increasing pressure put upon the limited available resources by the expanding population. Basically, human causes of desertification can be viewed to result from; exploitation of resources from ―nonideal landsǁ, over exploitation of land resources, unsustainable acts when exploiting, and none replacement of exploited resources or not allowing sufficient time for natural regeneration of exploited resources. The following human activities can cause desertification: Deforestation Deforestation is the conversion of forested areas to no forested land (Olagunju, 2015a). It is the large scale removal of forests resulting to non-forest to meet various human needs. Logging, expansion of agricultural croplands, urbanization, fuel wood collection, mining and resources extraction, fire-hunting and slash and burn practices have been identified as the key drivers of deforestation. Nigeria is considered the world’s highest deforested country and has lost about 55.7% of its primary forest. From 1990 to 2010, Nigeria nearly halved its amount of primary forest cover with an annual deforestation rate of 3.67% between 2000 and 2010 (FAO, 2010). The situation appears alarming that the FAO states that the forest in Nigeria will disappear by 2020 if the current rate of forest depletion continues unabated (Onyeanusi and Otegbeye, 2012). Deforestation of dry lands destroys the trees and vegetation that bind the soil, and because of the prevailing climatic conditions in dry lands, the possibility of regeneration of denuded vegetation is low and hence, the land becomes desertified. Extensive cultivation Expansion of agricultural land to meet up with the food requirements of the increasing population has led to the degradation of land in Northern Nigeria. New lands are cleared of trees and other vegetation to establish agricultural croplands in the dry land, many of such lands are unable of recuperation, and hence desertification sets in. In Nigeria, overgrazing and over-cultivation have been reported to be responsible for the conversion of 351,000 hectares of land into desert each year (www.earthpolicy.org). 21 Overgrazing Overgrazing is most common in the areas whose socioeconomic viability depend mostly on extrinsic system of animal husbandry. The dry lands of Nigeria is said to support much of the country’s livestock economy, hosting about 90% of the cattle population, about two-thirds of the goats and sheep and almost all donkeys, camels and horses. In the Sudan and the Sahel zones, which carry most of the livestock population, nomadic herdsmen graze their livestock throughout the area and are constantly in search of suitable pastures. Additional pressure is also on these natural rangelands by livestock from neighboring countries, notably Cameroon, Chad and Niger. Overgrazing removes the vegetation cover that protects soil from erosion (UNCCD, 2011) and degrades natural vegetation that leads to desertification and decrease in the quality of rangelands (Sheikh and Soomro, 2006). Between 1950 and 2006, the Nigerian livestock population grew from 6 to 66 million, an eleven fold increase. The forage needs of livestock exceed the carrying capacity of its grasslands (Lester, 2006). Cultivation of marginal land Cultivation of marginal areas is one of the causes of desertification. Marginal lands are areas that are unable to support permanent or intensive agriculture which could be easily degraded following cultivation. During the periods of high rainfall, people tend to extend farming activities into the marginal areas. When these periods of high precipitation is succeeded by abrupt dry periods, the exposed land with very little vegetal cover is prone to wind erosion. And desertification may set in which could be irreversible except through carefully planned rehabilitation programme. Bush burning Slash and burn practice in agriculture and fire-hunting is a major cause of desertification in northern Nigeria. Owing to the low relative humidity in the area coupled with very dry harmattan wind, there is always a high incidence of bush fires every dry season. When this occurs too frequently, the vegetation may not regenerate; the soil is exposed to erosion and become degraded. Fuel wood extraction Due to socio-economic status of the people inhabiting Nigeria dryland, felling of tree for fuel wood will continue increasing if alternative sources of energy in the sudano-sahelian zone are not provided. The demand for fuel wood causes the removal of trees, shrubs, herbaceous plants and grass cover from the fragile land, accelerating the degradation of the soil to desert-like conditions (FAO, 2006). In Nigeria, more than 70% of the nation’s population depends on fuel wood. Katsina alone, a northern state, has its over 90% energy from fuel wood (Mohammed et al., 2013). In Kano City, 75,000 tonnes of fuel wood are brought in by lorry and donkey within a radius of 20 km, which leads to denuding of the woodland. Faulty irrigation management Irrigation system is a common practice in northern Nigeria. Many farmers lack adequate skills in proper designing and management of irrigation system which has resulted into desert-like condition of many irrigated farmlands as a result of water logging and salinization. This scenario is already a reality on a number of irrigation projects in Nigeria today, such as the Bakolori Irrigation, South Chad Irrigation and the Hadejia – Jamaare Irrigation Projects. For instance, the drying up of Lake Chad that started during the Sahelian drought of 1972 to 1973 is aggravated due to poorly managed 22 irrigation system in the Chad Basin. This has caused the reduction of the lake from 25,000 m2 in 1963 to about 3,000 m2 in 1986. This prompted the government to stop all irrigation projects in the basin in 1989 because the level of the lake fell 3 m below the critical level. Urbanization Nneji (2013) has attributed rapid economic growth and urbanization as causal factors of desertification. The problem is more severe and complicated in developing world. Clearing of lands to accommodate the increasing population and accommodate the necessary infrastructure in northern is commonly done without adequate environmental consideration; this has led to the removal of vegetation cover in the area and as such, making the area desertified. Urbanization in Kano City for instance has been estimated to be increasing rapidly at the rate of between 5 to 10% per annum (Federal Ministry of Environment, Nigeria, 1994). At least, 20,000 ha of land are cleared annually for construction. Impacts of Desertification Habitat destruction and loss of biodiversity Diversity is a measure of the amount of variability in the species composition of a community (Don-Pedro, 2009). Bullock and Le Houérou (1994) assert that many species are prone to be endangered due to desertification. Nigeria drylands contain a large number of species of plants and animals that are important to humankind as a whole, but which are threatened as a result of desertification process occurring in the area. NAP (2000) revealed that some important animal species such as the sitodunga antelope, cheetah, giraffe, lion and elephants in the northern states of Nigeria have become endangered and indigenous plant species especially those with medicinal values e.g. Mitrogina spp (known as Giyaya in the area) are now difficult to locate. Global warming Bruce et al. (1996) defined global warming as an increase in earth’s mean global temperature. A part of earth’s outgoing infrared radiation is retained by several trace gases in the atmosphere whose concentrations have been increased because of human activities. Vegetation and soil play a great role in sequestrating carbon; an important greenhouse gas (Olagunju, 2015b). When desertification occurs, the carbon sequestration ability of vegetation and soil is greatly lost making carbon to be increased in the atmosphere thereby aggravating global warming. An increase of at least an average of 1°C has accompanied the temperature in the northern states of Nigeria bordering the Sahara when comparing the data of 1901 to 2010. Increased erosion Soil erosion is the movement and transport of soil by various agents particularly water and wind leading to soil loss. Impoverishment of soil’s natural vegetation cover has been a primary cause of soil erosion. When land is deforested, the soil anchorage provided by trees and other plants is lost and the soil is rapidly eroded. Because of the nature of desertification prone area, soil erosion by wind is occurs but erosion by water is more disastrous during the unusual heavy rainfall. Gully erosion, that hitherto was not a major threat in Nigeria has increased, threatening about 18, 400 km2 compared to only about 122 km2 in 1976 and 1978. A survey conducted in Katsina State revealed that 30% of agricultural land has been severely damaged and lost from further productive use due to erosion which has resulted to crop yield out by 30 to 60%. 23 Loss of plants of medicinal importance Desertification has contributed to the loss of plants of potential medicinal properties. Most woody species serve as source of medicine (Kafaru, 1994; Otegbeye and Otegbeye, 2002) especially to local people. These medicinal plants are neither cultivated nor protected against desertification, so they disappear at a rapid rate with good number of them under threat of extinction especially in the arid and semi-arid lands Mahogany an indigenous medicinal plant species use to cure various ailments in Maiduguri and some other place in the northern Nigeria is now endangered due to desertification. Hydrological impacts Desertification has also impacted on the hydrology of arid zones. The water resource becomes a limiting factor, making the effects of desertification amplified, such that the ecosystem becomes fragile and at or near its limits of resilience (Batanouny, 1998). Reduction in water supply and over exploitation of groundwater are major hydrological impacts of desertification. Reduced water supply Water availability is usually measured in terms of renewable water per capita, population density, as well as total water volumes (Cunningham and Cunningham, 2006). The world Health Organization considers an average of 1,000 m3 (264, 000 gal) per person per year to be a necessary amount of water for modern domestic, industrial, and agricultural uses. Nigeria (especially its northern part) and some other 45 countries, most of them in Africa or the Middle East, cannot meet the minimum essential needs of all their citizens (Cunningham and Cunningham, 2006) and desertification has been implicated as a major contributory factor (Ajayi, 1996). In Yobe state of Nigeria, sand dunes have been reported to be threatening life supporting oasis and burying water point (Toye, 2002). Musa (2008) attributed the drying up of Chad basin in Nigeria to the effect of drought and desertification. Ajayi (1996) provided a striking example of drastic impact of drought and desertification on the Hadejia/Nguru/Kirri-Kissama wetland project for the conservation of water flows. The wetland had a flood plain of about 84,143.8 km2. The steady decline in the extent of inundation of the plain due to the phenomena led to the drastic reduction of the flood plain by at least 20%. Over-exploitation of groundwater Northern Nigeria depends majorly in most months of the year on groundwater for domestic and agricultural use. Due to desertification, northern Nigeria is faced with increased use of groundwater to meet their growing population. More wells are dug and water is withdrawn faster than natural recharge can replace it. On local scale, this causes a cone of depression in the water table or the depletion of the whole aquifer on a broader scale. Excessive groundwater withdrawals also allow aquifers to collapse, followed by subsidence, or sinking of the ground surface. Reduced agricultural productivity and food insecurity Agriculture is the economic mainstay of the majority of households in Nigeria and is a significant sector of Nigeria’s economy. Food security in its most basic form is the access of all people to the food needed for healthy life at all times. Factors that affect soil quality affect agricultural productivity also and indirectly on food supply. Loss of soil structure and cohesion, soil crusting, soil compaction and soil erosion especially in arable lands has been enumerated as consequences of 24 desertification which also reduce agricultural output, hence food insecurity. Toye (2002) reported that at least 50,000 farmers in about 100 villages in Yobe State were at risk of abandoning farming due reduced agricultural output caused by dunes covering a large expanse of their farmlands. Economic loss and reduced economic growth, desertification has economic consequences. It weakens populations and institutions rendering them more vulnerable to global economic factors (Koohafkan, 1996). Short fall in earned tax receipts occurs due to low productivity, and has consequences on the capacity of government to reimburse their foreign debt and develop national socio-economic programmes. The persistence of desertification reduces national food production and furthers the need to rely on foreign imported products. Also, government expends so much on ameliorating the effects of desertification, revenues which could have been used for other developmental projects. For example, more than 65 and 55% of Sokoto and Borno States are said to be afflicted (Emodi, 2013). In Gidan Kaura, a village 90 km northwest of Sokoto, sand dunes have been reported to have invaded vast areas of farmland and destroying nearly 300 houses. Villages such as Bulatura, Kaska, Bukarty Toshu, Tubtulova, Yunusari, among others in the extreme northern part of Borno State, have been either completely surrounded by sand dunes or are about to be buried by them. It is estimated that Nigeria loses about $5.1 billion every year owing to rapid encroachment of drought and desert in most parts of the north (Vanguard News Paper, 2010). Migration A major consequence of desertification is migration causing separation of families as men usually abandon the women and children to seek for employment in the urban centres due to unproductive agricultural practice at the rural areas. For example in Nigeria, people living in drylands usually the herdsmen of the north migrate into towns and villages down south and neighbouring countries that are wetter (NEST, 1991). More so, migration could enhance disease transmission from an epidemic area to another area. Emodi (2013) reported the migration of significant population from Borno State down south due to desertification that has affected their agricultural output. Resource use conflict Conflict is perceived divergence of interest, or a belief that the parties’ current aspiration cannot be achieved simultaneously (Pruit and Robin, 1983) and conflict arises when there are incompatible or mutually exclusive goals or aims or values espoused by human beings (Deutsch, 1973). While Ross (1983) sees conflict to occur when parties disagree about the distribution of material or symbolic resources and act because of the incompatible of goals or a perceived divergence of interests. In Nigeria, conflicts over land resources are focused on areas of high productivity, especially those that provide seasonally critical resource. These critically limited resources have competitive uses amongst the various rural land users; notably farmers, herders, fishermen and hunters. According to the Institute for Peace and Conflict Resolution, Northern part of the country has witnessed a dense occurrence of conflicts resulting from the effects of desertification especially in the seasons when rainfall is very low and the graze lands are unable to sustain the population of livestock in the zone, and herdsmen (especially the popularly known Fulani herdsmen) geared their livestock to farmland area in the zone or down south in the country, situation which has caused brutal fight between the herdsmen and farmers. A conflict in Barkin ladi Shendam in North Central (Plateau State, Nigeria) in June to July 2002 between indigenous tribes and the nomad fulani, between Ngamo Maitatsine and Boko-Haram over farm lands and grazing areas in Yobe State, Agatu people and Fulani’s in Benue State are good examples. 25 Conclusion There is general consensus that Nigeria has long been affected by climate related hazards which ravage the country and worst hits the Northern region of the country. Drought and desertification are among the climatic hazards that affect the dryland of the country and consequently affect the agricultural production, reduced yield, hunger, poverty, diseases and conflicts of scarce resources between Fulani-herdsmen. Remedies to Drought and Desertification Solution to the problem of desertification must target all aspects that relate to the problem. Though some desert conditions are irreversible even if all anthropogenic causes are stopped now, but some are reversible. Some of the remedies to desertification include: Awareness Raising awareness of desertification at local, national and global level is key to remedying drought and desertification. It is probably the cheapest means in combating desertification because it serves as a preventive measure. Awareness will provide people with the understanding of the causes and consequences of the phenomena so as to stop all possible causes and encourage actions that would remedy some of the consequences and prevent further degradation of soil. • Protection of marginal lands Due to the incapability of marginal lands to support permanent or intensive agriculture, there is need for proper evaluation of such lands with government policy and enforcement aimed at protecting them from any activities that is capable of denuding its vegetation cover. • Planting and protection of indigenous tree and shrub species Increasing the area of conspicuous vegetation into desertifying lands is vital in managing desertification. This could be done through intensive and technologically supportive reclamation, by planting and establishing indigenous trees and vegetation known to the area. Planting of trees coupled with avoided felling should be embraced in arid and semi-arid zones until if possible a forest zone is attained (Mumoki, 2006). Planting of tress helps in: i. Soil stability ii. Protection of soil from erosion iii. Retention of soil moisture and nutrients iv. Carbon sequestration • Sustainable agricultural practices Agroforestry is a form of farming system that plays an extremely important role in the land management of semi-arid and arid zones. Agroforestry is a land use management system in which trees or shrubs are grown around or among crops or pastureland. It combines agricultural and forestry techniques to create more diverse, productive, profitable, healthy, and sustainable land-use system. Grazing systems should be improved from denuding the natural rangelands whose consumption will lead to aridity condition hence establishment of new pastures for grazing by livestock should be ensured. All water to be used for irrigation should be examined to be devoid of level of salt that could result in salt accumulation, as well as ensuring a good drainage system (Sultana, 2008). • 26 • Use of alternative source of energy Felling of the few trees and shrubs in desert-prone areas for fuel wood can be reduced through the development of sustainable alternative energy sources such as biofuel. This will not only conserve forest resources but will reduce environmental pollution. 27 References Adebayo, A. A. (2010) Climate: Resource and Resistance to Agriculture, 8th Professorial Inaugural Lecture, Federal University of Technology, Yola, LAPC, FUTY, May 2010 Anderson, S (2008) Climate change – how will it affect the drylands? Haramata Bulletin of the Drylands, 53: 14 – 15 Federal Government Nigeria, FGN (1997) Federal Ministry of Environment, FME (2006) National Drought Preparedness Plan, Draft Copy, FME, Abuja Olofin, E. A. (1985) Climatic constraints to water resource development in the Sudano-Sahelian zone of Nigeria, Water International, Vol 10: 29 – 37 Olofin, E. A. (2010) Climate Change Conditions and Sustainable Fadama Production in the Drylands of Nigeria, Text of a Lecture Delivered on the Occasion of the Launching of the Maiden Magazine of the Nigerian Association of Geography Students (NAGS), KUST Chapter, March 16, 2010 Ouan, J (2008) Drought or deluge – or a bit of both? Haramata Bulletin of the Drylands, 53: 16 28 CHAPTER THREE Musbahu Abubakar Jibrin* SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION PRACTICES IN NIGERIA Introduction Nigeria is endowed with arable land and fresh water resources when viewed as a whole without considering the seasonal and annual variability that occurs within the nation. Water is an essential basic ingredient for life on earth. In drylands precipitation is generally lower than potential evaporation. Soils show great variations in fertility, depth, texture and structure, most are infertile and low in organic matter and available nutrients. High evapotranspiration and low rainfall raise the risk of salinization. The soil structure is weak, making it vulnerable when rain falls. Because annual plants dominate and most vegetation dies off during the dry season, soils are mostly bare and are particularly exposed during the first rains. The raindrop hit the poorly protected soil, crushing and sealing the surface. Little water can percolate in to the soil to be stored in the root zone, most runoff, causing erosion. The soil’s poor structure and shallow depth further limit its capacity to store water. Management and Conservation of soil and water resources are very critical to human wellbeing, their prudent use and management are more important now than ever before, in order to meet the high demand for food production and satisfy the needs of an increasing Nigerian population. The aim of soil and water conservation is to reduce the effects of soil erosion while maintaining the soil quality. (Demboba, 2005 ). History of Soil and Water Conservation in Nigeria In Sub-Sahara Africa, soil conservation has a long tradition. Indigenous techniques from the precolonial era focused on erosion control in combination with water conservation by ridging, mulching, constructing earth bunds and terraces, multiple cropping, fallowing, and the planting of trees (Scoones et al. 1996). In colonial times, the British Government worked on natural resource management as interest was high in expanding commercial farming enterprises. Stebbing (1938) wrote the earliest article on soil conservation practiced in northern Nigeria, and Longtau et al. (2002) recorded the implementation of terraces in several areas on the Jos Plateau in former times. Large-scale projects on soil loss control were started, especially in areas of high agricultural potential, but many of them failed as the imported technologies had little relevance in the tropics and were not adopted later by local farmers. After independence in 1960, more emphasis was put on soil fertility issues. Decreasing funds at the end of the oil boom in the 1980s additionally restricted the performance of soil conservation schemes (Slaymaker and Blench 2002). 29 Soil and Water Conservation Techniques Soil conservation refers to the protection of fertile top soil from erosion by wind, water and the replacement of nutrients in the soil by means of cover crops, terracing, contour farming, crop rotation e.t.c. Soil and Water Conservation can be defined as the combination of the appropriate land use and management practices that promotes the productive and sustainable use of erosion and other forms of land degradation. Soil and water conservation consists of any set of measures and practices in order to ensure the soil functions for long term use by humans and nature. Soil and Water conservation practices can be divided in to: Mechanical and Biological practices (Hudson, 1987). Mechanical practice control erosion after the soil start moving. A biological practice prevents erosion by intercepting raindrops and thus not allowing the erosion process to start. Soil and Water conservation practices can be subdivided in to annual practices and one-time investment. Annual soil and water practices form part of ploughing and cultivation practices, and requires an effort within each cropping season. Annual soil and water conservation practices are: Mulching, contour ploughing, organic fertilizers, cover crops, crop rotation e.t.c. One time investments are mainly mechanical practices they require a one-time investment of labour and capital and afterwards recurrent maintenance activities. It often involves modification of the slope, like terracing, and preventing runoff water through infiltration ditches, benches, hedgerows e. t. c. The major benefits of erosion control are conserving water and retaining of soil nutrients and organic matter as well as maintaining soil depth, and soil structure. The problems of soil and water conservation must be addressed through a concerted effort of soil stewardship and technological input. A prudent approach to soil and water conservation requires a holistic approach to solve practical problems that affect not only farmers but the entire society. Some of the strategies are the following: Mulching Mulch is a layer of dissimilar material placed between the soil surface and the atmosphere. Mulching is a material placed on the soil surface to maintain moisture, reduce weed growth, mitigate soil erosion and improve soil conditions. Mulching (installing mulches) can help to improve crop yield and optimise water use. Mulching can be expensive however and labour intensive to obtain, transport and disperse. Different types of material such as residues from the previous crop, brought-in mulch including grass perennial shrubs, farmyard manure, compost, byproducts of agro-based industries, or inorganic materials and synthetic products can be used for mulching (Lal 1990). Mulch’s impact in reducing the splash effect of the rain, decreasing the velocity of runoff, and hence reducing the amount of soil loss has been demonstrated in many field experiments conducted on several Nigerian research stations (Orimoyegun 1988). The complete removal of crop residues from the field for use as animal fodder, firewood, or as construction material is another factor that makes this soil conservation technology less applicable (Kirchhof and Odunze 2003). A possible solution might be mulching with brought-in organic material. In Kaduna and Kano states, household waste was transported from the cities to rural areas and distributed on farmland. This is generally expensive, due to extra costs for purchase and transport of the material as well as the increased labor demand. Hence, this practice can only be economical for some high-value cash crops which make this strategy less appealing for smallholders mostly focusing on subsistence (Lal 1990). Another possibility is to stop frequent 30 burning), to use dead weed and grasses from the field and surrounding areas, and to leave a certain amount of crop residues on the farmland to obtain a protective mulch layer in this environment. There are various investigations on the beneficial effects of mulch on the physical, chemical, and biological soil properties which influence the soil’s erodibility. Lal (2000) found that the bulk density and penetration resistance of the soil are decreased by mulching. Ogban et al. (2001) investigated on the influence residue mulch on the infiltration capacity and hydraulic conductivity of soils. Ogban et al. (2001) stated that the infiltration was five times higher and the transmissivity four times higher in plots with incorporated mulch compared with the surface or no mulch application. They concluded that incorporating residues may be more beneficial than applying them on the topsoil as the surface roughness is increased and the soil structure. Moreover, mulches support infiltration of runoff and irrigation water as the mulches protect the soil surface from the impact of raindrops preventing soil crusting. Irrigation Irrigation can be defined as the practice of farming during dry season in order to supplement the rain feed shortages. In other words irrigation is the application of water for agriculture during the dry season. The term irrigation project refers to an organized programme purposely to overcome the shortage of food and to supplement rain feed agriculture. Furthermore a lot of irrigation project was conducted over hundreds of years by government, developed countries like United State US and financial institutions like International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank among others. Irrigation project are carried out in almost everywhere in the world but are more pronounced and vital in drylands particularly Africa and Nigeria (Morgan, 1995). Irrigation is the artificial application of water to land for the purpose of agricultural production. Effective irrigation will influence the entire growth process from seedbed preparation, germination, root growth, nutrient utilisation, plant growth and regrowth, yield and quality. The key to maximising irrigation efforts is uniformity. The producer has a lot of control over how much water to supply and when to apply it but the irrigation system determines uniformity. Deciding which irrigation systems is best for your operation requires a knowledge of equipment, system design, plant species, growth stage, root structure, soil composition, and land formation. Irrigation systems should encourage plant growth while minimising salt imbalances, leaf burns, soil erosion, and water loss. Losses of water will occur due to evaporation, wind drift, run-off and water (and nutrients) sinking deep below the root zone. Planting Pit Planting pits are used as a precipitation harvesting method to prevent water runoff and thereby increase infiltration and reduce erosion. Basically, holes are dug 50-100 cm apart from each other with a depth of 5-15 cm in order to prevent water runoff. Planting pits are most suitable on soil with low permeability, such as silt and clay. They are applicable for semi-arid areas for annual and perennial crops (such as sorghum, maize, sweet potato, bananas, etc.). One main advantage is their simple implementation and maintenance (UNEP 2012). Planting pits are the simplest form of soil and water conservation for optimising crop production. Basically, holes are dug 50-100 cm apart from each other with a depth of 5-15 cm in order to 31 prevent water runoff. This form of micro-catchment is best suited for land with low permeability, such as silt and clay soils. On encrusted soils, three types of conservation practises can be met with planting pits: soil conservation, water and soil moisture conservation, and erosion protection (UNEP 2012). To further increase crop production, organic matter (such as compost or manure) can be placed in the pits as fertiliser. Planting pits have a very simple design: Figure 1 Planting pits. Source: MALESU et al. (2007) The diameter of the pits is usually between 15 and 50 cm (depending on the soil structure), but they sometimes also exist in much greater sizes. The depth of each pit should be between 5 and 15 cm. Planting is best done in straight rows or along the contour lines with a distance of 50-100 cm between each pit. This equals 10,000-25,000 pits per hectare. If the soil is already very shallow, planting on the top of the ridges can be beneficial, as the soil may be too shallow for crops to grow within the holes (UNEP, 2012). To further improve crop growth, fertiliser, such as compost or manure can be placed in the pits. When heavy rainfall occurs, the organic matter can additionally help to soak up excess water, preventing unwanted water accumulation. 32 Figure 2: Close-up of a planting pit. Source: ANSCHUETZ et al. (2003) In combination with stone lines, planting pits can be used to rehabilitate degraded and crusted land. The stone lines are spaced at a distance of 25 to 50 m and help to further hold back moisture and eroded soil (UNEP 2012). Plough The plough is a tool (or machine) used in farming for initial cultivation of soil in preparation for sowing seed or planting. It has been a basic instrument for most of recorded history, and represents one of the major advances in agriculture. The primary purpose of ploughing is to turn over the upper layer of the soil, bringing fresh nutrients to the surface, while burying weeds, the remains of previous crops, and both crop and weed seeds, allowing them to break down. It also aerates the soil, allows it to hold moisture better and provides a seed-free medium for planting an alternate crop. Crop Management Soil and water loss can also be prevented or reduced by appropriate crop management, which includes cover cropping, multiple cropping, and high density planting. i. ii. Cover Crops. Cover crops positively influence physical soil properties such as the infiltration rate, moisture content, and bulk density. They increase the organic matter content, nitrogen (N) levels by the use of N2-fixing legumes, the cation exchange capacity, and hence crop yields (Salako and Tian 2003).). Another benefit of cover crops is the suppression of weeds. Farmers benefit from cultivating cover crops as soil loss is reduced and physicochemical soil properties are improved. However, a problem can be the intensive growth of several cover crop species that might result in competition with food crops for growth factors. Improved Fallows. Improved fallows of short periods with selected tree or herbaceous species remain important as the long fallow periods that were part of the traditional shifting cultivation system for encouraging soil regeneration are no longer possible in most Nigerian locations. Wick et al. (1998) state the benefits of improved fallows on soil microbiological parameters, Hauser et al. (2006), on weed control. Hence, improved 33 iii. iv. v. fallows have a high potential for soil and water conservation especially in farming systems without fertilizer input. Multiple Cropping. Multiple cropping involves different kinds of systems depending on the temporal and spatial arrangement of different crops on the same field (Morgan 1995). It has been traditionally practiced and is still very common in Dryland Nigeria. The research on mixed cropping was intensified and much has been done on improving the systems since then. Intercropping. Intercropping systems including different kinds of annual crops planted in alternating rows called Gicci also reduce soil erosion risk by providing better canopy cover than sole crops (Morgan 1995). The high amount of eroded sediment from the plots with the sole root and tuber crop is caused by its slow growth and small canopy cover at the beginning of the rainy season. Growing maize between the cassava ridges increases the soil coverage and hence reduces the impact of rain (Lal 1990). In Nigeria, numerous investigations have been conducted on intercropping of cereals such as maize (Zea mays), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) or millet (Pennisetum glaucum) with herbaceous grain legumes (figure 6) or root and tuber crops with other annual crops to improve soil productivity and crop yields. The studies on intercropping systems indicate that multiple cropping generally contributes to erosion control. The increased coverage of the soil surface and the enhanced stability of soil aggregate reduce the erosivity of the rain and the erodibility of the soil. As the productivity of soils cultivated with different crop species is also increased, this measure is likely to be adopted as a soil and water conservation technology in the dryland. Planting Pattern/Time. Planting pattern, plant density, and time of planting also play an important role in soil conservation. Crops planted at close spacing or at a certain time provide a higher canopy during periods with high rainfall intensities and hence protect the soil from erosion. Literature on cropping pattern and planting schedules with regard to erosion control is rare, but records focusing on crop performance are numerous. Appropriate investigations on cereals, grain legumes, and root and tuber crops were made; Hudson (1987) investigated the time of seeding and found that simultaneously seeding of sorghum and soybean led to optimum resource utilization. Conservation Tillage Tillage includes all operations of seedbed preparation that optimize soil and environmental conditions for seed germination, seedling establishment and crop growth (Lal 2000). Tillage is defined as the soil-related actions necessary for crop production.Also tillage is any physical loosening of the soil as carried out in a range of cultivation operations, either by hand or mechanized. The overall goal of tillage is to increase crop production while conserving resources (soil and water) and protecting the environment. The benefits of tillage include seedbed preparation, weed control, evaporation suppression, water infiltration enhancement, and erosion control. These benefits together result in increased and sustained crop yields. The definitions of tillage, as given above, embrace the concepts and features of both conservation and conventional tillage systems. Conservation tillage as defined by the Conservation Tillage Information Center (CTIC) excludes conventional tillage operations that invert the soil and bury crop residues. The CTIC identified five types of conservation tillage systems: 34 i. ii. iii. iv. v. no-tillage (slot planting), mulch tillage, strip or zonal tillage, ridge till (including no-till on ridges) and reduced or minimum tillage. No-Till. No-till (Slot planting) or zero-tillage is characterized by the elimination of all mechanical seed bed preparation except for the opening of a narrow strip or hole in the ground for seed placement. The surface of the soil is covered by crop residue mulch or killed sod (Lal 1990). Mulch tillage techniques are based on the principle of causing least soil disturbance and leaving the maximum of crop residue on the soil surface and at the same time obtaining a quick germination, and adequate stand and a satisfactory yield (Lal 2000). Lal further reported that a chisel plough can be used in the previously shredded crop residue to break open any hard crust or hard pan in the soil; care should be taken not to incorporate any crop residues into the soil. The use of live mulch and crop residue in situ involves special mulch tillage techniques or practices. In situ mulch, formed from the residue of a dead or chemically killed cover crop left in place, is generally becoming an integral component of mulch tillage techniques. Strip or Zonal tillage the concept of strip or zonal tillage is described by Lal (2000). The seedbed is divided into a seedling zone and a soil management zone. the seedling zone (5 to 10 cm wide) is mechanically tilled to optimize the soil and micro-climate environment for germination and seedling establishment. The inter-row zone is left undisturbed and protected by mulch. Strip tillage can also be achieved by chiselling in the row zone to assist water infiltration and root proliferation. Ridge till (including no-till on ridges) ridge tillage is the practice of planting or seeding crops in rows on the top, along both sides or in the furrows between the ridges which are prepared at the beginning of every cropping season. Tied ridging or furrow diking includes the construction of additional cross-ties in the furrows between neighboring contour ridges (Lal 1990). Most smallholders in Nigeria still perform soil preparation manually by using hoes. Larger farms use plows and harrows pulled by tractors, which results in the complete inversion of the top 20 to 30 cm of the soil. Hence, ridging is very common all over Nigeria, whereas tied ridging is primarily conducted in the semi-arid northern part of the country to conserve both soil and water in individual basins. Minimum Tillage. Minimum tillage describes a practice where soil preparation is reduced to the minimum necessary for crop production and where 15% to 25% of residues remain on the soil surface (Morgan 1995). This system covers other tillage and cultivation systems not covered above. Rainfed ponds. Rainwater harvesting is a strategy to reduce soil erosion, store water for crops, and increase crop yields in sloping fields. During rainy seasons, runoff and rainwater can be harvested by constructing ponds. The stored water is used for irrigation and growing crops in dry seasons. 35 Agroforestry practices. Planting trees around and within croplands reduces soil water and wind erosion. Trees can also store N in soil through biological nitrogen fixation. Large-scale adoption of fertilizer trees is a potential solution to replenish N to nutrient-starved soils. Sesbania, Tephrosia, Gliricidia, Leucaena, Calliandra, Senna, and Flemingia are some of the agroforestry species used for improving soil fertility in Africa. More aggressive expansion of agroforestry technology is needed as companion to grain legumes. Conservation buffers. Filter strips, grass barriers, riparian buffers, wind barriers, and field borders protect soil from erosion. Integration of grass barriers with food crops paralleling rows of crops reduce removal of sediment while buffers established at the lower end of fields reduced off-site transport of sediment. Use of organic matter (manure and compost) There are two methods for obtaining organic matter for use as a fertilizer: the production of compost and the collection of manure. Manure is collected from improved livestock pens or sheds where livestock is kept on litter or bedding. Compost can be made in the dry season or in the rainy season. Biodegradable matter is mixed with animal waste for rapid decomposition or just with millet, sorghum or other plant stalks for slow decomposition. Both types of compost can be enriched with ash and/or natural phosphate. The biodegradable matter is placed in a pit. In the dry season, it is regularly sprinkled with water until decomposition is complete. It is then spread evenly over the land before sowing or planting. The recommended amount varies depending on the type of soil: 6 t/ha every third year (heavy clayey soils), 3t/ha every two years (sandy-clayey soils) or 2t/ha every year (light soils). Unlike compost, manure collected from improved pens or livestock sheds is not completely decomposed, and the decomposition process continues over several years. The use of manure on farmland entails some risks and disadvantages. As the manure is only partially decomposed – decomposition starts after the first rains begin – crops do not have enough nitrogen for a time. The use of partially decomposed manure also exposes crops to certain pests and to the risk of being scorched. In spite of these drawbacks, manure is the form of fertilisation most commonly used by farmers, as it requires less work than compost. The use of compost and manure is recommended in conjunction with all other SWC measures to achieve the maximum benefit from investments in land improvement in the drylands. Small-scale dams Small-scale dams are moderately-sized barriers built across valley bottoms to retain water from permanent watercourses or seasonal flows. They can range in length from 100 to 200 m, and the dam wall is usually between 2 and 4 m high. Small-scale dams impound permanent or seasonal water behind them, covering areas from 5 to 15 hectares. They are built with buttresses and a stilling basin. Depending on local conditions, the dam wall can be made of quarry stone joined with mortar or concrete. The dikes are made of earth and can be reinforced with stones. Some such structures are built as bridge dams, providing a means of crossing the valley. The effect on the water table depends on the depth at which the dam is anchored. The deeper the foundation, the more 36 groundwater is retained. Sometimes, they are fitted with geomembranes which extend down deeper to retain more groundwater. In the rainy season, water gradually accumulates behind the dike, increasing the availability of surface water during the rainy season and groundwater in the dry season. The land is farmed upstream and downstream both in the rainy season and the dry season. During the rainy season, rice is grown, and the areas around the body of water are used for other crops (flood-recession cropping). The recharged water table feeds market garden wells, enabling farmers to grow vegetables in the dry season and permitting two or three crop harvests a year. Dams increase the area of farmable land, yields and production. The water is also used for livestock, for fish farming and sometimes for household needs. The small-scale dams create water reserves. When there is not enough rain or during dry spells in the rainy season, the dams retain enough water for crops throughout their growth cycle. If rain-fed crops fail, production in the valley bottoms can mitigate these losses. In wet years, the dams regulate the flow of water, preventing heavy floodwaters from causing damage to land downstream. In the dry season, the recharged water table makes a second and even third crop harvest possible, increasing the availability of food, providing income for farmers and guaranteeing work all year round. Terraces Contour bunds made of earth or stones or terraces that consist of an excavated channel and a bank or ridge on the downhill side for cultivating crops are permanent erosion control technologies (Morgan 1995). The first are installed across slopes of low gradients, the latter at right angles to the steepest slope in hilly areas. Research on contour banks was considered as measures to be useful to prevent gully erosion, the most spectacular type of erosion. He also prepared an implementation guide for farmers including the description of the design and construction of graded contour banks. The records state that permanent structures of these kinds are effective soil conservation technologies as excessive soil loss and silting up of the fields are reduced. However, high labor intensity, time-consuming regular inspections, high consumption of scarce farmland, and the large amounts of construction material required are factors that stop farmers from installing or maintaining terraces. Waterways Waterways such as cut-off drainage are permanent structures that aim to collect and guide excess runoff to suitable disposal points. They are constructed along the slope, often covered with grass to prevent destruction, and primarily installed in areas with high rainfall rates (Morgan 1995). Literature on investigations into drainage systems is rare in Nigerian Drylands. The implementation probably needs special knowledge of the water regime of the area and the construction of waterways (Lal 1990). Conclusions Soil and Water Conservation techniques are an effective way of improving the management of water resources and reducing degradation of the soil, vegetation and biodiversity, which helps to increase and maintain crop, forest and forage yields. They therefore contribute to mitigating the effects of climate change and significantly improve food security and the resilience of the dryland 37 population to external shocks. Including the rational use of natural resources in territorial planning increases land tenure security, reduces the risk of conflicts and incorporates this component into commune and regional plans. Recommendations The problems of soil and water conservation must be addressed through a concerted effort of soil stewardship and technological input. A prudent approach to soil and water conservation requires a holistic approach to solve practical problems that affect not only farmers but the entire society. The following are some of the recommendations. 1. Development of economic and conservation-effective practices to: ii. Restore degraded soils, and iii. Maintain and enhance the productivity of prime agricultural soils. 2. Identification and development of site-specific conservation practices based on local and regional biophysical, social, cultural, and political forces. There is no panacea, and no single practice fits all situations. 3. Establishment of pilot programs for on-farm demonstrations of improved soil and water conservation practices based on a multidisciplinary and farmer participatory approach in regions with resource-poor farmers (Lal, 2000). 4. Establishment of programs that reward farmers for their commitment to soil stewardship as well as for the successful implementation of strategic conservation practices such as management of soil erosion, conservation of water in the root zone, reduction of soil compaction, alleviation of crusting and surface sealing, improvement in soil fertility, and installation of water ponds to harvest and recycle rainwater. 5. Installation of conservation-effective practices which keep the soil in place and reduce both the on-site and off-site effects of soil erosion. Conservation practices which minimize soil detachment and transport and reduce runoff rate and amount must be developed and refined. Erosion control practices trap sediment and chemicals at the downslope end of source areas or just above the water sources, while conservation practices keep the soil in place. Sediments deposited in the foot-slopes at the lower end of fields are considered a lost soil because it can neither be easily nor economically brought back to its original location. 6. Development of technologies to alleviate shortcomings of the conservation tillage systems (e.g., reduced tillage, no-till) such as low crop yields, excessive use of herbicides and fertilizers, stratification of soil organic C and nutrients near the soil surface, and interference of residue mulch with planting operations and soil warming. 7. Development of conservation practices which reduce both the water pollution and emission of greenhouse gases. Treatment of polluted water is expensive and degradation of water quality difficult to rectify. Thus, runoff of water and pollutants must be minimized by improving infiltration and water retention capacity of the soil. 8. Widespread adoption of soil conservation practices such as growing cover crops, planting of N-fixing trees, maintaining riparian buffers, establishing field borders, adopting strip cropping, using crop residue mulches, growing green manure crops, using agroforestry, and other biological measures in combination with mechanical structures (e.g., terraces). 9. Conversion of severely eroded soils to restorative land use such as perennial vegetation covers, and restoration of degraded and marginal soils through improvement in soil organic matter reserves and creation of a positive nutrient, C and elemental budget. 38 10. Refinement of the threshold levels of soil erosion or T values for each soil and region based on research data. 11. Increased emphasis on research and education along with the transfer of conservation effective technology to land managers and stake holders by strengthening networks and improving connectivity. 39 References Anschuetz, J.; Kome, A.; Nederlof, M.; Neef, R. DE; VEN, T. Van DE (2003): Water Harvesting and Soil Moisture Retention. Wageningen: Agromisa Foundation Hudson, N.W. 1987. ‘Soil and water conservation in semi-arid areas’. FAO Soils Bulletin 57. FAO, Rome. Junge, B., Abaidoo, R., Chikoye, D. & Stahr, K. 2008. Soil conservation in Nigeria: past and present on-station and on-farm initiatives, Iowa: Soil and Water Conservation Society. Kirchhof, G., and A.C. Odunze. 2003. Soil management practices in the Northern Guinea savanna of Nigeria. Paper presented at the 16th Triennial Conference of the International Soil Tillage Research Organization on Soil Management for Sustainability, Brisbane, July 14-18, 2003. Lal, R. 1990. Soil erosion in the tropics: Principles and management. New York: McGraw Hill. Lal, R. 2000. Mulching effects on soil physical quality of an Alfisol in western Nigeria. Land Degradation and Development 11:383-392. Longtau, S.R., A.C. Odunze, and B. Ahmed. 2002. Case study of soil and water conservation in Nigeria. In Rethinking Natural Resources Degradation in Sub-Saharan Africa, ed. M. A. Denboba 2005, Forest Conversion, Soil Degradation, Farmers’ Perception Nexus: Implications for Sustainable Land Use in the Southwest of Ethiopia, Cuvillier Verlag. Malesu M.M (Editor), J.O. Odhiambo (Editor), A.R. Oduor (Editor), 2007. Green Water Management Handbook. Rainwater Harvesting for Agricultural Production and Ecological Sustainability. Nairobi: The World Agroforestry Morgan, R.P.C. 1995. Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation. Essex: Longman. Ogban, P.I., T.P. Ekanem, and E. A. Etim. 2001. Effect of mulching methods on soil properties and growth and yield of maize in south-eastern Nigeria. Tropical Agriculture (Trinidad) 78(2):82-89. Orimoyegun, S.O. 1988. Influence of forest litter and crop residue on soil erosion. In Proceedings of the Conference on Ecological Disasters in Nigeria: Soil Erosion. Owerri, September 1986. Lagos: Federal Ministry of Science and Technology. Scoones, I., C. Reij, and C. Toulmin. 1996. Sustaining the soil: indigenous soil and water conservation in Africa. London: Earthscan Publications. Stebbing, E.P. 1938. The man-made desert of Africa: Erosion and drought. Supplement to Journal of the Royal African Society. XXXVII (CXLVI):3-6. T.Slaymaker and R. Blench, III 2:1-42, London: Overseas Development Institute and Tamale: University for Development Studies. Tamale: Cyber Systems. Tian, G., S. Hauser, L.-S. Koutika, F. Ishida, and J.N. Chianu. 2001. Pueraria cover crop fallow system: Benefits and applicability. In Sustaining soil fertility in West Africa: Proceedings of a symposium by the Soil Science Society of America and the American Society of 40 Agronomy, Minneapolis, November 2000, 137-155. Minneapolis: Soil Science Society of America. UNEP (Editor) (2012): Sourcebook of Alternative Technologies for Freshwater Augmentation Africa. Planting Pits. Geneva: United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP). in Wick, B., R.F. Kuhne, and P.L.G. Vlek. 1998. Soil microbiological parameters as indicators of soil quality under improved fallow management systems in south-western Nigeria. Plant and Soil 202(1): 97-107. 41 CHAPTER FOUR Aminu Hussaini* Ahmed Abubakar* SMALLHOLDER FARMERS AND RURAL LIVELIHOOD DIVERSIFICATION STRATEGIES Introduction The United Nations General Assembly declared 2014 as the International Year of Family Farming, recognizing contributions of family farming to food security, poverty reduction and sustainable development. And in 2015, the international community agreed on a set of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). In line with this international development agenda, UNCTAD’s Commodity Development Report 2015 focuses on Smallholder Farmers and Sustainable Commodity Development. The Report aims to demonstrate the need to devote more attention and resources to smallholders as a way to achieve the newly agreed SDGs relating to poverty, nutrition, hunger and environmental sustainability (UNCTAD, 2015). Smallholders contribute to global food security, and improving their performance also enhances the role of agriculture in reducing food insecurity and malnutrition in SSA. Despite the clear progress on hunger reduction worldwide in terms of caloric intake, limited progress has been made in reducing micronutrient malnutrition and deficiencies. Evidence suggests that growth in agricultural gross domestic product anthropometry indices, and food consumption or household dietary diversity scores (Reisgo et al, 2016). Food and nutrition security has become one of the most important items on today’s international political agenda and a serious issue for governments around the world. Guaranteeing a sustainable and equitable food supply in the context of climate change, price volatility and the global financial crisis is a challenging task. Even though food availability has grown significantly and consistently over time, both globally and in developing countries, access to food is still limited, particularly in many low-income economies (Laura Riesgo, Kamel Louhichi, Sergio Gomez y Paloma, Peter Hazell, Jacob Ricker-Gilbert, Steve Wiggins, David E. Sahn and Ashok K. Mishra, 2016). According to World Bank estimates (2015), 78 % of the world’s extreme poor (i.e. with incomes of less than the equivalent of USD 1.25 per person per day) live in rural areas, and most of them are involved in farming. Although poverty continues to decline in many countries, major progress is yet to be made in rural parts of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and South Asia, areas where a large proportion of the population is extremely poor (i.e. 52 % of the rural population in SSA and 27 % of the rural population in South Asia) and dependent on smallholdings (FAO, 2015). In SSA, farm households persistently experience low levels of agricultural productivity and food insecurity. Smallholders, as the main rural actors in SSA, are frequently the most food insecure because they face an array of challenges. Enhancing their production capacities and their economic and social resilience may improve food security and nutrition at different levels. According to the United Nations World Food Programme (WFP, 2012), growth in smallholder agriculture may have significant effects on the livelihood of the poor through increases in food availability and incomes. 42 Empirical evidence shows that agricultural growth in SSA can be 11 times as effective in reducing extreme poverty as growth in other sectors. The many definitions for smallholders reflect the various perspectives from which smallholders can be analysed. Although there are strong inter country and interregional differences in the average size of small farms, it is estimated that more than 90 per cent of the 570 million farms worldwide are managed by an individual or a family and that they mostly rely on family labour. Estimates further show that 84 per cent of these farms are smaller than 2 hectares (ha) and that about 2.5 billion people depend on agricultural production systems for their livelihoods, either as full- or parttime farmers, or as members of farming households. However, the size threshold for a “small” farm differs across countries, regions and socio economic contexts. In Latin America, the size of an average holding is about 20 ha. In Brazil, for example, a smallholder is a farmer who works on up to 50 ha. In Asia and in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), average farm sizes are much smaller. It is estimated that about 81 per cent of farms in India are smaller than 2 ha, and in China, farms that are smaller than 2 ha make up 95 per cent of all farms. In Bangladesh, where the average farm size is 0.5 ha, small farms of less than 2 ha account for 96 per cent of landholdings. Such characteristics of small farms are common in most Asian countries, with the exception of Pakistan. In Africa, on average, 80 per cent of landholdings are smaller than 2 ha, as in Nigeria, for example (UNCTAD, 2015). Definition of smallholder agriculture There are a number of different definitions of “smallholder agriculture” and each definition carries implications for the measurement of the number of smallholders and smallholders reflect the various perspectives from which they can be analysed (Nagayets, 2005). Smallholders are sometimes described as peasants, subsistence or near- subsistence farmers, or owners of family farms, although in practice not all family farms meet the small size criterion. Hence, rather than adopting a standard characterization of smallholders, they are often identified based on a combination of specific characteristics. These include small size, the type of crop(s) they cultivate, utilization of (own) labour, gender division of labour, restricted access to input and output markets and limited financial capacity, including poor access to credit markets. In addition, small farmers use rudimentary technology, and they have limited access to market information (Lipton, 2013; Fafchamps and Hill, 2005). Though there are strong inter country and interregional differences in the average size of small farms, it is estimated that more than 90 per cent of the 570 million farms worldwide are managed by an individual or a family, mostly relying on family labour (FAO, 2015a). Further, estimates show that 84 per cent of these farms are smaller than 2 hectares, as illustrated in figure 1.1, and they employ, either part-time or full-time, a total of about 2.5 billion people worldwide (IFAD and UNEP, 2013). However, the threshold of farm size considered “small” differs across countries, regions and socio-economic contexts. In Latin America, most average holdings are 20 ha (Berdegué and Fuentealba, 2011). In Brazil, for example, a smallholder can hold up to 50 ha (HLPE, 2013). In Asia and in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), average farm sizes are much smaller. It is estimated that about 81 per cent of farms in India are smaller than 2 ha (Dev, 2012), compared with 95 per cent in China and 96 per cent in Bangladesh. Such ratios characteristics are common to most Asian countries (IFAD, 2009). There are also instances where the size criterion depends on the crop 43 grown, as in Kenya, where tea producers holding less than 20 ha of land are considered smallholders (Ethical Trading Initiative, 2005). The definition of “smallholder agriculture” cannot be rigid or “one size fits all”: there are many variations in each specific context at the regional, national and local levels, and also over time as economies transform. Classifications of smallholder agriculture based only on farm size can be misleading. A smallholding is “small” because resources are scarce, especially land, and using it to generate a level of income that helps fulfil basic needs and achieve a sustainable livelihood consequently require a high level of total factor productivity, requiring in turn a significant level of investment (HLPE, 2013). Smallholder agriculture is also defined in relation to, and in contrast with, two opposites – larger commercial holdings with hired labour on the one hand, and landless workers on the other (HLPE, 2013). Similarly, Smallholder agriculture is practised by families (including one or more households) using only or mostly family labour and deriving from that work a large but variable share of their income, in kind or in cash. Agriculture includes crop raising, animal husbandry, forestry and artisanal fisheries (HLPE, 2013). Smallholder Farmers Diversification strategies Income diversification when confronted with the need to escape poverty and malnutrition, smallholder households often need access to complementary sources of income in the rural nonfarm economy. Successful rural non-farm employment in turn consolidates the farm economy, providing it with liquidity and risk-reduction that support on-farm investments. For this, investment must be made in support of the rural non-farm economy and the decentralization of economic activity towards rural areas. Investment must correspondingly be made in the qualifications of young people so that they can find employment either in modernized agriculture or in other related activities and labour markets. Territorial development can offer an effective platform to coordinate public and private investments in agriculture and in the regional non-farm economy (HLPE, 2013). Smallholders are generally classified based on their market orientation. Smallholders participate in markets either to buy food, procure inputs or sell their produce. They also engage in off-farm work to earn an income that helps them to meet their needs. Off-farm activities play an important role in providing smallholders with additional income and as a way of diversifying risk, thus improving their resilience to the shocks that impact on agriculture. Off-farm activities are a common feature of rural economies, both in developed and developing countries, and offer opportunities for investments in support of smallholders (HLPE, 2013). Their also involvement in output markets can take different forms: they may grow a combination of staples and cash crops, or engage solely in cash crop production; or they may produce only staples. Based on their level of market orientation, Wegner and Zwart (2011) distinguish between two types of smallholder farmers: subsistence smallholders, whose main objective is to grow food for home consumption; and smallholder investor farmers, who are market oriented. Most of them rely on their own seeds or seedlings for planting, and sell a fairly small proportion of their output in markets. Most of their production, especially if it comprises food crops, is used to feed their families, while the rest is sold in local or village markets to meet their requirements for health care, education and sometimes food. A survey by FAO in Malawi, for example, found that in 2007 about 66 per cent of households, mostly smallholders, purchased food in the market only when they could not rely on their own production. 44 Smallholder classifications also vary across regions. In Asia, three categories have been identified: subsistence, semi-commercial and commercial systems (Wiggins et al., 2011) Role of smallholder farmers The global demand for food is rising rapidly, mainly in the developing world, and is projected to increase by 60 % by 2050. At the same time, climate change is an increasing threat to global food production. Global poverty remains a predominantly rural phenomenon, with 70 per cent of the developing world’s 1.4 billion extremely poor people living in rural areas, particularly in South Asia and in SSA (FAO, 2011a, based on World Bank data). Smallholders are still key to global food security and nutrition. They provide up to 80 % of the food supply in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), yet make up the majority of the poor and hungry. However, not all smallholders are the same, and assistance strategies need to differentiate between smallholders who should be ‘moving up’ into more productive systems and those who should be ‘moving out’ of farming. The choice should depend on the type of constraints smallholders face. If the main constraints are access to markets, inputs, credit and technologies, then these can be fixed to help farmers move up. If the main constraints are that they live in densely populated, agriculturally relatively unfavourable and remote areas, then these cannot be fixed and many should be encouraged to move out of farming. Policies to support smallholders should also reflect the stage of economic development of a country. In agrarian countries, raising the productivity of smallholders should be the lynchpin of an agricultural strategy, but, as countries transform and get richer, farms need to consolidate to provide adequate incomes, and remaining smallholders need to move into high-value agriculture ( Reisgo et al, 2016). Smallholders face a range of challenges. According to HLPE (2013) the following are some challenges facing by smallholder farmer; • • • • • Limited farm size. The amount of arable land available per person today is about half of what it was in 1950. Farms are becoming smaller and in many African countries 20 % of the farms are less than 2 ha. Limited access to finance and capital. There is an estimated financial gap of about USD 100 billion needed for investment in developing-country agriculture, excluding infrastructure. Microfinance is not able to fill the gap, and foreign direct investment (FDI) has uncertain impacts on small farmers. Inadequate access to modern markets. Food price increases and volatility. Price volatility can have harmful effects on the poor but, in the long run, higher food prices can increase smallholder income and stimulate poverty reduction. Rising agriculture-related health risks. Human health is increasingly affected by intensive food production methods, and this is affecting the ability of many smallholders to adopt more productive and innovative systems. Key interventions to help smallholders ‘move up’ Also according to HLPE the below are some intervention that help smallholder farmer to move up; 45 • • • • • • Promote land rights and efficient land markets. Land rights need to be secure, and this often requires formal certification of ownership or lease rights, and land sale and rental markets should be allowed to operate freely without size constraints. Invest in agricultural R&D to produce more with less. Expand smallholder-friendly agricultural R&D for breeding high-nutrient crop and livestock varieties; increasing resource-use efficiency, e.g. water, energy; and promoting climate-smart practices, e.g. ‘triple win’ strategies for adaptation/mitigation and productivity. Support efficient and inclusive food value chains. Promote smallholder-friendly innovations such as mobile-phone based payment services for finance, the World Food Programme’s Purchase for Progress (P4P) and weather index insurance. Improve post-harvest handling, enhance food safety and quality standards, and invest in rural infrastructure. Operation Flood in India is a good example of what can be done to link smallholders to a high-value market chain. Close gender gaps. Research shows that gender equality in agriculture leads to higher agricultural output, productivity gains, reduced hunger and malnutrition, especially for the next generation, and improved rural livelihoods. Develop young farmers by investing in infrastructure and their land, capital and skills, to create new opportunities in farming. Scale up productive cross-sector social safety nets. Promote better-targeted and more productive social protection policies, and design cross-sector social protection to reach the poor more effectively (e.g. Ethiopia’s Productive Safety Net Programme and Bangladesh’s Vulnerable Group Development Programme). Concept of Livelihood Livelihoods are ‘means of making a living’, the various activities and resources that allow people to live. Different people have different lifestyles and ways of meeting their needs. Households perform various activities to gain and maintain their livelihoods. The nature of these livelihood activities depends on the avail- ability of assets, resources (including climate), labour, skills, education, social capital, seasonality, agro-climate/agro-ecology, and gender (Pasteur, 2002; Ali, 2005; Okali, 2006; Porter et al, 2007; Ogunlela and Mukthar, 2009; Akinwale, 2010). In recent times this has come to be called the sustainable livelihoods (SL) framework, and is viewed as equally applicable to urban as to rural survival strategies. Assets in this framework include: human capital (the education, skills and health of household members); physical capital (e.g. farm equipment or a sewing machine); social capital (the social networks and associations to which people belong); financial capital and its substitutes (savings, credit, cattle, etc.); and natural capital (the natural resource base). In pursuing livelihood strategies composed of a range of activities, both the access to assets and the use to which they can be put are mediated by social factors (social relations, institutions, organisations) and by exogenous trends (e.g. economic trends) and shocks (drought, disease, floods, pests). The framework provides a checklist by which constraints on livelihood success can be prioritised for action to remove them, and the links between them identified. In line with the SL framework, a livelihood is defined here as ‘the activities, the assets, and the access that jointly determine the living gained by an individual or household’ (Ellis, 1999). Sustainable rural livelihoods is all encompassing a general term that explain the means of individual, community and society’s livelihood and concern over policy and sustainable 46 development (Singh and Hiremath, 2010). “Chambers and Conway (1992) proposed the concept of sustainable livelihoods includes capability, equity and sustainability. The term livelihood refers to a means of earning a living by an individual or households assets including activities and resources and access to these mediated by institutions and social relations. Since sustainable rural livelihoods implies the means of livelihood can be transformed by activities and policies, therefore, there is need to assess the impacts agricultural practices on sustainable rural livelihood (Tang et al, 2007). A livelihood encompasses income, both cash and in kind, as well as the social institutions, kin, family, compound, village, gender relations, and property rights required to support and sustain a given standard of living. Social institutions are also critical in interpreting the constraints and options of individual and families distinguished by gender, income, wealth access and assets.” Rural Livelihood Diversification system The diversity of livelihoods is an important feature of rural survival but often overlooked by the architects of policy. Diversity is closely allied to flexibility, resilience and stability. In this sense, diverse livelihood systems are less vulnerable than undiversified ones; they are also likely to prove more sustainable over time precisely because they allow for positive adaptation to changing circumstances (Ellis, 1999). Rural livelihood diversification is then defined as ‘the process by which households construct a diverse portfolio of activities and social support capabilities for survival and in order to improve their standard of living’ (Ellis, 1998). Rural Livelihood Diversification System: The Nigerian content Livelihoods in Nigeria Agriculture remained the primary livelihood source for most households in all states in Nigeria. Households generally depended on one or two livelihood sources, but some households in all of the states had up to four livelihood sources. A major factor in food poverty and/or access is livelihood (Olayemi, 1998), which includes the various resources and activities that allow people to live. Livelihood systems are at the heart of poverty reduction and food security issues in different policy environments. According to Baro (2002), livelihood systems encompass means, relations, and processes of production, as well as household management strategies. The resources and values of specific physical and social environments determine the character of livelihood system components. Food security is not the only goal of rural populace; the need for a sustainable livelihood is more central since it reflects the ability to take hold of other issues that guarantee good life. Ayantoye et al (2011) state that there is a nexus between poverty levels in rural Nigeria and the level of food security, as well as its transition. In states where not many households have depleted livelihoods and assets, food consumption is inadequate and there is the risk that any exposure to further shocks can lead households to irreversible livelihood-based coping strategies and/or asset depletion. Consequently, there is a need to intervene for improved food security and greater resilience in all the states, and especially Borno State needs emergency intervention. Food insecurity and livelihood vulnerability is considerable across Nigeria it differs to varying degrees from state to state. Many households have already depleted their livelihoods and assets to achieve some measure of food intake, even if they are not food secure. Even in states where not 47 many households have depleted livelihoods and assets, food security is precarious for a significant proportion of the households and there is the risk that additional shocks can lead them to irreversible livelihood-based coping strategies and/or asset depletion. Rural Nigeria is characterized by agrarian livelihood as well as certain other primary production activities. Studies have shown that agricultural-based livelihood in rural Nigeria has a higher level of poverty than other occupational groups. Rural agriculture is subjected to local variations in weather conditions, and thus expected variations in income levels and thus access to food (Omonona, 2009). Therefore, there is need to diversify sources of income into multiple agricultural and/or non-agricultural income-based livelihood systems. (FAO, 2016). The Cadre Harmonisé (CH) analyses for classifying food insecurity and vulnerability conducted in October 2016 was mostly based on the FSVS data and findings. This CH analyses concluded that in the current situation (October to December 2016), 4.95 million people are in need of assistance in the six (6) North East states of Adamawa, Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Taraba and Yobe. For the three states most affected by Boko Haram insurgency and targeted for assistance by the Food Security Sector(Adamawa, Borno and Yobe States),4.67 million people are estimated to be in phases 3 (crisis) to 5 (famine); including 2,800,539 in crisis (phase 3);1,817,286 in emergency (phase 4); and 55,013 people in famine (phase 5). The current population in famine is located exclusively in newly liberated and inaccessible local government areas in Borno State. The situation was further projected to worsen by June to August 2017, if interventions remain at current levels. It was projected that by this time, 5.8 million people will be in need of assistance in North East Nigeria, with 5.1 million people in Adamawa, Borno, and Yobe States. The 5.1 million people projected in phases 3 to 5 in the three states will include 3,026,270 in crisis; 1,971,190 in emergency; and 121,290 people in famine; with the population in famine located in newly liberated and inaccessible LGAs in Borno as well as Yobe States. These populations projected to be in need were further estimated to comprise of 1,686,770 IDPs, 449,903 returnees and 2,982,077 host families (FAO, 2017). Drinking Water Source Except for Jigawa, Kano, and Yobe States, less than 50% of households in the state used an improved drinking water source. Even fewer households used any means to make their drinking water safer. Among households that did employ strategies to make their drinking water safer, the use of alum, filtration, and boiling were the most common methods used. In all the states, households required less than 20 minutes on the average to walk to their drinking water source, fetch water, and return (FAO, 2016). Food utilization is determined by health status, which is determined by access to health services and the sanitation environment (including water quality, hygiene, and food safety). Access to health services was generally low across the states. The percentage of households with improved water source was even lower than that for health services, but not as low as the percentage of households with access to hygienic refuse disposal. Hence, health status and food utilization is likely to be inadequate across the states. Again, although sufficient food has been produced across the states that can meet the needs of households, the majority of households depend on agrarian livelihoods and are likely to sell the greater part of their production. Indeed, households reported that their own production is likely to meet their own food needs for just about 7 months on the average. Thus, households lack stability of food supply and are very likely to run out of food before the next main planting season. 48 Livelihood Diversification System in Nigeria In all the states, the majority of households have between 1 and 2 livelihood sources. The percentage of households with more than two livelihood sources ranged from 4.5% in Niger State to 26% in Katsina. Overall, very few households did not have a livelihood source, but in Borno, 20% of the households did not have a livelihood source. The predominant types of activities from which households derive their main livelihoods in all of the states, crop production was the most common activity from which households obtained their main livelihood. Skilled salaried employment, trading, common labour, hand craft and services were other common sources of main livelihoods. In general, rearing of livestock as a main livelihood source was not as common as these other livelihood sources which are the main livelihood activities of more than 80% of households in each of the states, except Borno State. In Borno, crop production was still the most common activity, but only 23% of households had it as their main livelihood source. As already noted, 20% of household in Borno had no livelihood source (FAO, 2016). Smaller percentages of other households in the state engaged in a diverse range of activities, including those not common in other states, such as forestry and hunting; support from children and relatives; unskilled salaried employment; and construction. Many households have changed their livelihoods in the past year. Borno State was most affected, with more than 50% of the households having changed their livelihoods. On the contrary, households in Sokoto and Zamfara States had experienced very little livelihood changes. Among households who had changed their livelihoods, lack of capital and/or agricultural inputs were the most common reasons for livelihood change in all states except for Borno and Yobe. In Borno and Yobe, insecurity was the main reason for livelihood change. Displacement was another important reason for livelihood change in these two states (FAO, 2016). “Livelihood diversification refers to an attempt by individuals or households to find new ways to raise incomes and reduced environmental risk, which differ sharply by the degree of freedom of choice and the reversibility of the outcome”. Livelihood diversification involved embracing both farm and non-farm activities to raise additional income of an individual or households and also involve selling of labour to paid in cash or in kind and the remittances (Carter 1997; Stark and Levhari, 1982). Various studies have shown that in Sub- Saharan Africa, rural households most of them engaged in crop production, horticulture, fishing and livestock production as their main source of livelihood but also engaged in diverse activities to improve income and sustain a living. A majority of rural producers have historically diversified their productive activities to encompass a range of other productive areas. In other words, very few of them collect all their income from only one source, hold all their wealth in the form of any single asset, or use their resources in just one activity (Barrett et al., 2001). In Nigeria, the agricultural sector is plagued with problems which include soil infertility, infrastructural inadequacy, risk and uncertainty and seasonality among others. Thus, diverse sources and are not as overwhelmingly dependent on agriculture as previously assumed (Gordon and Craig, 2001). This could be owing to the fact that a diversified livelihood, which is an important feature of rural survival and closely allied to flexibility, resilience and stability is less vulnerable than an undiversified one, this is due to the likelihood of it being more sustainable over time and its ability to adapt to changing circumstances. In addition, several studies have reported a substantial and increasing share of off-farm income in total household income (Ruben and van den Berg, 2001; de Janvry and Sadoulet, 1994; Haggblade et al., 1991). Reasons for this observed income 49 diversification include declining farm incomes and the desire to insure against agricultural production and market risks (Matsumoto et al., 2006). In other words, while some households are forced into off- farm and non-farm activities, owing to less gains and increased uncertainties associated with farming (crop and market failures), others would take up off-farm employment when returns to off-farm employment are higher or less risky than in agriculture. Mainly, households diversify into non-farm and off-farm activities in their struggle for survival and in order to improve their welfare in terms of health care, housing, sustenance, covering, etc. Thus, the importance and impact of non- agricultural activities on the welfare of rural farm households can no longer be ignored. An understanding of the significance and nature of non- farm and off-farm activities (especially its contribution to rural household income or resilience) is of utmost importance for policy makers in the design of potent agricultural and rural development policies. Further, the rising incidence of low level of welfare of rural households in Nigeria, that remains unabated despite various policy reforms undertaken in the country, requires a deeper understanding of the problem and the need to proffer solutions to the problem through approaches that place priority on the poor and ways on which rural households through diversification can maintain their livelihood. According to Babatunde and Quaim (2009), the pattern of income diversification Livelihood-Based Coping Strategies in Nigeria Apart from short term strategies to cope with food insufficiencies, households had also deployed livelihood coping strategies and depleted assets to achieve food consumption. The percentage of households that had engaged in different livelihood coping strategies. Borrowing more money than usual was the most common livelihood strategy employed in nearly all the states. Reducing expenditure on health, education, and agricultural inputs; and selling more animals than usual were also some of the more common livelihood coping strategies. The sale of last female animals or all animals, migration of entire household, withdrawing children from school, and sale of land were the least employed coping strategies. However, in Borno State, more than 40% of all households had deployed each of the livelihood coping strategies, including the least popular ones. Taraba was the other state where the deployment of livelihood coping strategies was relatively unusual. At least 10% of households in Taraba had deployed each of the livelihood coping strategies (FAO, 2016). The livelihoods based coping strategies index (LCSI) revealed that at least 50% of the households in all of the states had not deployed any livelihood coping strategies, with the exception of Borno State. In Borno, only 20% of households had not deployed any livelihood coping strategy. Although Taraba had a significant percentage of households deploying each livelihood coping strategy, 59% of households had not deployed any of the strategies. Benue State had the least percentage of households deploying livelihood coping strategies (17%). Among households who had deployed livelihood coping strategies, stress and crises coping strategies were the most prevalence across the states, with fewer households deploying emergency coping strategies. In Adamawa, Borno, Gombe, Katsina, Taraba, and Yobe States however, more than 10% of households had deployed (FAO, 2016). There exists a number of programmes/policies in Nigeria to address food insecurity, such as Presidential Initiatives, National Special Programme on Food Security, FADAMA (Wetland farming) and the National Poverty Eradication Programme directed towards enhancing livelihoods and reducing the number of people who are chronically undernourished by half by the year 2015 50 (most especially in rural Nigeria). Unfortunately these programmes show little or no impacts in improving the livelihood standard of Nigerians. Conclusion and recommendations It is recommended that agricultural support activities be undertaken in all the states to boost food production. Livelihood support activities should be undertaken in all of the states to assist households who have depleted livelihoods and/or assets to rebuild livelihoods. In states such as Borno, Yobe, Taraba, Adamawa, and Plateau where food insecurity and livelihood depletion is high, emergency food assistance services need to be provided in addition to agricultural support and livelihood support activities. The strengthening of other asset bases, such as social capital, physical capital, and financial capital, should also be considered. Agricultural support activities needed include: Increased access to improved seeds and inputs for increased food production. Increased support for the production of micronutrient-rich foods such as vegetables and animal source foods, to improve household to nutritious foods. This should be implemented with effective nutrition education, to support improved diet quality. Irrigation support for dry season farming, to increase food availability in the lean season and ensure that more households have stability of food supply. Livelihood support activities should comprise: Support for land clearing and the conversion of fallow land into farmland, for households who still possess such land in areas with minimal insecurity challenges. Stocking and/or restocking of farm animals for households who have depleted or lost livestock or never had any. For households without access to land in secure areas or with other challenges that preclude crop or livestock production, support can be given for engaging in non-agricultural livelihoods such as micro-enterprises for food processing services, such as threshing, drying, milling, grinding, and packaging, making spaghetti, or popcorn or oil 51 Reference Akinwale, A.A. 2010. Livelihood and environmental challenges in coastal communities of Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 12(8): 79-88. Alli, A. 2005. Livelihood and food security in rural Banglesh: The role of social capital. PhD thesis WageningenUniversity, The Netherlands. Ayantoye, K., S.A. 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London, Agriculture for Impact, Imperial College and Overseas Development Institute. World Bank, 2015. Ending poverty and hunger by 2030. An agenda for the global food system. Washington D.C., The World Bank, 29 p. 54 CHAPTER FIVE Ahmed Chadi Aliyu* ECOSYSTEM SERVICES OF THE DRYLANDS OF NIGERIA Introduction to the Drylands of Nigeria Drylands includes habitats such as savannahs, mist forests and oases. It covers 40 % of the earth’s land surface, including 15% of Latin America, 66% of Africa, 40% of Asia and 24% of Europe (USAID, 2014). They are home to one third of the world’s population and sustain 44% of the world’s cultivated systems and 50% of the world’s livestock; and stores 36% of global terrestrial carbon. Most of dryland biodiversity is found in the soil, which determines the overall fertility and productivity of the land (IUCN, 2017). In Nigeria, the Drylands are found in the sudano-sahelian part of the country between latitude 10ºN and 14ºN and longitude 4ºE and 14ºE. This zone occupies almost one-third of the total land area of the country (Abaje, Ati, Iguisi and Jiduana; 2013). The dryland forms an undulating plain at a general elevation from about 450 m to 700 m (Federal Ministry of Environment, 2000). They are characterized by: Marginal climate and fringe ecosystem, Soil are moderately poor in fertility and soil degradation is widely spread (Essiet, 1990), Average rainfall varies from less than 500 mm in the north eastern part to 1000 mm in the southern sub-area, but unreliable in many parts of the country (Federal Ministry of Environment, 2000). The rainfall regime is viable and has diminished by 25% since the relatively wet 1960s (Moretimore, 1989). The drylands of Nigeria comprise of states such as: Adamawa, Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Jigawa, Kaduna, Kano, Katsina, Kebbi, Sokoto, Yobe and Zamfara states. The total human population in Nigerian drylands is estimated at over 33.5 million, with an average population density of 158 persons per km. Nigerian Dryland Ecosystem and Services According to Tansley quoted in Holgate (1979) an Ecosytem is a unit of vegetation which includes not only the plants of which it is composed but the animals habitually associated with them and also all the physical and chemical components of the immediate environment or habitat which together form a recognizable self-contained entity (Holdgate, 1979). The Ecosytem services are the benefits that humans derive from the natural environment. These services are categorized as: supporting services (necessary for the production of other ecosystem services e.g. soil formation, photosynthesis and nutrient cycling); provisioning services (ecosystem products e.g. food, fibre and water); regulating services (including processes such as climate stabilization, erosion regulation and pollination); and cultural services (non-material benefits from ecosystems e.g. spiritual fulfilment, cognitive development and recreation) (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2003). The ecosystems in drylands of Nigeria are vast with almost homogeneous characteristics. Despite its deficiency of some natural features, it is a base for many natural resources. It has high livestock carriage capacity, high population, with ample of services provided by the system which requires utmost attention and sustainable management framework for the well-being of the ecosystem. 55 The Dryland plants and animals display a variety of physiological, anatomical and behavioural adaptations to moisture and temperature stresses brought about by large diurnal and seasonal variations in temperature, rainfall and soil moisture. The generally high temperatures and low precipitation in the drylands lead to poor organic matter production and rapid oxidation (Adamu, Maharazu and Ahmed, 2014). Supporting Services Supporting services provide services required for the development of soil, nutrient cycling and photosynthesis. Soil Development: Formation and Conservation Soils develop under the action of biological, climatic, geologic, and topographic influences. The evolution of soils and their properties determine the soil formation which undergoes through five processes that influence soil properties. In drylands, soils development is constraint by insufficiency of water which affects the primary development of soils. It is soil properties that determine how much of the rainfall will be stored and subsequently become available during dry periods. The availability of moisture in soil is also an important factor in nutrient cycling which is a requisite for primary production. Therefore, soil formation and soil conservation are key supporting services of dryland ecosystems, the failure of which is one of the major drivers of desertification (Safriel et al, 2005). Hence the services of soil formation and conservation jointly determine the rate of soil development and its quality. The rate of soil formation (hundreds to thousands of years) (Rust 1983) and its degree of development (depth of soil, infiltration depth, and organic content) decline with aridity (Nettleton and Peterson 1983; Sombroek 1990, Safriel et al, 2005). The soils in the drylands of Nigeria are categorized as reddish brown or brown soils of the semi-arid and arid regions (Harri, 1999). They are also known as tropical ferruginous soils and are considered to be comparable to Ferric Luvisols. These are sandy soils that are made up of about 85% sand. Their pH values range between 6.0 and 7.0, and their bulk densities are about 1.4 g/cm3 this makes it prone to erosion. Low organic matter leads to poor aggregation and low aggregate stability leading to a high potential for wind and water erosion (Adamu et al, 2014). Between 10 and 20% of the world's drylands are considered degraded (medium certainty) (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). Soil degradation is caused by both human and natural factors, but in the Northern Nigeria human activities such as grazing, deforestation, damming, pollution and unsustainable agricultural practices, act as the major catalyst. These have consequently affected the soil by depriving the soil of its vegetative cover which exposed them to the high erosive power of rainfall and wind which slashes over thousands of hectares of agricultural land for many months every year with only a small fraction of the flood land available for cultivation. (Adamu et al, 2014), decline in fertility level because of nutrient mobilization by crops (Abubakar, 2000), increase in acidity and frequent expansion in drought occurrence (Olofin, 1988), alteration of soil properties which subject the soil to unfertile condition. Climate variation is perhaps a major natural cause of soil degradation. 56 Nutrient Cycling Nutrient cycling is an essential process which occurs in an ecosystem. It involves movement and exchange of organic and inorganic matter in soil development and primary production, through the breakdown of dead plant parts which contributes organic matter to the soil and the regeneration of mineral plant nutrients. Nutrients vital in this process are: carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, phosphorus and nitrogen which are required to be recycled for the existence of organisms. Macro-decomposers (such as termites, darkling beetles and other invertebrates) are very vital in nutrient cycling in drylands because of their less sensitivity in water requirement. They tend to become increasingly significant in nutrient cycling even as the aridity increases. Other organisms both micro and macro, also plays a vital role but are limited due to their moisture requirement. In drylands of Nigeria, many practices are into play in improving the soil nutrient content through bush fallow for restoration of soil fertility; intercropping which helps to increase soil productivity and decrease pest and disease incidence; use of mineral fertilizers and organic sources of nutrients to supply more nutrients for crop production, among others. Usually, animal dumps and other wastes are accumulated and stored at specified locations which are further transported to farms and spread. This is practice to help improve the soil productivity. Regulating Services Regulation comes in two perspectives, through establishment of institutional regulations and natural modulation by the ecosystem. In essence, these are meant for conservation purposes and for the natural courses, it is interplay of the environmental factors. Water Regulation Water deficit is the limiting factor affecting biological productivity in drylands. The most proficient recharge means, is the rainfall, which is highly variable in time and space and subjected to deflation or enhancement due to both natural and anthropogenic causes (Buba, 2000). This circumstance necessitates for water regulation which provides for allocation for primary production, irrigation, livestock watering, and domestic uses, etc. Existence of vegetation cover modulates the water regulation services but the disperse nature of vegetation in drylands of Nigeria has rendered the soil exposed to erosion, especially, during excessive rainfall. Though the technique of interception of runoffs waters in pits, dams and gentle slope grounds has enable riparian users to have alternative water sources even though it lacks healthy quality but serves as only alternative source in some quarters. These techniques have become a landscape management option which augments for water regulation in the dryland, therefore providing means for water infiltration and harnessing in dry periods. A large volume of water available to people living in the drylands are from perennial rivers that originate from higher elevations. Ephemeral rivers also exist in many parts of the dryland areas but less effective during dry periods which are dependent upon high intensity of rainfall and mostly last during longer periods of wet season. The Rivers have extremely variable flows and discharge, and the amounts of suspended sediments are highly sensitive to fluctuations in rainfall as well as any changes in the vegetation cover in the basins. The loss of vegetation in the headwaters of Dryland 57 Rivers can increase sediment load and can lead to dramatic change in the character of the river to a less stable, more seasonal river characterized by a rapidly shifting series of channels (Adamu et al, 2014). The overall responsibility of management of water resources in Nigeria is saddled on the Federal Ministry of Water Resources (FMWR) which is headed by the Minister for Water Resources. Among the responsibility is the enforcement of all national policies, federal laws and regulations relating to water resources management and development. The FMWR thus has the overall responsibility for policy advice and formulation, data collection, monitoring and planning, management and coordination of water resources (Okoye and Achakpa, 2007). These have been obstructed due to inconsistencies in policy, financial constraints, inadequate data that will aid decision making, among others. The Federal laws relevant in the development and management of water resources are: the Water Resources Act 1993 which vests control of all surface and groundwater and any water course (stream, wells, springs, lakes, lagoons, swamps or any course of water flows) affecting more than one State in the Government of the Federation for purpose of planning, co-ordination and management; River Basin Development Authorities Act, 1990, which defines the mandate and functioning of the River Basin Development Authorities. There are other Federal regulations which by their provision grant power for control and management of activities that may relate to watercourse use (Minerals Act, 1990; Inland Waterway Authority Act, No 13 of 1997; Oil In Navigable Water Act Cap 337, 1968; etc) The existing Federal regulations relating to water resources management are to a large extent not specific as to where final control of water resources resides due to overlapping provisions (Okoye and Achakpa, 2007). Climate Regulation Dryland ecosystems regulate their own local climate to some extent as their vegetation cover determines the surface reflectance of solar radiation as well as water evaporation rates. Drylands are also involved in regulation of the global climate, through local carbon sequestration by their vegetation. Climate exerts a strong influence over dryland vegetation type, biomass and diversity (Adamu et al, 2014). The vegetation cover plays a vital role in driving atmospheric energy and water balance processes. Its alteration causes a reduction in albedo which result in increased temperature and subsequent increased in evapotranspiration which have a significant impact on water recharge rate, soil moisture and surface water availability. The drylands of Nigeria are already experiencing noticeable changes in climate conditions through high increase in temperatures, prolonged drought affecting crops production, desertification and flooding, etc. This region is especially subjected to climate change leading to reduction of the area suitable for rain-fed agriculture, more extreme weather events, decrease of water availability, and decrease in agricultural productivity among other problems (Nasiru, 2015). Thus, the conservation of vegetation cover promotes the service of local climate regulation directly through its effect on albedo and indirectly through arresting dust generation. Regulation of global climate through carbon sequestration Carbon sequestration is used to describe both natural and deliberate processes by which CO2 is either removed from the atmosphere or diverted from emission sources and stored in the ocean, terrestrial environments (vegetation, soils, and sediments) and geologic formations (United State 58 Geological Survey, 2008). Carbon sequestration controls atmospheric CO2 concentrations, which regulate the global climate through the ‘‘greenhouse effect.’’ Part of the sequestered carbon is emitted back to the atmosphere through the respiration of plants and decomposers, with other remnants constituting an addition to the organic carbon reservoir. But the large surface area of drylands gives dryland carbon sequestration a global significance. Whereas organic carbon declines with aridity, inorganic soil carbon increases as aridity increases. Provisioning Services through Biological Production and freshwaters The provisioning functions of the ecosystem are in the provision of food, fiber, wood or fuel, and freshwater which are useful in supporting livelihood. Food and fiber Agriculture is the largest sector in the Nigerian economy and contributes nearly 40 percent of the country’s GDP and a large provider of the bulk of the labour force. Through agriculture food is provided, which is prerequisite for human health and life (Siyanbade, 2007). Despite the fact that Nigeria’s food production is the highest in Sub-Sahara Africa, food insecurity continued to loom with the country having the highest number of undernourished people (Halliru and Abdullahi, 2013). These setbacks can be traced to inconsistent policies, issues of land tenure system, inadequate improved seeds, inefficient technology, security challenges (especially in the dry areas), climate change as well as other natural causes (soil erosion, salinization and nutrient depletion). Even though the incumbent government have banned importation of food stuffs in order to encourage farmers within to boost food production, the mission to some extent have yielded some result but there is still much to be done. The drylands of the country provide bulk of the cereal foods (primarily: sorghum, millet, maize and rice), legumes and vegetable products. Livestock production also plays a major role in providing bulk of the country’s meat and dairy for both consumption and trade. Livestock are raised mostly in rangelands or in agropastoral systems and they constitute a major source of protein, wool and income (Safriel et al, 2005). Fibre is produced mostly in the croplands. Crops like cotton and nuts are cash crops which are of considerable social and economic importance to Nigeria. These were highly produced since the colon ial period but their production declined with the advent of the petroleum boom in early 1970s. Fuelwood The inadequacy of alternative source of energy in the drylands had led to an increase in dependence on woodfuel which is derived through massive felling of trees or bushes from the natural dryland ecosystem. Increase in population in the drylands of Nigeria had caused a steady rise in demand for fuelwood (accounts for about 50 percent of Nigeria’s total energy consumed for agriculture and other domestic food processing activities) which is use for heating (during cold weathers), cooking, building construction, art and craft, and even for economic gain through wood and charcoal trade from within and outside Nigeria. Consequently, these anthropogenic activities (population increase, rapid urbanization, herbs demand, etc) led to excessive exploitation of trees, shrubs, herbaceous plants and grass cover from the fragile lands which subsequently led to the destruction of soil conservation service, erosion, hindrance of regeneration of the natural vegetation, further degradation of the soil to desert-like condition. Despite measures taking to address these issues through encouragement of reforestation and afforestation, control and policy formulation, enactment of laws; the effort have been aborted due to 59 inconsistency and duplications. Another impediment is failure of the government to adequately involve communities in the conservation efforts and as well reluctances from the side of the communities to actively participate. Freshwater Provisioning Freshwater ecosystem is adherently linked to regional hydrology, supporting and regulating services, water regulation, and climate regulation (Oludayo, 2004, Safriel et al, 2005). The ecosystem regulates many aspects of the world’s water cycle and related geophysical processes of evaporation and the functioning of the climate system (Siyanbade, 2007). The ecosystem influences to a larger extent the population distribution, economic growth, improves on the biological and ecological diversity of the landscape. The Vegetation cover and its structural diversity control much of the water provisioning service. The accessible water provides means of support to the vegetation, livestock and domestic water requirement. The water provision service is also critical for maintaining wetlands within the drylands, to enable these ecosystems to provide a package of services of great significance in drylands. Probably, climate change may have an adverse effect as a result of anthropogenic activities by altering water temperature, flow regimes and water levels. Human activities associated to freshwater occur in the watersheds, rivers and lakes in different aspects, such as, irrigation, deforestation, damming, farming, etc. Cultural Services Ecosystem provides a non-material benefits to individuals and communities through cultural identity and diversity which depict an aesthetic value of cultural diversity, landscape and heritage values, Knowledge, spiritual values, recreation and tourism. These services tend to improve mental health, culture enhancement, and enrichment of knowledge base in natural sciences. Cultural Identity and Diversity The dryland ecosystem had led to adaptation of its dwellers to a unique cultural identity which is noticeable with the people and their surroundings. Drylands have high cultural diversity, in keeping with the ecosystem diversity along the aridity gradient. Though many similarities are manifested through their attires, accommodations, food, resilient strategies which waved for the development of dryland farming systems, water management, forest management, storage systems and various conservation techniques. The Ecosystem functions and diversity generate cultural identity and diversity that in turn conserve the ecosystem integrity and diversity. Cultural Landscapes and Heritage Values Cultural landscape is the modification of the earth’s surface by human action through physical depiction of a particular cultural ideologies and manifestation of custom. In other words, the term ‘‘cultural landscape’’ is a socio-economic expression of the biophysical features of ecosystems that mutually contribute to the development of a characteristic landscape, and it signifies a heritage value ((Safriel et al, 2005). In Nigeria, the cultural landscape and heritage values differ with location but modernization had immensely caused several changes to the landscape and values of the people. Despite such changes, heritage values are still retained, especially, in ritual activities or superstitious belief systems. 60 Servicing Knowledge Systems The people of dryland have adapted to their natural ecosystem and developed a coping strategy which created a traditional knowledge base that is passed from generation to generation. The Dryland ecosystems had contributed profoundly to human culture through use of formal and traditional knowledge systems in managing the ecosystem. Efforts are been made by some countries and researchers in reviving some of the sustainable practices in management of its natural resources. Over the years, in Nigeria, cultures have developed traditional mechanism and systems of managing and conserving their soils and water resources for agricultural and human consumption. Such practices notably in the drylands are the shadoof method (usually referred as Jigo), the use of pit system, compartment bunds, flood diversions, among others. Dryland traditional knowledge has coevolved with the cultural identity of dryland peoples and their environment and its natural resources and has generated many unique systems of water harvesting, cultivation practices, climate forecasting, and the use of dryland medicinal plants. The exploration, conservation, and integration of dryland traditional knowledge with adapted technologies have been identified as priority actions by the Committee of Science and Technology of the (Safriel et al, 2005). Spiritual Services Spiritual services are entrenched in religious beliefs, culture and past experiences of the people. Waters (rivers, lakes, streams) as well as forest (which include trees species, mangroves, and individual trees) are attached spiritual significance. They serve as monuments, ritual sites for veneration of ancestors, landmarks, anointment of rulers, community meeting points and shelters. In some context, these resources are given protection through establishment of taboos which have enable prevention of the ecosystem from exploitation through grazing, wood extraction and bush burning. Recreation and Tourism Drylands of Nigeria are attractive tourism destinations due to its biodiversity, very vast in size, characterized with sparsely distributed population and beautiful landscape. Some of the existing tourist attractions are: Gashaki-Gumpti National Park (Taraba), Sukur Cultural Landcape (Adamawa), Queen Amina’s wall (Kaduna), Surame Cultural Landscape (Sokoto), Ancient Kano City Walls (Kano) and Yankari National Park (Bauchi). Other Potential attractive features are: hills, forests, water-ways, rich and diverse culture, religious sites, and historical monuments, etc. All of these are attractive features conducive for tourism development, especially in ecotourism which can generate more income, if it is sustainably managed. Tourism development in this part of the country is constraint by insecurity, lack of recreational amenities, inadequate infrastructure, remoteness, and insufficient attention and resources from the government and private sector, stringent policies toward tourism, lack of proper marketing strategy on tourism, among others. Conclusion The Ecosystem services are the benefits that humans derive from the natural environment; therefore, it is paramount to sustain them for the present and future utilization in order to prevent destruction of the dryland ecosystem by anthropogenic activities. These activities in different dimensions are the contributing factors that exacerbate degradation of the dryland ecosystem in Nigeria. 61 Recommendations Government have to step up in creation of consistent policies that will protect the ecosystem and ensure sustainable management of the resources for the betterment and value addition to the services. Enforcement of rules and regulations and sanctioning for any bridge of rules and regulation, enhancement of cultural values, improve on security, increase in investment in recreation and tourism, appropriate education, advocacy on public and private partnership, provision of research opportunities, collaboration with both internal and international stakeholders. If these are properly implemented, a sustainable dryland ecosystem will be ascertained in Nigeria, socio-economic development will increase, and a pleasing environment will be endowed. 62 Reference Abaje, I. B; Ati, O. F; Iguisi, E.O & Jiduana,G. G(2013). Droughts in the Sudano-Sahelian Ecological Zone of Nigeria: Implication for Agriculture and Water Resources Development, Global Journal of Human Social Science, 13 (2), 1 – 10 Abubakar, S. M (2000) Assessment of Land Degradation under Different Agricultural Landuse Types in Part of Katsina State. (ed) Falola, A.J; Ahmed, K; Liman, M. A and Maiwada, A. Department of Geography Bayero University, Kano Adamu, G.K; Maharazu, A. K; Ahmed, M (2014) Soil Degradation in Drylands, Academic Research International, Vol.5 (1), 78-91 Buba, L. F (2000) Drought Occurrence and the Utilization of Rainfall for Agriculture in Northern Nigeria. (ed) Falola, A. J; Ahmed, K; Liman, M. A and Maiwada, A. Department of Geography Bayero University, Kano Essiet, E. U (1990) A Comparison of Soil Degradation Under Small Holder Farming and Large Scale Irrigation Landuse in Kano State, Northern Nigeria, Land Degradation and Rehabilitation, Vol. 2, 209 - 214 Federal Ministry of Environment (2000) National Action Programme (NAP) to Combat Desertification and Mitigate the Effects of Drought: Towards the Implementation of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification and Mitigate the Effects of Drought in the Country, Federal Republic of Nigeria, Federal Ministry of Environment Halliru, A. M and Abdullahi, M. K (2013) Agricultural Commercialization and Food Security in Nigeria, International Journal of Advanced Research in Management and Social Sciences, Vol. 2 (7), 111-120 Harris, F (1999) Nutrient Management Strategies of Small-Holder farmers in a short fallow farming system in North-East Nigeria, The Geographical Journal, Vol. 165 (3), 275 – 285 Holgate, M. W (1979) A Perspective of Environmental Pollution, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) (2017) Climate Action and Global Food Security Depend on Healthy Drylands. Accessed from https://www.iucn.org/news/secretariate/201709/climate-action Millenium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) (2003) Ecosystem and Human Well-being: a framework for assessment, World Resource Institute, Washington DC Millenium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) Ecosystem and Human Well-being, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland Mortimore, M (1989) Adapting to Drought: Farmers, Famine and Desertification in West Africa, 63 Cambridge, Cambridge University Press Nasiru, M. I (2015) Adaptation to Climate Change in Dryland Nigeria. Accessed from https://allafrica.com Nettleton, W. D and Peterson, F. F (1983) Aridisols In: Pedogenesis and Soil Taxonomy, Wilding, L. P; Smeck, N. E; and Hall, G. F (eds), Amsterdam, Elsevier Publishers D. V, 165 - 215 Okoye, J.K and Achakpa, P.M (2007) Background Study on Water and Energy Issues in Nigeria to inform the National Consultative Conference on Dams and Development Olofin, E. A (1988) Monitoring the impact of dams on downstream physical environment in the tropical regulated rivers, Research and Management, Vol. 2(4), 167 - 174 Oludayo, A.O (2004) Environmental Law and Practice in Nigeria, Lagos, University of Lagos Press Rust, R. H (1983) Alfisol In: Pedogenesis and Soil Taxonomy, Wilding, L. P; Smeck, N. E; and Hall, G. F (eds), Amsterdam, Elsevier Publishers D. V, 253 -281 Safriel, U; Adeel, Z; Niemeijer, D; Puigdefabregas, J; White, R; Lal, R; Winslow, M; Ziedler, J; Prince, S; Archer, E; and King, C (2005) Ecosystem and human well-being: Current state and trends, World Resource Institute, Washington DC, 623 - 662 Siyanbade, D (2007) Ecological Considerations in Planning and Managing the Environment, Lagos, OliveTree Publishing Ventures Sombroek, W. G (1990) Aridosols of the world, Occurrence and Potential, In: Characterization, Classification and Utilization of Aridisols, In: Kimble, J. M and Nettleton (eds), Proceeding of the fourth International Soil Correlation Meeting (ISCOM IV) Lincoln, NE, USDA, Soil conservation services, Part A: Papers, 121 - 128 United State Agency International Development (USAID) (2014) Small-Scale Dryland Agriculture, USAID-GEMS. Accessed from https://www.usaidgems.org/ bestPractice.htm United State Geological Survey (USGS) (2008) Carbon Sequestration to Mitigate Climate Change. Accessed from https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2008/3097/pdf/carbonFS.pdf 64 CHAPTER SIX Najib Abdullahi* Ahmed Abubakar* AGRO-ECOSYSTEMS OF NIGERIA Introduction Agroecosystems are often more difficult to study than natural ecosystems because they are complicated by human management which alters normal ecosystem structures and functions. There is no disputing the fact that for any agroecosystem to be fully sustainable, a broad series of interacting ecological, economic, and social factors and processes must be taken into account. Still, ecological sustainability is the building block upon which other elements of sustainability depend (Gliessman, 2004) Nigeria is found in the Tropics, where the climate is seasonally damp and very humid. The natural vegetative zones that exist in the country are governed by the combined effects of temperature, humidity, rainfall and particularly, the variations that occur in the rainfall. This forms a major influence on the type of indigenous plants that grows successfully in different parts of the country. The humid tropical forest zone of the South that has longer rains is capable of supporting a number of plantation crops such as cocoa, oil palm, rubber, coffee, cotton and staple crops like, yam, cassava, cocoyam, sweet potatoes, melon, groundnut, rice maize and cowpeas. However, in some parts of the East and many areas near the coast, the high rainfall has led to badly leached soils and severe erosion in some places. The Northern part of the country representing about 80% of the vegetative zones experiences lower rainfall and shorter rainy season and they make up the Savannah land. The Savannah land forms an excellent natural habitat for a large number of grazing livestock such as cattle, goats, horses, sheep, camels, and donkeys. Concept of Agro-ecosystem Agroecosystems are natural ecosystems that have been modified for the production of food and fiber. While they retain many of the characteristics of natural ecosystems, from a toxicological viewpoint they are characterized by the frequent presence of agrochemicals, including pesticides, fertilizers, and plant growth regulators. (Ernest 2012) An agroecosystem is created when human manipulation and alteration of an ecosystem take place for the purpose of establishing agricultural production. This introduces several changes in the structure and function of the natural ecosystem, and as a result, changes in a number of key system level qualities (Gliessman 2004) The process of understanding agroecosystem sustainability has its foundations in two kinds of ecosystems: natural ecosystems and traditional (also known as local or indigenous) agroecosystems. Both provide ample evidence of having passed the test of time in terms of long term productive 65 ability, but each offers a different knowledge base from which to understand this ability (Gliessman 2004). Natural ecosystems are reference systems for understanding the ecological basis for sustainability in a particular location. Traditional agroecosystems provide many examples of how a culture and its local environment have co-evolved over time through processes that balance the needs of people, expressed as ecological, technological, and socio-economic factors. Agroecology, defined as the application of ecological concepts and principles to the design and management of sustainable agroecosystems (Gliessman, 1998) in (Gliessman 2004), draws on both to become a research approach that can be applied to converting unsustainable and conventional agroecosystems to sustainable ones. Natural ecosystems reflect a long period of evolution in the use of local resources and adaptation to local ecological conditions. They have each become complex sets of plants and animals that coinhabit in a given environment, and as a result, provide extremely useful information for the design of more locally adapted agroecosystems. As I have suggested (Gliessman, 1998) in (Gliessman 2004), “the greater the structural and functional similarity of an agroecosystem to the natural ecosystems in its biogeographical region, the greater the likelihood that the agroecosystem will be sustainable.” If this suggestion holds true, natural ecosystem structures and functions can be used as benchmarks or threshold values for more sustainable systems. Scientists have begun to explore how an understanding of natural ecosystems can be used to guide our search for sustainable agroecosystems that respect and protect the environment and natural resources (Soule and Piper, 1992; Jackson and Jackson, 2002) (Gliessman 2004). Traditional and indigenous agroecosystems are different from conventional systems in that they developed originally in times or places where inputs other than human labor and local resources were generally not available or desirable to the local people. Production takes place in ways that demonstrate people’s concerns about long-term sustainability of the system, rather than solely maximizing output and profit. Traditional systems continue to be important as the primary producers of food for a large part of the populations of many developing countries, while at the same time maintaining their foundations in ecological knowledge (Wilken, 1988; Altieri, 1990) in (Gliessman 2004). This reality demonstrates their importance for the development of sustainable agroecosystems. This is especially true today when so many modern conventional agroecosystems have caused severe degradation of their ecological foundations, as socio economic factors have become the predominant forces in the food system (Altieri, 1990) (Gliessman 2004). Many traditional agroecosystems are actually very sophisticated examples of the application of ecological knowledge, and can serve as the starting point for the conversion to more sustainable agroecosystems in the future. The traditional Mesoamerican intercrop of corn, beans, and squash is a well-known cropping system where higher yields in the mixtures come about due to a complex of interactions among components of the agroecosystem (Amador and Gliessman, 1990) in (Gliessman 2004). Examples of such interactions range from the increased presence of beneficial insects due to attractive microclimates and a greater abundance of pollen and nectar sources (Letourneau, 1986) in (Gliessman 2004), to biologically fixed nitrogen being made available to corn through mycorrhizal fungi connections with roots of beans (Bethlenfalvay et al., 1991) in (Gliessman 2004). 66 Energy Flow in Agro-ecosystem Energy flow in agro-ecosystems is altered greatly by human interference (Rappaport, 1971; Pimentel and Pimentel, 1997) in (Gliessman 2004). Although solar radiation is obviously the major source of energy, many inputs are derived from human-manufactured sources and are most often not self-sustaining. Agro-ecosystems too often become through-flow systems, with a high level of fossil fuel input and considerable energy directed out of the system at the time of each harvest (Gliessman 2004). Agricultural Systems and Specialization of Agro-ecological Zones of Nigeria The natural vegetative zones resulted from the interaction of climate, humidity, rainfall and soils. These factors have been modified by human activities and man’s pattern of land use. Based on the above, Nigeria’s agro-ecological zones can be classified into: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. The Mangrove forest and coastal vegetation The Freshwater swamp forest The tropical high forest zone The derived Guinea Savannah The Guinea Savannah zone The Sudan savannah (Short grass savanna) The Sahel savannah (Marginal Savanna) The Montane vegetation The Mangrove Forest and Coastal Vegetation This is found in places near the coast that is under the influence of brackish water commonly found in the Niger Delta. It is also found also in low lying swamp land associated with rivers and Lagoon near the coast and under the influence of the sea. Soil in the mangrove area is poorly aerated with water logged mud and is high in salt content due to the constant flooding by the sea. The coastal swamp area is not widely cultivated except for swamp rice in places where they are stabilized and non-saline. The Freshwater Swamp Forest This area lies immediately inland of the mangrove swamp but on a slightly higher ground. This vegetation belt, on freshwater wetlands occur further inland, beyond the reach of tidal waters. The lagoons or the rivers that overflow their banks in the wet season supply it with fresh water because the area is low lying, therefore it is flooded with rain water and lies under rain for sometimes, eight or nine months of the year. The area of the country under this agro ecological zone, are Ogun, Benin, Imo, Niger Delta and Cross River. The high influx of water deposit vast quantities of silt, mud and sandy materials into this area. It is a low-lying region, with hardly any part rising over 30m above sea level, thus, it facilitates the development of freshwater swamps along the Niger Delta, drowned estuaries, lagoons and creeks. This zone consists of a mixture of trees. Important among the vegetation of this zone are the various Palm and Fibre plants such as Raphia spp., Raphia vinifera, the Wine Palm and Raphia hookeri, the Roof-mat Palm. They are used for thatching mats and for providing rafter, poles and 67 stiff piassava fibre for the production of brooms. The better-drained areas support Oil Palm trees (Eleais guineenais) and big trees like Iroko (Chlorophora exceisa). Fishing and fibre-making are the important products of the fresh-water swamp communities. The Tropical High Forest Zone This area is characterized with a prolonged rainy season, resulting in high annual rainfall above 2000mm, thereby ensuring an adequate supply of water and promoting perennial tree growth. This luxuriant vegetation belt stretches from the western border of Nigeria to Benin Republic, through a narrow stretch on the Niger-Benue river system into the extensive area in the South-East of the country. This zone is the major source of timber for the large construction and furniture making industry. Of all the zones it contains the most valuable species of vegetation. However due to human activities, this one-time highly forested area has been drastically reduced. Bush fallows, villages and farms are found scattered throughout the zone. Presently the drier end of its inland side is becoming reduced to derived Guinea Savannah because of felling and clearings. In the humid rain forest are found economic cash crops such as Oil Palm, (Elaeis guineensis), Cocoa (Theobroma cacao), Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) Banana/Plantain (Musa spp.) and Cola nut (Cola nitida). Also found are some principal staple food crops such as Yam, Cocoyams, Sweet Potato, Maize, Rice, Groundnut, Cowpeas and Beans as well as a number of fruits. A number of timber trees such as the African Mahogany, the scented Sapele wood (Entandrophragma cylindricum) and Iroko (Chlorophora excelsa) to mention but three are found in this zone. This zone therefore is very important in terms of food production and timber for construction and cabinet making Oyenuga (1967) The Derived Guinea Savannah This zone is found immediately after the tropical rainforest zone. It is the transition between the tropical rainforest and guinea savannah zones. The average annual rainfall and temperature are 1314mm and 26.5ºC respectively. Due to bush burning, overgrazing, cultivation and hunting activities over a long period in the zone, the high forest trees were destroyed and the forest that used to exist is now replaced with a mixture of grasses and scattered trees. The zone is covered with scattered trees and tall grasses. Maize, Cassava, Yam and Rice are the major crops grown in this zone. The savannah in general has an enormous potential for food production in the country. Bush burning and erosion as a result of over grazing by animal especially cattle constitute a major problem to agricultural production in the zone. The Guinea Savannah The Guinea Savannah, located in the middle of the country, is the most extensive ecological zone in Nigeria, covering near half of the country. Guinea savannah zone has a unimodal rainfall distribution with the average annual temperature and rainfall of 27.3ºC and 1051.7mm respectively where the wet season lasts for 6–8 months. This zone consists of the larger part of the savannah zone and is sometimes divided into the Southern Guinea Savannah and Northern Guinea Savannah. It is the broadest vegetation zone in the country and it occupies almost half of its area. It extends from Ondo, Edo, Anambra and Enugu 68 States in the South, through Oyo State to beyond Zaria in Kaduna State. It is a belt of mixture of trees and tall grasses in the South, with shorter grasses and less trees in the North. The Guinea Savannah, with its typically short trees and tall grasses, is the most luxuriant of the Savannah vegetation belts in Nigeria. The zone is characterized by low rainfall and long dry period, which call for alternative water supply (irrigation) to enhance full utilization of the zone’s potential in agricultural production. The Guinea savannah is characterized by grasses such as Pennisetum, Andropogon, Panicum, Chloris, Hyparrhenia, Paspalum and Melinis. These tall grasses are characteristic of the Guinea Savannah proper. In the Northern Guinea Savannah species such as Isoberlinia doka and I. tomentosa form the bulk of the scattered woodland. Also found are Locust Bean trees (Parkia filicoidea), Shea Butter trees (Butyrospermum parkii) and Mangoes (Mangifera indica). Comparatively, there are fewer trees in the Northern Guinea Savannah than in the Southern Guinea Savannah and the trees are not as tall as those found in the Southern Guinea Savannah. Most of the tall grasses found in the derived Guinea Savannah, are also found in the Guinea Savannah, however, they are less luxuriant. The appearance of this zone differs from season to season. During the rainy season, the whole zone is green and covered with tall grasses that grow and reach maturity rapidly and thus become fibrous and tough. In the dry season they tend to die and disappear and one can see for kilometers without obstruction. This clearing is due to several periodical bush-burning that occurs during the dry season between November and April, carried out to either assist in farm clearance or hunting. The Sudan Savannah (Short grass savannah) The Sudan Savannah zone is found in the Northwest stretching from the Sokoto plains in the West, through the Northern sections of the Central highland. It spans almost the entire Northern States bordering the Niger Republic and covers over one quarter of Nigeria's total area. The low average annual rainfall of 657.3mm and the prolonged dry season (6-9 months) Sowunmi and kintola (2010) sustain fewer trees and shorter grasses than the Guinea Savannah. It is characterized by abundant short grasses of 1.5 - 2m and few stunted trees hardly above 15m. It is by far the most densely human populated zone of Northern Nigeria. Thus, the vegetation has undergone severe destruction in the process of clearing land for the cultivation of important economic crops such as Cotton, Groundnut, Sorghum, Millet, Maize and Wheat. The grass vegetation is interspersed with farms and thick bush trees such as Shea Butter tree (Butyrospermum parkii) and Acacia albida. Also found in the zone are Locust Bean trees (Parkia filicoidea), Tamarind tree (Tamarindus indica) and Mango (Mangifera indica). A large portion of this zone falls within the Tsetse Fly free belt of West Africa and it is excellent for the rearing and breeding of ruminant Livestock (Cattle, Goats, Sheep, Donkeys, Horses and Camels). The nomadic Fulani roam about this zone in search of fodder and water for their Livestock. Crop rotation, mixed cropping and mixed farming is practice Oniosun (2013) The Sahel Savannah (Marginal savannah) This is the last ecological zoological zone with proximity to the fringes of the fast- encroaching Sahara desert. Occupies about 18 130 km2 of the extreme Northeast corner of Nigeria and is the last vegetation zone in the extreme northern part of the country, close to Lake Chad, where the dry 69 season lasts for up to 9 months and the total average annual rainfall is hardly up to 700mm. Here the vegetation is not only sparse but the grasses are very short. As a rule this zone is not cultivated without irrigation. The people found in this zone are the nomadic herdsmen, and they are careful not to burn the grass found because sparse as it is it provides the only pasture available for their grazing Livestock. It is characterized by either very short grasses of not more than one meter high located in –between sand dunes. The area is dominated by several varieties of the Acacia and Date – palms. The Lake Chad basin, with its seasonally flooded undulating plains, supports a few tall trees. At the same time, the drainage system of rivers and streams into the Lake Chad basin has favored irrigation, without which cultivation would be virtually impossible. The increasing aridity in the area accounts for the progressive drying up of the Lake Chad. Mixed cropping i.e Peanuts, beans, maize and rearing of Cow, ram, goat is practice in this ecological zone Oniosun (2013). Montane Vegetation The Montane zone is located in the high altitude areas of the country like Jos Plateau, Mandara, Adamawa Mountain and Obudu Plateau. The zone is characterized by low average annual temperature (21.5ºC). The average annual rainfall is 1450mm. The Montane zone vegetation is covered with grass at the top and base, while forests cover the slopes, favored by moisture-laden wind. The zone has a great potential for the cultivation of Maize, Wheat, Carrot, Cabbage and other exotic vegetables but the mountainous nature of the zone prevents commercial farming. The Fulani who live in great numbers in the area turn the available fields into good pasture for their grazing animals. The main constraints on feed resources in all the zones are the destruction of perennial tree cover for firewood, bush fires caused by hunters; livestock rearing and overgrazing. These man-made constraints often lead to serious degradation of the pastoral resources and in some cases to an irreversible process of desertification, especially in the Sahel zone. 70 Table 1: Agro-Ecological Zones of Nigeria Zone Area Total Annual Rainfall Mean Monthly Temperature(s) oC (%) Amount (mm p.a) Regime (Days) Max Normal Min. Ultra Humid 2 2000+ Extended 300-360 32 28-25 23 Very Humid 14 1200-2000 Bimodal 250-300 33 28-24 21 Humid 21 1100-1400 Bimodal 200-250 37 30-26 18 Sub Humid 26 1000-1300 Unimodal 150-200 37 30-23 14 Plateau 2 1400-1500 Unimodal 200 31 24-20 14 Mountain 4 1400-2000 Bimodal 200-300 36 29-14 5 Dry Sub Humid 27 600-1000 Unimodal 90-150 39 31-21 12 Semi Arid 4 400-600 Unimodal 90 40 32-33 13 SOURCE: After FGN (1997) 71 Figure 3 Agro-Ecological Zones of Nigeria Conclusion Nigeria features wide agro-ecological zones with varying geographical location and climatic variability owing to the location of the country. The southern part of Nigeria is more humid compare to the drier Northern part of the country. Each agro-ecological zone specialized in producing unique crops and other natural resources products. Recommendations The study recommends that each agro-ecological system should maintain extensive production of crops and other agricultural products as well as local efforts in natural resources management. Government interventions are highly needed for sustainable agriculture and development to intensify and diversify food production. There is need for extension services to wake and make sure farmers at all level are aware with current climatic situations so as prepare for the crop production. 72 References ErnestHodgson (2012) Human Environments: Definition, Scope, and the Role of Toxicology. Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA. Gliessman, S.R. (2004): Agroecology and Agroecosystems. Department of Environmental Studies, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA Oniosun T. I. (2013) Agro-Ecological Zoning With Respect To Farming Systems In Nigeria How Does Global Warming Affect Agro-ecological Zones Oyenuga, V.A. (1967). Agriculture in Nigeria. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). FAO, Rome, Italy. 308 pp. F.A. Sowunmi and J. O. A kintola (2010) Effect of Climatic Variability on Maize Production in Nigeria. Research Journal of Environmental and Earth Sciences 2(1): 19-30, 73