Echoes of the Past: The Marimba Sencilla in Chiapas. An Exploratory Study of a Diatonic Marimba Tradition (2021)

Investigaciones. Forschungen zu Lateinamerika Herausgegeben von der Lateinamerikaforschung Austria (LAF Austria) Geschäftsführende Herausgeberin: Claudia Leitner, Institut für Romanistik der Universität Wien Herausgebergremium: Martin Coy, Institut für Geographie der Universität Innsbruck Josefina Echavarría Álvarez, Keogh School of Global Affairs, University of Notre Dame Klaus-Dieter Ertler, Institut für Romanistik der Universität Graz Karin Fischer, Institut für Soziologie der Johannes Kepler Universität Linz Eva Gugenberger, Romanisches Seminar der Europa-Universität Flensburg Andreas Hofer, Institut für Städtebau der TU Wien Martina Kaller, Institut für Geschichte der Universität Wien Jens Kastner, Institut für Kunst- und Kulturwissenschaften der Akademie der bildenden Künste Wien Elke Mader, Institut für Kultur- und Sozialanthropologie der Universität Wien David Mayer, Institut für Wirtschafts- und Sozialgeschichte der Universität Wien María Teresa Medeiros-Lichem, Abteilung für vergleichende Literaturwissenschaft der Universität Wien Martina Meidl, Institut für Romanistik der Universität Klagenfurt Julio Mendívil Trelles, Institut für Musikwissenschaft der Universität Wien Berthold Molden, Institut für Geschichte der Universität Wien Andreas Novy, Institute for Multi-Level Governance and Development, WU Wien Ursula Prutsch, Amerika-Institut der LMU München Isabella Radhuber, Institut für Politikwissenschaft der Universität Wien Lisa Ringhofer, Institut für Soziale Ökologie der Universität Klagenfurt Enrique Rodrigues-Moura, Institut für Romanistik der Otto-Friedrich-Universität Bamberg Fernando Ruiz Peyré, Institut für Geographie der Universität Innsbruck Christian Vogl, Institut für Ökologischen Landbau der BOKU Wien Anton Weissenhofer, Department für Botanik und Biodiversitätsforschung der Universität Wien Patricia Zuckerhut, Institut für Kultur- und Sozialanthropologie der Universität Wien Band 30 Juan Bermúdez Echoes of the Past: The Marimba Sencilla in Chiapas An Exploratory Study of a Diatonic Marimba Tradition PRAESENS VERLAG Gedruckt mit Unterstützung der Lateinamerikaforschung Austria (LAF Austria), der Philologisch-Kulturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Universität Wien, des Instituts für Musikwissenschaft der Universität Wien sowie der Professur für Vergleichende Musikwissenschaft (Ethnomusikologie) der Universität Wien © 2021 Praesens Verlag | http://www.praesens.at Coverbild: Marimba Sencilla. © Foto: Arturo Cigarroa Verlag und Druck: Praesens VerlagsgesmbH. Printed in EU ISBN: 978-3-7069-1119-1 Das Werk, einschließlich seiner Teile, ist urheberrechtlich geschützt. Jede Verwertung ist ohne Zustimmung des Verlages und des Autors unzulässig. Dies gilt insbesondere für die elektronische oder sonstige Vervielfältigung, Übersetzung, Verbreitung und öffentliche Zugänglichmachung. Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek: Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über http://dnb.d-nb.de abrufbar. In memoriam Helmut Brenner To my children and my wife, you are the light of my life! Contents List of Figures ........................................................................................................ 9 Abstract ................................................................................................................ 11 Zusammenfassung .............................................................................................. 13 Resumen .............................................................................................................. 15 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................ 17 Preface by Julio Mendívil ................................................................................... 23 Introduction ............................................................................................ 25 1. The Marimbas and the Field ............................................................... 31 1.1. Marimbas Sencillas in Chiapas ........................................................... 32 1.1.1. About the Dissemination of the Marimba Sencilla Concept ............................................. 33 1.1.2. Geographic Dissemination of the Marimbas Sencillas in Chiapas ...................................... 34 1.2. The Marimbas Sencillas ....................................................................... 35 2. Echoes of a Social Life ......................................................................... 43 2.1. Becoming a Marimbist ......................................................................... 45 2.1.1. Ways .............................................................................................. 45 2.1.2. Form ............................................................................................. 53 2.2. Encounters with the Instruments ........................................................ 57 2.3. Becoming a Group ................................................................................ 67 2.3.1. Linking the Group ...................................................................... 67 2.3.2. Types of Ensembles ..................................................................... 69 2.3.3. An Insight Regarding Musical Development .......................... 71 2.3.4. Getting the Gig ............................................................................ 75 3. Echoes of a Performance .................................................................... 81 3.1. Musical Occasions ................................................................................. 82 3.1.1. Las Fiestas – The Celebrations ................................................. 83 3.1.2. From Bar to Bar: The “Putillas” ................................................ 87 3.1.3. Civic and Political Holidays ....................................................... 89 3.1.4. Religious Celebrations ................................................................ 90 3.2. The Repertoires ...................................................................................... 94 3.3. Excursus – About the Adoption Process of Marimba Music in Chiapas .............................................................. 98 3.4. ¿Y Si No Sale? ¡Pues le Buscamos! – A Solution to the Melodic and Harmonic Limitations of the Instrument ................................. 102 –7– 4. Living the Performance – A Diachronic Dialogue ........................... 105 5. Conclusion ........................................................................................ 111 6. References ......................................................................................... 117 6.1. List of Figures ....................................................................................... 117 6.2. Bibliography ......................................................................................... 118 6.3. Appendix .............................................................................................. 123 6.3.1 List of Interviews ....................................................................... 123 6.3.2. List of Recorded Music ............................................................. 132 6.4. Index ..................................................................................................... 137 –8– List of Figures Figure Name Page Figure 1. Geographic dissemination of the marimba sencilla in Chiapas................................................................................. 35 Figure 2. Keyboard and mallets of a marimba sencilla........................... 36 Figure 3. Resonators with cachimbas (membranes)................................ 37 Figure 4. Musical tuning of the marimbas of the group Diamantes de Chicomuselo ................................. 37 Figure 5. Decoration of several marimba sencilla’ frames ..................... 38 Figure 6. Marimba sencilla ..................................................................... 39 Figure 7. 2UJDQRORJLFDOVSHFL¿FDWLRQVRIWKHmarimba sencilla based on Brenner (2007:293-294)...................................... 40, 41 Figure 8. “Marimba” group Diamantes de Chicomuselo ........................ 70 Figure 9. “Marimba orquesta” group Hermanos Vázquez....................... 72 Figure 10. Don Silvano Morales (left) playing with three mallets in his right hand........................................................................ 74 Figure 11. Score of the piece “Cuatro Milpas” ......................................... 86 Figure 12. Hermanos Santizo carrying a marimba to the next location ................................................................... 87 Figure 13. Score of the piece “San Rafael” ......................................... 91, 92 Figure 14. People at danza de judios dancing to marimba music ............. 93 Figure 15. Score of the piece “Motozintla” ............................................... 94 Figure 16. Rhythmic-harmonic motifs of a marimba son ......................... 96 –9– Figure 17. Rhythmic-harmonic motifs of a bolero .................................... 97 Figure 18. Rhythmic-harmonic motif of a ranchera .................................. 97 Figure 19. Rhythmic-harmonic motif of a corrido .................................... 97 Figure 20. Rhythmic-harmonic motif of a cumbia .................................... 98 Figure 21. Example of melodic substitution in the piece “El Sapo” ....... 103 Figure 22. Example of a harmonic adaptation in the piece “Amorcito corazón”............................................ 104 Figure 23. Marimba sencilla, reproduction by Víctor Mendívil ............. 105 – 10 – Abstract The marimba is the (“traditional”) instrument par excellence in the Mexican state of Chiapas. Its contemporary practices may range from participatory to presentational performances, while its repertoire drifts between popular genres, such as música ranchera and bolero, along with contemporary music and jazz. Its roots and representativeness are such that it would give the impression of being omnipresent in the soundscape of the state. Nonetheless, there are two different kinds of marimba in Chiapas: on the one hand, the marimba doble––chromatic––, which is widely visible and, no doubt, the cultural symbol of the state; and, on the other hand, the marimba sencilla––diatonic––, whose status and visibility are almost non-existent. Whereas the marimba doble has found a niche within ethnomusicology research, the marimba sencilla has been utterly ignored, having been at times even considered to be extinct in the state. Notwithstanding, it continues to be not only present inside the state, but also an essential part of the identity of several social groups. This research focuses on this diatonic marimba tradition. Based on the information gathered during several research stays in the area, it attempts to offer a general scope of the dissemination and function, as well as of the various sociocultural interrelations, of this musical tradition in the state of Chiapas. At the same time, EHLQJWKH¿UVWVFLHQWL¿FUHVHDUFKWKDWLVIRFXVHGH[FOXVLYHO\RQWKLVPXVLFDO tradition, it aims to offer some groundwork for the development of future research that grant access to a deeper understanding of this musical tradition. – 11 – Zusammenfassung Die Marimba ist das („traditionelle“) Instrument schlechthin im mexikanischen Bundesland Chiapas. Ihre heutige Aufführungspraxis pendelt zwischen präsentierend-konzertanten und partizipatorischen Aufführungen. Das Repertoire dieses Instruments bewegt sich je nach Aufführungskontext zwischen populären Genres, wie Música Ranchera und Boleros, und zeitgenössischer Musik sowie Jazz. Seine Verwurzelung und Repräsentativität lassen den Eindruck entstehen, in der chiapanekanischen Klanglandschaft allgegenwärtig zu sein. In Chiapas gibt es jedoch zwei Arten von Marimba: einerseits die Marimba doble – chromatisch –, die eine große Sichtbarkeit genießt und zweifellos das kulturelle Symbol dieses Bundeslandes ist. Und auf der anderen Seite die Marimba sencilla – diatonisch –; letztere mit fast null Status und Sichtbarkeit. Während die Marimba doble einen Platz in der ethnomusikologischen Forschung gefunden hat, wurde die Marimba sencilla völlig ignoriert, sodass sie manchmal sogar als ausgestorben erklärt wird. Sie ist jedoch nicht nur in diesem Bundesland präsent, sondern ist auch ein wesentlicher Teil der Identität verschiedener gesellschaftlicher Gruppen. Die folgende Arbeit konzentriert sich auf diese diatonische Marimba-Tradition. Basierend auf den Informationen, die während mehrerer Forschungsaufenthalte in der Region gesammelt wurden, soll ein Überblick über die Verbreitung und Funktionsweise sowie über die verschiedenen soziokulturellen Zusammenhänge dieser Musiktradition im Bundesstaat Chiapas gegeben werden. Da es sich um die erste wissenschaftliche Studie handelt, die ausschließlich auf diese Musiktradition ausgerichtet ist, soll sie gleichzeitig die Grundlagen für die Entwicklung zukünftiger Forschung schaffen, die uns ein tieferes Verständnis dieser musikalischen Tradition ermöglichen wird. – 13 – Resumen La marimba es el instrumento (“tradicional”) por excelencia en el estado mexicano de Chiapas. Sus prácticas actuales pueden oscilar entre performances participativos y presentacionales, al tiempo que su repertorio navega entre géneros populares, como música ranchera y bolero, y la música contemporánea, así como el jazz. Su arraigo y representatividad son tales que diera la impresión de ser omnipresente en el paisaje sonoro chiapaneco. En Chiapas existen, sin embargo, dos tipos de marimba: por un lado, la ‘marimba doble’ –cromática–, la cual goza de una amplia visibilidad y es sin duda el símbolo cultural del estado. Y por el otro la ‘marimba sencilla’ –diatónica–; esta última con un status y una visibilidad casi nulos. Si bien, la ‘marimba doble’ ha encontrado un lugar en la investigación etnomusicológica, la ‘marimba sencilla’ ha sido ignorada por completo, siendo en ocasiones considerada extinta en este estado. Sin embargo, esta sigue, no solo estando presente en el estado, sino que también sigue siendo una parte primordial de la identidad de diversos grupos sociales. El siguiente trabajo se encuentra enfocado a esta tradición marimbística diatónica. Basado en la información recabada durante diversas estancias de investigación en la zona, se busca dar una visión general de la diseminación y el funcionamiento, así como de las diversas interrelaciones socioculturales de esta tradición musical en el estado de Chiapas. Al misPRWLHPSRDOVHUHVWHHOSULPHUHVWXGLRFLHQWt¿FRHQIRFDGRH[FOXVLYDPHQWHD esta tradición musical, se busca sentar las bases para el desarrollo de futuras investigaciones que nos permitan acceder a un entendimiento profundo de esta tradición musical. – 15 – Acknowledgements The author would like to thank the following people and institutions for their invaluable support: *** Der Verfasser dankt folgenden Personen und Institutionen für ihre wertvolle Hilfe: *** El autor les agradece a las siguientes personas e instituciones su valioso apoyo: Rubén Aguilar Pérez, Nueva Independencia, Mexico Elisabeth Aman BA, Graz, Austria Manuel Ansueto Gordillo, Frontera Comalapa, Mexico Elías Anzueto Velázquez, Frontera Comalapa, Mexico José Luis Bermúdez Molina, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Mexico Prof.a Carmen Lucía Bermúdez Molina, San Cristóbal de las Casas, Mexico Carlos Darío Bermúdez Vázquez, Pujiltic, Mexico Eva Maria Bermúdez-Fink, Stübing, Austria Ing. Juan José Borrego Cadena, San Cristóbal de las Casas, Mexico Mag.phil. Dr.phil. Bernd Brabec, Graz, Austria Mag.art. Mag.phil. Dr.phil. Priv.Doz. Helmut Brenner, Graz, Austria Bianca Brugger, Graz, Austria Efraín Gregorio Calvo Herrera, Frontera Comalapa, Mexico Arturo Cano Gómez, Frontera Comalapa, Mexico Gilder Cano Roblero, Frontera Comalapa, Mexico Isidro Cano Roblero, Frontera Comalapa, Mexico José María Cano Roblero, Frontera Comalapa, Mexico Juan Cano Roblero, Frontera Comalapa, Mexico Beltrán Castellanos Pascasio, Chicomuselo, Mexico Ing. Ernesto Cibrián Covarrubias, Darmstadt, Germany Lic. Arturo Cigarroa Cabrera, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Mexico Daniel Alejandro Cobos Ortiz BA, Graz, Austria Mtro. Salatiel Cruz Ortiz, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Mexico Fredy De León Altuzar, Frontera Comalapa, Mexico Juan Delgado Camposeco, Guadalupe Victoria, Mexico Guadalupe Díaz Verdugo, Bacantón, Mexico – 17 – Christian Drevensek, Graz, Austria Arturo Escobar Díaz, Chicharras, Mexico Armando Escobar Roblero, Piedra Labrada, Mexico Enendy Escobar Vázquez, Chicomuselo, Mexico Facultad de Música UNICACH, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Mexico Basilio Felipe Marcos, Guadalupe Victoria, Mexico Lisa-Christina Fellner BA MA, Graz, Austria Elisabeth Fink BSc MA, Graz, Austria Alois Fink, Stübing, Austria Elisabeth Fink, Stübing, Austria Manuel Flores Hernández, Chicomuselo, Mexico MMag.art. Daniel Fuchsberger BA, Graz, Austria Carmen Gaggl BA MA, Klagenfurt am Wörthersee, Austria Julia Gaggl BA, Klagenfurt am Wörthersee, Austria Sarah Gaggl BA, Klagenfurt am Wörthersee, Austria Heinz Gaggl, Klagenfurt am Wörthersee, Austria Sonja Gaggl, Klagenfurt am Wörthersee, Austria Armando García Escalante, Chicomuselo, Mexico Mario García Escalante, Chicomuselo, Mexico Sonia María García jasso, Santa Mónica, Mexico Hermelindo García Ruiz, Chicomuselo, Mexico Enrique García, Frontera Comalapa, Mexico Mario Alfredo Gómez Álvarez, Puebla, Mexico Octavio David Gómez Álvarez, Puebla, Mexico José Bulmaro Gómez Mazariegos, Motozintla, Mexico Ramón Gómez Roblero, Motozintla, Mexico Hilario González López, Chicharras, Mexico Abimael González Martínez, El Sabinalito, Mexico Audelino González Martínez, El Sabinalito, Mexico Filegonio González Martínez, El Sabinalito, Mexico Carlos González Pérez, Frontera Comalapa, Mexico Blanca González Roblero, La Grandeza, Mexico Elmar González Roblero, Chicharras, Mexico Lino González Roblero, La Grandeza, Mexico Sara González Roblero, La Grandeza, Mexico Yolidorei González Roblero, La Grandeza, Mexico Emin González Vázquez, Chicharras, Mexico Rodrigo González Velázquez, La Grandeza, Mexico Manuel de Jesús González, Frontera Comalapa, Mexico Lic. Humberto Gordillo Pérez, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Mexico Carlos Gramajo Castellano, Chicomuselo, Mexico Amílcar Gramajo Gordillo, Chicomuselo, Mexico – 18 – Univ.Prof. Dr.phil. Gerd Grupe, Graz, Austria Mag. Christian Hartl MA, Graz, Austria German Hernández Hernández, Santa Rita, Mexico Mtro. Roberto Hernández Soto, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Mexico Mag.a Sofía Herrera Bustamante, Graz, Austria Román Herrera de Paz, Chicomuselo, Mexico Institut für Ethnomusikolgie der KUG, Graz, Austria Institut für Musikwissenschaft der Universität Wien, Vienna, Austria Mario Jiménez Jiménez, Motozintla, Mexico Olegario Jiménez Jiménez, Motozintla, Mexico Land Steiermark, Graz, Austria Lateinamerikaforschung Austria, Vienna, Austria Pablo Octavio López Camey, Nueva Independencia, Mexico Nabor López García, Nueva Independencia, Mexico Mtra. Cecilia López Girón, Chicharras, Mexico Bulmaro López López, Frontera Comalapa, Mexico Darinel López Roque, Amatenango de la Frontera, Mexico María Gabriela López Yáñez, MA PhD,. Quito, Ecuador Lic. Irene Amalia Márquez Jiménez, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Mexico Teresa Martín Goyena, Vienna, Austria Claudio Mauricio Roblero, Frontera Comalapa, Mexico Eleazar Mauricio Roblero, Frontera Comalapa, Mexico Romeo Mejía Escalante, Motozintla, Mexico Francisco Méndez Echeverría, Motozintla, Mexico Santiago Méndez Echeverría, Motozintla, Mexico Mtra. Lucía Méndez Toporek, San Cristóbal de las Casas, Mexico Univ.-Prof. Dr. Julio Mendívil, M.A., Vienna, Austria Víctor Mendívil Trelles, Berlin, Germany Baudilio Mérida Camey, Nueva Independencia, Mexico Francisco Mérida Camey, Nueva Independencia, Mexico Antonio de Jesús Mérida Robles, Motozintla, Mexico Héctor Morales Ramírez, Siltepec, Mexico Silvano Morales, Chicomuselo, Mexico Dr. phil. Israel Moreno Vázquez, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Mexico Dipl.-Ing. Markus Muchitsch, Graz, Austria Dra. Pamela Mungía Realpozo, Mexico City, Mexico Metzerie Abril Mungía Realpozo, Mexico City, Mexico Babak Nikzat BA MA PhD, Graz, Austria Bakk.phil. Birgit Nikzat BA MA, Graz, Austria Mirjam Ninkovic BA, Ingolstadt, Germany Lourdes Mariana Olvera Colin BA, Graz, Austria Limber Ortega Vázquez, Frontera Comalapa, Mexico – 19 – Olivar Ortíz Morales, Amatenango de la Frontera, Mexico Lic. Efraín Abenamar Paniagua Guerrero, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Mexico Amancio Pérez González, Motozintla, Mexico Nerix Pérez González, Motozintla, Mexico Hausleben René Pérez Pérez, Motozintla, Mexico 3RU¿ULR3pUH]3pUH]0RWR]LQWOD0H[LFR Emilio Pérez Roblero, Amatenango de la Frontera, Mexico Vidal Pérez Santizo, Bejucal de Ocampo, Mexico Rigoberto Pérez Vázquez, La Rinconada, Mexico Bernabé Ramos López, Motozintla, Mexico Leonel Regalado, Chicomuselo, Mexico Lic. Betsabé Reyes Escobar, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Mexico Daniel Reyna Vázquez, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Mexico Lic. Cristina Riojas Ramos, Graz, Austria Lic. Levi Roblero Escobar, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Mexico Leodegario Nicolás Roblero Gálvez, Frontera Comalapa, Mexico Audeliano Modesto Roblero Pérez, Piedra Labrada, Mexico Elpidio Roblero Pérez, Nueva Independencia, Mexico Arturo Roblero Velázquez, Chicharras, Mexico Hermilo Rodríguez Macario, Chicharras, Mexico Ausencio Rodríguez, Chicharras, Mexico José Arturo Ruiz García, Chicomuselo, Mexico Lic. Ignacio Ruiz Lara, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Mexico Guillermo Antonio Santillán López, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Mexico Milton Santizo Morales, Frontera Comalapa, Mexico Bernardino Santizo Rodríguez, Frontera Comalapa, Mexico Mattia Scassellati BA MA, Graz, Austria Kurt Schatz BA MA, Graz, Austria Doris Schweinzer, Graz, Austria Mag.phil. Malik Sharif BA MA PhD, Graz, Austria Stadt Graz, Graz, Austria Ass.Prof.in Dr.in phil. Kendra Stepputat MA, Graz, Austria Sarah Town, PhD., Durham, USA Juan Pablo Trad Hasbun BA, Graz, Austria Johanna Trummer BA, Gleisdorf, Austria Universidad de Ciencias y Artes de Chiapas, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Mexico Universität für Musik und darstellende Kunst, Graz, Austria Universität Wien, Vienna, Austria Jessie Vallejo, PhD., Pomona, USA Manuel Vázquez García, La Rinconada, Mexico Lorenzo Vázquez Pereyra, La Rinconada, Mexico Antonio Vázquez Roblero, Nueva Independencia, Mexico – 20 – Everardo Vázquez Vázquez, La Rinconada, Mexico Manuel Vázquez Vázquez, La Rinconada, Mexico Benjamín Velázquez, Las Ventanas, Mexico Lic. Belén Sisinia Vera Tapia, Leibnitz, Austria Francisco Villatoro Hernández, Frontera Comalapa, Mexico Guillermo Villegas Alemán, Graz, Austria Inka Werner BA, Graz, Austria Benjamin Wheeler, Tbilisi, Georgia Florian Wimmer BA MA, Graz, Austria Gilberto Zamorano Ramírez, Chicomuselo, Mexico Isabel Cristina Zuleta Arias, San Cristóbal de las Casas, Mexico *** – 21 – – 22 – Preface Organology is an area of musicology dedicated to the study of musical instruPHQWVIURPDQDFRXVWLFDQGKLVWRULFDOSRLQWRIYLHZ7KHVH¿HOGVDUHFRPSOHmentary since their methods of documenting and classifying the morphology and physical constitution of the instruments and their sound production is closely linked to their technical transformation through time. Since the end of the 20th century, organology has broadened its scope, developing into what Henry Johnson called the ethnomusicology of musical instruments and, ten years later, into what Kevin Dawe called the cultural study of musical instruments. This means a new organological conception that no longer considers instruments as mere devices for music making but as agents within a network of human and non-human actors that produce culture. Echoes of the Past: The Marimba Sencilla in Chiapas. An Exploratory Study of a Diatonic Marimba Tradition by Juan Bermúdez is part of this novel organological tradition that considers musical instruments inside cultural frameworks and contexts, based on the idea that instruments are not static objects, but are continuously transforming entities. %DVHG RQ ULJRURXV ¿HOGZRUN LQ &KLDSDV %HUP~GH]¶V PRQRJUDSK\ H[plores the life of the diatonic marimba in Chiapas. It is a biographical analysis that examines the instrument’s history and ethnographical contexts as well as the passion of the people who build, play and listen to this meaningful Mexican idiophone in the Chiapas region. While Bermúdez emphasizes the social dynamics that constitute the marimba’s cultural importance itinerary, this does not mean that he discounts considering the historical contexts or morphological aspects of the instrument. On the contrary, he carefully traces its physical transformations, connecting them with the different repertoires associated with the marimba being performed as a solo instrument or as an ensemble member. Likewise, he follows the social mobility of the marimba within the Chiapas world: as the instrument par excellence for weddings and birthday parties, in bars, or in religious ceremonies. The marimba sencilla is central to local traditions, but it also relates to the tradition of the chromatic marimba, which is usually associated with modern or classical repertoires. In doing so, Bermúdez presents to us the marimba, or in other words, the family of marimba instruments in the contexts of their diverse and sometimes overlapping cultural cohorts. An important aspect of the book is dedicated to forefronting marimba SOD\HUV¶YRLFHV%HUP~GH]SURYLGHVH[WHQVLYHTXRWDWLRQVIURPKLV¿HOGZRUN interviews, crafting an intimate discussion that allows players to speak about WKH GLI¿FXOWLHV WKH\ H[SHULHQFHG LQ REWDLQLQJ DQ LQVWUXPHQW OHDUQLQJ LW E\ having the opportunity to see, listen to, and imitate teachers, either informally – 23 – or by studying in institutions, such as music schools or universities. Through his style, the author takes readers to the Chiapas region to explore the social FDUWRJUDSK\ RI WKH PDULPED DQG WR ZLWQHVV JHQHUDWLRQDO FRQÀLFWV EHWZHHQ the younger generation, who have largely ignored the marimba tradition, and elderly musicians, who worry about the future of the instrument in a cultural environment that seems to exclude them. Bermúdez thereby compiles the players’ requests for legitimation and preservation without taking part in or falling into nationalistic or essentialist discourses commonly found in folklore studies. Bermúdez skillfully deals with the thorny issue of the marimba’s origin. 5DWKHUWKDQGHOYLQJLQWRWKHKLJKO\DWWUDFWLYH¿HOGRIVSHFXODWLRQKHGHOLYHUV WKHQDUUDWLYHVKHIRXQGLQWKH¿HOGDQGDVVRFLDWHVWKHLQVWUXPHQWZLWKDQ$IULcan heritage in order to stress its adoption and demonstrate the enormous importance the marimba has for the construction of the region’s cultural identity. Juan Bermúdez’s writing style deserves praise and recognition for its academic rigor and thorough ethnomusicological analysis balanced with its enjoyable narrative as he invites the reader to follow his personal path to closely understanding the marimba, its players, and its music. For these reasons, Echoes of the Past is not only a monography about the marimba in the Chiapas region, it is the testimony of a young Mexican man who becomes a keen and LQVLJKWIXOHWKQRPXVLFRORJLVWWKURXJKKLV¿HOGZRUN Due to the quality and importance of this work, Echoes of the Past received the Association of Latin American Studies in Austria’s Research Award in 2020. This book marks a milestone in the history of the marimba in Chiapas and opens interesting paths for future ethnomusicological inquiries of musical instruments and applications of new organological perspectives in WKH¿HOG Julio Mendívil on behalf of the Editorial Board of Investigaciones – 24 – Introduction1 “No, it is not a record of experience at all; it is the means of experience. That experience became experience only in the writing of the ethnography. Before that it was only a disconnected array of chance happenings. No experience preceded the ethnography. The experience was the ethnography” (Stephen Tyler)2 “I speak as myself; neither fully insider nor outsider, neither fully emic nor fully etic” (Marcia Herndon)3 Some time ago I heard the story of a bear. Little Nicke had gone out for a walk in the woods on a day like any other. Actually, he wanted to search for strawberries, but he instead came across a quaint object: a chair. He had never seen such a thing. “What could this be used for?” he asked himself. A man who was walking by told him that one could sit in it. But, how does one sit? (see Nordqvist 1992). My encounter with the ethnomusicology, and the marimba sencilla, would have not been very different to that encounter between Nicke and the chair. It had all started a sultry December morning in 2008. As usual, that morning I was heading to the Music School; the orchestra’s rehearsal was about to start. Although I had already lived in Tuxtla Gutiérrez for two years and it was winter, my body was still unaccustomed to that winWU\KHDW:LWKDEDFNSDFN¿OOHGZLWKVKHHWPXVLFDQGGUXPVWLFNVRQP\ shoulder, through lush trees I slowly crossed the facilities of my alma mater. A tiny crowd began to form within that small hall where, in a few moments, the orchestra would begin to practice. Some of the schoolmates were already decorating that heavy humid air with their music. The music VWDQGVZHUHEHJLQQLQJWREH¿OOHGZLWKSDSHUVQHZVRQRULWLHVZHUHEHLQJ born in that increasing chaos, and an incessant search of a (still) unbegotten “A” began to overrule our ears. I, standing outside the room, was reading the advertisements plastered on the wall; examination dates and upcoming concerts. 1 Extensive parts of this work were translated from Spanish into English by Sofía Herrera. The author is grateful for her help throughout this process. 2 Tyler 1986:138. 3 Herndon1993:77. – 25 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas There among the usual announcements, everyday things, a paper, hastily written by hand, was to claim my attention. “Do you want to know more about diatonic marimbas4? Enroll in an excursion to investigate about the marimba sencilla,QIRLQWKH0XVLF'HSDUWDPHQWRI¿FH´³Marimba sencilla? What could that be?” I asked myself. During those years I was completing a bachelor’s degree in marimba, and I believed I knew at least something about them, but up to that moment I had not (consciously) heard anything about marimbas sencillas in Chiapas. Soon that possibility of knowing “more” about that which I did not know would provoke a fascination in me so strong that it GLGQRWWDNHPHORQJWRYLVLWWKH0XVLF'HSDUWDPHQWRI¿FHLQVHDUFKRIIXUWKHU information. $WWKDWPRPHQW,GLGQ¶WUHDOL]H,ZRXOG¿QGP\VHOILQDQHWKQRPXVLFRORJ\FRXUVHDQGWKHQLQYROYHGLQWKHH[SHULHQFHVRI¿HOGZRUNDQGZLWKRXW knowing I would be finding myself with something, a part of me, that I had not seen before. My love for ethnomusicology would become perceptible in those days. It is bemusing: I had arrived at the Music School seeking my development as a musician; however, towards the middle of the journey I would come upon that quaint thing called ethnomusicology. I felt like Nicke, with that unknown thought in my head and without knowing what to do with it. A FRXSOHPRQWKVODWHUSXUVXLQJWKDWWKRXJKWIROORZLQJQHZVWHSV,ZRXOG¿QG myself studying (ethno)musicology in Graz. While in other lands and focused on other things, those marimbas sencillas did not distance themselves from me so easily. “What was a little Mexican guy doing in those Austrian lands?” they have asked me frequently. There, so far away, distanced from “my culture”. In the beginning my poor German skills, as well as my lack of imagination, did not allow me to tell anything but the same story: that paper on the wall, that investigation, and that unexpected path that led me to being there. Those answers, however, would almost always provoke the same reaction: “Marimbas sencillas? And, what is that?” That was the same question that I myself asked, 4 Nowadays, the term marimba—apart from its etymology (See Ortíz 1952)—may adopt several meanings, depending on the context in which it is being used. This word may mean (in Mexico) an instrument: the marimba; an ensemble: the marimba (orquesta); or even the music that is played on those instruments or by these ensembles. When it refers to an instrument, the word marimba may mean one of the two different kinds of “marimba” which exist in Chiapas: marimba (doble)—chromatic—o marimba (sencilla) —diatonic. Thus, one single phrase could be interpreted in different ways depending on the context. In spite of these multiple meanings, the word marimba, on its own, is generally used to make reference to one of those instruments in Chiapas. Whereas the context where such term is used will XVXDOO\GH¿QHZKLFKRIWKHVHLQVWUXPHQWVLVEHLQJUHIHUUHGWRWKHUHLVDWHQGHQF\²FRQVLGHring its wider visibility (Slobin 1992)—to make reference to the marimba doble. The terms marimba sencilla and marimba doble are used less frequently, while this differentiation is used mainly in those cases when their separation or comparison become necessary. – 26 – IntroductIon that very same question that had led me to coming into contact with ethnomusicology. What else could I say other than “a big xylophone with a single keyboard?” Soon I would understand how little I knew about marimbas. Time would pass, and it would usher me even further and further into the labor of ethnomusicology. That question, however, would remain alive in my head. The possibility of knowing “more” about those instruments fascinated me and soon I found myself perusing the literature that concerned the topic. About the tradition of the marimba dobleLQ&KLDSDVLWZDVQRWGLI¿FXOWWR grasp some ideas; Helmut Brenner (2007), Amador Hérnandez (1975), Laurence Kaptain (1991), Israel Moreno (2016 and 2019) and Cesar Pineda del Valle (1994), among others, had written vast works regarding this tradition. But, what about the tradition of marimba sencilla? In the beginning I thought that that was something only I or the people with whom I had talked with had no idea about; soon I was to understand that it was rather a much more generalized matter than I had imagined. The marimbas sencillas in Chiapas seemed to be almost non-existent in the ethnomusicological literature. Up until that moment, there were few authors that had treated them in recent years (see Brenner 2007:109-126; 193-197; 254-261; 281-194). Its limited visibility had kept it outside the attention of literature about marimba in Chiapas. It was VWDUWLQJWREHFRPHFOHDUWKDW,ZRXOGQRW¿QGWKHDQVZHUVWRP\TXHULHVLQ any book. Were then our experiences lived in an investigation led by Helmut Brenner the “only new thing” we knew about them? Little had been written by then about the tradition of the marimba sencilla in Chiapas. The limited information about it was not always very encouraging; several authors had already deemed it dead years ago (e.g. Gódinez 2015:145): This, however, could not be true; the encounter I had had with that instrument at the beginning of the year 2009, as well as its resulting projects (see Bermúdez 2015; Brenner/Moreno/Bermúdez 2014) were a sign that the marimbas sencillas were still a living part of certain cultural cohorts in Chiapas5. While these works brought to light a new image about the tradition of the marimba sencilla, some (very) basic questions still remained in the dark. If those very elementary questions that I kept asking myself had not yet been answered, why not make them the subject of my Master’s degree research? The existence of marimbas sencillas in Chiapas was evident, but what was their geographical distribution? Where were the frontiers of their visibility located? And particularly talking about marimbas sencillas; what types of marimbas sencillas are there? What do they look like? And even more; what are their musical possibilities? How are these instruments tuned? Who makes them? And besides that, who plays the marimbas sencillas and why? Under what circumstances do they perform their musical endeavor? And since we  7XULQRGH¿QHVcultural cohortsDV³VRFLDOJURXSLQJVWKDWIRUPDORQJWKHOLQHVRIVSHFL¿F constellations of shared habits based in similarities of parts of the self” (2008:111). – 27 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas are talking about the musicians; how does the learning system work in this musical tradition? How did the marimbists get to the instrument and what is the interdependence between them? Also; what types of ensembles are there, how are they formed, and by whom? What is the repertoire and how is it acquired/transmitted? How does the economic generation and sustenance work during the practice of their musical endeavor? In which occasions does the marimba sencilla performance take place and how do the marimbists adapt their performance to the context of such occasions? The questions were many, but the answers were few. My investigations–and the present work–would be devoted to search for them; to provide a general overview of the tradition of the marimba sencilla in Chiapas. :LWK WKH SXUSRVH RI ¿QGLQJ WKHVH DQVZHUV , XQGHUWRRN YDULRXV UHVHDUFK VWD\VLQ&KLDSDV7KH¿UVWRQHDQGWKHRQHWKDWEURXJKWPHWRWKHVXEMHFW took place in February 2009 alongside some fellow students of the Music School as part of an research project coordinated by Helmut Brenner. Then, LQGLYLGXDOO\ DQG IRFXVLQJ P\ ¿HOG RI ZRUN WRZDUGV WKH TXHVWLRQV DERYH , returned to the zone in August 2012, as well as February, August and September 2016; these last ones were the stages in which the contact with the marimbistas sencillos was the most intensive. During these stays, the main method employed for the gathering of data was participant observation. Additionally, the information obtained during these investigations stays would be complemented by the one which Israel Moreno and Daniel Fuchsberger obtained during their investigations in the border area between Chiapas and Guatemala in the end of 2009 and the beginning of 2010, the materials of which they shared with me. Even though works oriented in the direction of those monstrous ethnographies “of old” are perhaps not recommended for a Master’s thesis, the lack of D VFLHQWL¿F ZRUNWKDWGHDOVH[FOXVLYHO\ZLWKWKLVPXVLFDOWUDGLWLRQMXVWL¿HV its making. However, it is important to make clear that this work can only be VHHQDVD¿UVWVWHS±VXSHU¿FLDOLQWKHH[WUHPH±WRZDUGVDEHWWHUXQGHUVWDQGLQJ of this musical tradition. The (possible) existence of this tradition of marimba sencilla in Guatemala and other regions in Mexico, as well as its connection to other marimba traditions inside and outside of Chiapas, would (for the time being) be left out of the scope of this work. The need for a much more profound investigation–individual, as well as comparative–is, without any doubt, evident. Through the course of my investigations, I had been facing a constant reÀHFWLRQ RQ P\ SRVLWLRQ LQ WKH ¿HOG , ZDV FRQVWDQWO\ ODEHOHG±ERWK LQ$XVtria and in Mexico–as a researcher of my own culture. But, was that what I was actually doing? Sure, I had been born in Chiapas and I played marimba (doble), but my world was and had been very different from the one the marimbistas sencillos experienced every day. We were not homogenous beings – 28 – IntroductIon sharing a single culture. Even though we spoke the same language, many of their preoccupations and experiences were foreign to me. In the field, my presence was charged with “authority”; the “pale” color of my skin, my urban demeanour, the softness of my hands, exhibiting a lack of physical work, those features that marked me; clear hierarchies, carrying along the weight of colonialism, allowed themselves to be sensed between us. However, we would also have common histories and experiences; not only a history and language of all Chiapas, but also a marimba meta-language and knowledge seemed to exist between us. If not the same, also not (too) different; they EHLQJWKH\,EHLQJ,7KHUHLQWKH¿HOG,ZRXOGEHDPDQIURP&KLDSDVmarimbista (doble), ethnomusicologist of the grazer Schule, Styrian, also; a city boy, “light swarthy” –whatever that means–, professor and politician [sic!]. They would be their own worlds; I would be my own. The following work attempts to evoke for the reader those sounds and images from my experiences as I lived them during my stays in the sierra of Chiapas, as well as the experiences of the marimbistas sencillos during the practice of their musical endeavor; also criticizing with it some forms of representation that are used; as Tyler would say: “A post-modern ethnography is a cooperatively evolved text consisting of fragments of discourse intended to evoke in the minds of both reader and writer an emergent fantasy of a possible world of commonsense reality, and thus to provoke an aesthetic integration that will have a therapeutic effect. [...] Because post-modern ethnography privileges ‘discourse’ over ‘text,’ it foregrounds dialogue as opposed to monologue, and emphasizes the cooperative and collaborative nature of the ethnographic situation in contrast to the ideology of the transcendental observer. [...] The key word in understanding this difference is ‘evoke,’ for if a discourse can be said to ‘evoke,’ then it need not represent what evokes, though it may be a means to a representation. Since evocation is nonrepresentational, it is not to be understood as a sign function, for it is not a ‘symbol of,’ nor does it ‘symbolize’ what it evokes” (Tyler 1986:125-129). Thus, I shall speak, thus, they shall speak; as our selves. Using their voice, using my voice; we shall speak. Since “‘Poetry’ is not limited to romantic or modernist subjectivism: it can be historical, precise, objective. And of course it is just as conventional and institutionally determined as ‘prose.’ Ethnography is hybrid textual activity: it transverses genres and disciplines” (Clifford 1986:26). I shall speak, we shall speak; along my experiences, along our experiences; my voice, their voice, the echoes of those voices of ours will tell of their history. In these pages can be found, can be heard, more than just plain data. – 29 – – 30 – 1. The Marimbas and the Field “Nunca tuvimos nada más nuestro que la marimba: con ella nacemos y con ella morimos. Antes de vivir sabemos de su canto en las serenatas de nuestros padres; con ella nos esperan al llegar al mundo, los bautizos, la escuela donde su madera tiene la misma dignidad que el pizarrón o los libros. Los primeros bailables y después los bailes, las manitas sudadas de los novios nuevos, las bodas y tornabodas, los hijos esperados, los triunfos y los fracasos contaron con su presencia. Los tristísimos viajes al panteón deshojando el tulipán amargo de aquel Dios nunca muere, las luchas populares saludando con sombreros el Himno del agrarista o El pañuelo rojo, según fuera el momento.” (Eraclio Zepeda)6 Among vanished places; among forgotten thoughts. The involuntary journey of the marimbas would begin in the far reaches of the African continent7; among the dispossessed; among the survivors. With them, they would travel; through them, they would speak. They, however, would not share the same fate. The instrument’s voice, travelling on the memory of the American peoples, refused to be extinguished. The marimba made many homes and came to be seen in many ways. Guatemala; Belize; Honduras; El Salvador; Nicaragua; Costa Rica; Colombia; Ecuador; Brazil; here too, in these Mexican lands; there, way South, far from New Spain’s heart, among the people gathered in the lands of what we now call Chiapas, its memory survived8. Since it arrived in Chiapas, the marimba was adopted by different cultural cohorts, becoming an everlasting symbol of their cultural expressions. Where6 “We never had anything that belonged to us so much as the marimba: we were born with it and with it we died. Before living, we know of its songs in the serenades of our parents; with it we are welcomed into the world, in baptisms, in schools where its wood carries the VDPHGLJQLW\DVEODFNERDUGVRUERRNV7KH¿UVWUHFLWDOVDQGGDQFHVWKHVZHDW\OLWWOHKDQGVRI new couples, the wedding parties and their afterparties, the long-awaited children, the triumphs and failures, all in its presence. The sorrowful trips to the cemetery, shedding leaves off of bitter tulips from that Dios nunca muereWKHSXEOLF¿JKWVJUHHWLQJZLWKVRPEUHURVWKH Himno del agrarista or El pañuelo rojo, according to the occasion” (Transl. Sofía Herrera). (Zepeda 2010:132) 7 For further information, as well as for a comparative perspective on the different theories regarding the origins of the marimba, see: Brenner 2007:77-125. For further information regarding other theories, see: Armas Lara 1964; 1970, and Godínez 2015. 8 For further information regarding the history of the different marimba traditions in Latin America, see: Brenner 2007:77-192. – 31 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas DVLWVVKDSHZRXOGKDYHXQGHUJRQHVHYHUDOWUDQVIRUPDWLRQVE\WKHLQÀXHQFH of different ecological and sociocultural elements, its greatest morphological change would appear upon 18979, by means of Corazón de Jesús Borraz Moreno, who added a second row of keys, thus turning it into a chromatic instrument (Brenner 2007:114-119; Kaptain 1991:40). This new instrument would be named marimba doble or marimba cuacha10. The marimbas that had existed before, with a diatonic voice, would be called marimbas sencillas from that moment on. Thanks to this transformation of the marimba (sencilla), Corazón de Jesús would have unleashed, perhaps unwittingly, a cultural revolution that carried these instruments into cultural cohorts, as well as into rather varied musical worlds. 'XULQJWKH¿UVWIHZGHFDGHVIROORZLQJWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHmarimba doble, both kinds of marimba (sencilla and doble) would coexist in parallel along different regions in Chiapas11. However, the marimba doble would enjoy an ever increasing popularity both in the rural areas and in the growing urban centers of Chiapas, which would make it an element of different musical worlds along the state (see chapter 3.3) As time went by, the presence of the marimba sencilla would be increasingly limited to small regions in rural areas farther and farther away from the urban centers of the state, and its visibility (Slobin 1992:17-20) would be limited to such an extent that nowadays this musical tradition is considered extinct by a large sector of the population. Contrastingly, the marimba doble would eventually become the cultural symbol of the state of Chiapas, while its diatonic counterpart would never reach this status. 1.1. Marimbas Sencillas in Chiapas The shape and the sound of the marimba sencilla were found blurry in my memory; my infant eyes must have seen it once in the sierra. In the world that I knew, in my world, it no longer existed. Its voice was heard no more in the valleys of Chiapas. The people, my people, had forgotten its sound. Some had still heard its echo although it had been dead for a while (e.g. Gódinez 2015:145; see too Moreno 2014:37); others just considered it a battered 9 There is still no consensus among some scholars as to the exact date of the invention of the marimba doble. Depending on the author, it might be set in 1892 (García 1985:19), 1895 (Sordo 1972:27-30), 1896 (Pineda 1984:n.p.; Rodas 1971:35-36) and 1897 (Moreno 2016:153; Hernandez 1975:60; Morales 1985:261-62); Notwithstanding, the last one would seem to be the most likely. 10 Cuachi is an adjective used in Chiapas to refer to twins. 11 For further information regarding the history of the tradition of the marimba doble in Chiapas, see: Brenner 2007, and Moreno 2016 and 2019. – 32 – The MariMbas and The Field remnant of the past (see López 2015). I would have to wait until 2009 for the echo of its existence to ring again in my memory. It would be only in those February days that I would see it again. 1.1.1. About the Dissemination of the Marimba Sencilla Concept As I researched about the existence of the tradition of marimba sencilla in Chiapas I had the chance to experience a phenomenon related to its name, one that would allow me to identify the borderline of the visibility of this musical tradition. My journey to meet with the marimba again would begin in the pursuit of that echo; in the pursuit of that name. “Marimba sencilla?” my colleagues and I would say. “What could that be? Could we have used that name for our own marimba (doble) for its ‘simplicity’ in contrast to the ‘sophisticated’ marimba de concierto12?” some people would refute. In the centre of Chiapas, our voice no longer evoked its shape when we called its name; a complete dissociation between the term “marimba sencilla” and the tradition of the marimba (sencilla) had been made evident. Nonetheless, this would not be one single reality. In other areas of the state our research had faced very similar reactions. “Marimba sencilla?” we would ask again. “Are you perhaps looking for a marimba (doble) that’s pure and simple, that can be played without other instruments?” other people would answer. This precise dissociation between the term and its musical practice was a clear example of the inexistence of this marimba tradition for some years already, as well as of its lack of visibility in those regions. The people from around here do not know (or perhaps remember) the term “marimba sencilla”; do not recognize it as what it is and what it represents. In these regions of Chiapas, the only marimba tradition was that of marimba doble. While the term “marimba sencilla” still provoked disagreement among the population of most of the municipalities we had visited, and it frequently referred to ensembles of marimbas (dobles) without any additional instrumentation (see chapter 2.3.2), little by little its image started to be glimpsed in the imaginary of the inhabitants of some regions of Chiapas. “Marimba sencilla?” “Ah, yes, of course, my grandpa had a little marimba sencilla, but it got lost many years ago; they used it for kindling since it was not being played. Turned to kindling wood!” Don German Hernández would tell us13. The frontiers of visibility of this musical endeavour would begin to become more concrete. 12 The term marimba de concierto is used in reference to modern marimbas manufactured by international companies such as Yamaha, by means of industrial processes and following the aesthetics of Western scholarly music. Lester Godínez also mentions them as marimba industrial (Godínez 2015:191-197). 13 Personal message from German Hernández to the author. – 33 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas Soon, the memory of the marimba sencilla would become a closer reality, more alive. “Marimba sencilla?” “There’s none of those in this town, but from time to time some come down to cheer up a party. There’s a doble, with drums and everything, but not a sencilla, not anymore! Go to Frontera &RPDOSDLW¶VELJJHUWKHUHVXUHO\\RX¶OO¿QGRQH´8SRQFURVVLQJWKDWERUGHUline that delimited the visibility of this musical tradition, the solid association between the term and this musical practice became evident. 1.1.2. Geographic Dissemination of the Marimbas Sencillas in Chiapas Although the musical practice of the marimba sencilla in Chiapas has almost zero visibility, to such a degree that it has frequently been considered extinct (e.g. Godínez 2015:145; see also Moreno 2014:37), its active presence in the state, however, is not subject to debate. This musical tradition has been kept alive mainly along the Chiapas sierra and in nearby towns14. Far from the main urban centers of Chiapas, the tradition of the marimba sencilla has found a niche within different cultural cohorts, where it has become an everlasting element of their cultural expressions. During my research stays I was able to witness the existence of a marimba sencilla tradition in the surrounding areas of Amatenango de la Frontera, Bella Vista, Bejucal de Ocampo, Chicomuselo, Frontera Comalapa, Mazapa de Madero, Motozintla, El Porvenir, Reforma, Siltepec, Solosuchiapa, Tapachula, La Trinitaria and Venustiano Carranza (Figure 1). Whereas the marimba sencilla tradition is developed in these places, some marimba sencilla ensembles can be found in isolation in other (tourist) places near the Chiapas sierra, such as Lagos de Monte Bello15 and Lagos de Colón. :KLOH,ZDVQRWDEOHWR¿QGDQ\marimbas sencillas outside these regions, I could witness––to a lesser extent––a process of going “back to the roots”, with some marimbistas dobles, in places as remote as Chiapa de Corzo, driven away by the endless economic crisis, having chosen to turn their marimba doble into a sencilla16 thus being able to more easily be involved in other performance schemes (see chapter 3.1.2)17. 14 For further information regarding the socioeconomic situation in the Sierra and Frontera de Chiapas regions, see: Morales 2009; Villafuerte/Mansilla 2010; Bayona 2011; Olivera 2015, and Gutiérrez 2010. 15 Some marimba sencilla groups play in this park once in a while; a particular case is Tziscao where, in the Guatemalan shore of Lago Internacional, there lives a marimba sencilla group that plays for the tourists. 16 Due to the construction scheme of the marimba doble, it is possible to divide the instrument via its keyboards into two different parts, each of which may be used in an individual fashion. Therefore, a marimba doble (chromatic) may “become” a marimba sencilla (diatonic) in case it were necessary. 17 Personal message from Israel Moreno to the author. – 34 – The MariMbas and The Field Figure 1. Geographic dissemination of the marimba sencilla in Chiapas. 1.2. The Marimbas Sencillas18 In Chiapas there are two different kinds of marimbas sencillas; the marimba sencilla grande and the marimba sencilla tenor, which differ particularly in WKHLUVL]HDQGPXVLFDOUDQJH7KH¿UVWLVDURXQGWZRPHWHUVORQJDQGKDVD UDQJHRIDERXW¿YHDQGDKDOIRFWDYHVZKLOHWKHVHFRQGLVDERXWRQHDQGDKDOI meters long and its range is not much greater than three and a half octaves. Due to their shared evolution, these instruments have one single morphological constitution in common with the marimbas dobles, while their main difference is the number of keyboards, one for the sencilla (Figure 2) and two in the case of the doble, in contrast with other marimba traditions in Latin America where the shape of the diatonic marimbas is eminently different from that of the chromatic marimba. 18 For a detailed perspective of the ergology of the marimba sencilla see: Brenner 2007:277-294. – 35 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas Figure 2. Keyboard and mallets of a marimba sencilla. Under the only keyboard of the marimba sencilla runs a row of wooden resonators with small cachimbas (membranes) at the lower part (Figure 3), which give these instruments their characteristic sound, a sound that in turn reminds us of the African heritage of these instruments. Unlike other marimbas sencillas in Guatemala and Central America, in Chiapas, marimbas are tuned according to the well-tempered system; usually one major scale (T–T–S–T–T–T–S) (see Brenner 2007:254). Although these instruments have a tempered tuning, it is common for their intonation to vary strongly from the original tuning. This is due to the advanced age of the instruments and, consequently, their poor physical state––especially in the case of the keys getting worn down. An example of these variations can be shown in the tuning of the marimbas sencillas in the ensemble Diamantes de Chicomuselo (Figure 4) which presents more than a few little “problems” in tuning. – 36 – The MariMbas and The Field Figure 3. Resonators with cachimbas (membranes). Figure 4. Musical tuning of the marimbas of the group Diamantes de Chicomuselo. During my research stays in the Chiapas sierra I had the chance to witness the various possibilities for the ornamentation of the marimba sencilla frames. Sometimes, vibrant colours would decorate its frame (Figure 5a); sometimes, a simple varnish would decorate it (Figure 5b). In some cases, simple reliefs are carved in wood (Figure 5c) or the name and/or telephone of its musicians would also be a part of the instrument (Figure 5d). Likewise, that complicated ornamentation that would characterize the marimba doble would also have found a place in its frame (Figure 5e). Such a wide variety of colours and shapes were proof not only of the different aesthetic conceptions and sociocultural practices that have been taking place within the tradition of the – 37 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas marimba sencilla, but also of the interrelationship established between this marimba tradition and others which are to be found beyond some geographic borderlines.19 a) b) c) d) e) Figure 5. Decoration of several marimba sencilla’ frames. 19 The geographic area that demarcates the present research has gone through several political changes through history; these changes have no doubt had an effect on the evolution of the different marimba traditions that belong to this area. The presence or absence of certain SROLWLFDOERUGHUV LHEHWZHHQ&KLDSDVDQG*XDWHPDOD ZRXOGKDYHKDGDQLQÀXHQFHRQWKH evolution of these musical traditions; notwithstanding, such borders would not have prevented the interrelation of these marimba traditions, as well as that between the societies that have kept and still keep them alive, even after––and in spite of— the different geopolitical divisions they have experienced. – 38 – The MariMbas and The Field While not all the marimbas sencillas in Chiapas are ornamented in the same fashion, it is always possible to see that some materials and construction techniques are regularly used among the instruments belonging to this musical tradition. The following chart offers a more detailed perspective of marimbas sencillas in Chiapas. Marimba Sencilla Figure 6. &ODVVL¿FDWLRQE\+RUQERVWHO6DFKV20 1112..21.232.2112.22]1+2 Keys (teclas, tablillas) Number 27–39 Ambitus 3 ½–5 ½ octaves Material Hormiguillo (Platymiscium dimorphandrum) Fixing The keys are arranged individually by a tightened rope forming a trapezoidal shape, separated by wooden separator called clavijas which are opened on their top edge and have the shape of a two-prong fork. 20 Hornbostel/Sachs 1914:553-590. – 39 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas Drilling On both sides, horizontal on the modal points. Shape Rectangular plates and four-edged keys with a rectangular, almost square cross section. Minimum – maximum length 14,0–45,0 cm. Minimum – maximum width 5,5–7,2 cm. Minimum – maximum thickness 0,9–1,1 cm. Frame (construcción, faldones) Shape Trapezoidal, diatonic keyboard (teclado) mounted on a frame box (faldón). Material Mexican cedar (Cedrela mexicana) Fixing (table, bow, hanging) Table Length 145–200 cm. Others (design etc.) The frame box is barely decorated. Resonators (resonadores, cajones, pumpos, tecomates) Material Mexican Cedar (Cedrela mexicana) Make 0DGH IURP IRXU ¿YH HGJHG IROGHG plates. Shape Conic box Relation plates-resonators 1:1 Mirliton Pig’s intestine mounted on top of a ring called cachimba made from Jobo wood (Spondias mombin) and bee wax (cera de Campeche), sometimes without a ring, only with a modelled wax cone. Ending Pyramidal Fixing Fixed to a holding rail with grips called orejas on the upper end of the resonator. Mallets, sticks (baquetas, bolillos) Material sticks Huizizil Material head Rubber (Castilla tunu) Length of the sticks 42–46 cm – 40 – The MariMbas and The Field Diameter of the sticks 0,6–0,8 cm Diameter of the head 2,5–4,8 cm. Shape of the head Disc-shaped, rarer spherical. Construction principle Winding /rolling in rubber stripes. Sources Instruments measured21 Carlos Nandayapa (Chiapa de Corzo) Marimba manufacture Vleeschower (Venustiano Carranza) Figure 7. 2UJDQRORJLFDO VSHFL¿FDWLRQV RI WKH marimba sencilla based on Brenner (2007:293-294). Nowadays, very few marimba makers in Chiapas still work in the crafting of marimbas sencillas. Even when the marimbistas sencillos need the instrument to partake in their musical endeavour, their economic situation does not allow them to (continually) acquire new instruments, which is why they have developed a marketplace for second-hand instruments in order to counter this situation, thus reducing the demand for new marimbas sencillas even more. This has led marimba makers to give up on crafting these instruments. During P\LQYHVWLJDWLRQVLQWKH]RQH,FRXOGRQO\¿QG¿YHFUDIWVPHQZKRVWLOOPDNH these instruments.22 Don José and Don Ramón Gómez in Motozintla; Don Armando in Las Campanas and Don Arturo Cano and Don Fredy de León in Frontera Comalapa. This is also proof of the conditions under which this musical tradition is being developed. Despite its low visibility outside this region, in the sierra of Chiapas there are still some people who keep the tradition of the marimba sencilla alive. But, who plays the marimbas sencillas and why? Under what circumstances do they perform their musical endeavor? The following pages are dedicated to those men and women who strive to keep this tradition alive. 21 Brenner’s Register (2007:293-294) was supplemented by the author with new data obWDLQHGIURP¿HOGZRUN 22 It must be underscored that any craftsperson who makes marimbas dobles is able to make a marimba sencilla; however, lacking the necessary market, they do not engage in this activity. The craftspeople hereby mentioned are mainly devoted to the making of marimba sencilla. – 41 – – 42 – 2. Echoes of a Social Life The city hid under a tumult of dust and people. The dusty streets of that border town started to come alive under the glow of the dry sun as the morning began. A cloud, consisting of dust and fog welcomed us as we walked down that porous street that took us to the park. While I was walking, between taco stalls and hungry stray dogs, I kept asking myself what could have happened to those old musicians that had changed my life. It had been a long time since my last visit to Frontera Comalapa, that city, in which my senses had perceived that other marimba music some years ago. 7KHQRLVHDWWKHFHQWUDOVTXDUHVWDUWHGWRULVHOLNHWKHFLW\LWVHOI7KHWUDI¿F noise and the music playing on the radio of the stall where we made a stop to have a coffee, melted together in my ears. A group of teenagers started laughing, as one of them started to play music with his mobile phone. On the opposite corner a man on a tricycle tried to sell water and announced it to the sound of cumbia; besides him, a mascot was dancing reggaeton. From that vibrant sound orgy taking place at the corner of that square, a noise I had longed for arouse from the distance. In the middle of that square, between the emerging movements of the city, a marimba appeared, under the shadow of a tree. Four musicians were sitting there, waiting for someone to stop his frenetic pace and to hire them to play a song with their marimba sencilla. The time SDVVHGE\DQGWKHVTXDUHVWDUWHGWRUHÀHFWDFRQWUDGLFWRU\EOHQGRIFKDRVDQG calm. A small group of people had stopped in front of the planter, where the marimba ensemble Trinos de la Selva had started to play music to please their old customers. I was sitting opposite to them and could not stop thinking about these four old musicians. Those sun-burnt faces and rough hands were telling me a completely different story to the one I had experienced and shared with other musicians during my wanderings as marimbista doble; stories woven from silk and glory. After observing their musical performance IRUDZKLOH,¿QDOO\DSSURDFKHGWKHP:KRZHUHWKRVHPHQZDLWLQJIRUDQDXGLHQFHWRKHDUWKHLUPXVLF":KDWZDVEHKLQGWKRVHURXJKDQGVZHDW\¿JXUHV" Don Francisco was sitting in front of the planter and his body revealed a hint of anxiety; probably from waiting for a customer to come. My words surprised him, not many people had approached him before to interrogate him about his personal life. With a touch of melancholy in his voice but without hesitation, he began to speak: “You’ll see. I started playing music [...] as a child, standing on a bench, with my great parents! Yeah, I was six years old. That was in Guatemala! […] I was born there! […] my father was from Mexico and my mother from Guatemala and as they are border states, you know! We then moved here, I have been living – 43 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas here, in Frontera Comalapa, for about 42 years. My parents are already dead, but the music is still inside! […] marimba is my thing! Marimba is our life, it is our thing, and we would die for it! This is a traditional music form we carry in our blood. It lies in our bones! Me and my colleagues here, we have drums, a bass. Our style is different; we play in Guatemala style but follow the Mexican rhythm, the rhythm from Chiapas. That’s why so many people like us!” (Transl. Sofía Herrera).23 Those words, Don Francisco shared with me that morning, would not only OHDGPHWRHQJDJHLQWRDUHÀHFWLRQDERXWP\HWKQRPXVLFRORJLFODERXUDQGLWV position towards different aspects of the discourse around marimba in Chiapas and Guatemala, but they would also make me recall those words Don Armando García had shared with me some years ago. On that cold morning of February, while we were waiting for a bottle of aguardiente he and his colleagues had ordered for us, Don Armando would share a similar story with us: “I started to play marimba at the age of eight. Yeah, with a small stool they took me to play marimba. I just stood on the stool while playing. Then my mother died and my father died too. That’s why I stopped playing the marimba for four years. But when I grew older, I started playing again” (Transl. Sofía Herrera).24 These two stories found deep resonance in my memories. The image of me on a stool, following my teacher while he was playing, overcame those stories I had just heard. I was a child when a football match brought me closer to the marimba. But, how similar could our stories be? 23 “Mire, [...] toqué desde niño parado en un banco, ¡con mis abuelitos! sí, yo tenía seis años. ¡Eso fue en Guatemala! […] ¡yo allá nací! […] mi padre era de acá y mi mamá era de allá. ¡Cómo es frontera pues! Ya luego nos venimos; ya tiene como 42 años que vivo aquí en Frontera Comalapa. Mis padres ya fallecieron, ¡pero la música sigue estando dentro! […] ¡La marimba es lo mío! ¡La marimba es nuestra vida, es lo nuestro, por ella nos morimos! Esa es una música tradicional, que lo traemos ya en la sangre. ¡Metida en nuestros huesos! Aquí con mis compañeros tenemos una batería, tenemos un violón. Nosotros tenemos un estilo diferente; el estilo de Guatemala, con ritmo mexicano, chiapaneco. ¡Por eso mucha gente nos busca!” Interview by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez with Francisco Villatoro, marimbist of the marimba group Trinos de la Selva, dated 04 September 2016, in the author’s private possession. 24 “Yo empecé a tocar la marimba a los ocho años. Sí, con banquito me llevaron a tocar la marimba. Ahí en el banquito me paraba; ahí empecé a tocar. En eso falleció mi mama y falleció mi papá. Por ello dejé de tocar cuatro años la marimba. Después, ya más grande, volví a agarrarla otra vez.” Interview by Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán with Armando García, marimbist of the marimba group Diamantes de Chicomuselo, dated 17 February 2009, in the author’s private possession. – 44 – EchoEs of a social lifE 2.1. Becoming a Marimbist That image of a child playing marimba standing on a stool, next to his grandpa, might seem picturesque and cute; however, there is more than a simple post-card scene behind this image. If we try to understand “tradition” as a “a process of creative transformation whose most remarkable feature is the continuity it nurtures and sustains” (Bakan 2012:29), all those scenes will not only embody the life of the musicians in the Chiapas sierra, but they will also show us an essential part of their own continuity and reinterpretation process. So far, little has been written about the learning process; with the exception of a few authors (see Navarrete 2005:149-175; Kaptain 1991:54-58), most research on the marimba tradition in Central America, especially in Chiapas and Guatemala, has mainly focused on the organological description (Alfonzo 1996), on the repertoire (Moreno 2016 and 2019), and on the evolution (Godínez 2015) and history of the instrument (Brenner 2007). Those stories shared by Don Francisco and Don Armando did not only show me aspects of this process, but also reminded me of those years in which during the afternoon, after school, I used to take the bus to the Casa de la Cultura––a Mexican cultural institution––to attend my marimba doble classes. Between our stories there are both similarities and differences. This was clear from the very beginning. But how did they apply to the rest of the marimbistas sencillos of the Chiapas sierra? 2.1.1. Ways During his research on marimba traditions in Chiapas, Laurence Kaptain observed that the most common teaching technique for learning the instrument was for a father to teach his son or daugther trough oral transmission (Kaptain  7KLVZRXOGEHUHÀHFWHGLQWKHZD\RIOLYLQJHVSHFLDOO\LQUHODWLRQ to the marimba doble tradition of families that had devoted themselves to the marimba tradition for generations. Emblematic names of the marimba (doble) tradition in Chiapas, as Nandayapa, Borras, Moreno––would act as a constant and even as a driver of innovation throughout the history of this tradition. Far away, in other times, with other names, the echoes of these stories would evoke resonances in the experiences of other marimbistas sencillos in the mountains of Chiapas. Many years have passed since I had had the opportunity to be a part of these experiences. It was a cold and clear night; Don Ramón and Don José Gómez would share parts of their story. I remember that small and humble carpenter’s shop where my colleagues and I had met them for an interview. Due to unexpected reasons, two research teams would meet in that small shop that night. Surrounded by the endless explosion of family photos that deco- – 45 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas rated the wall, Don Ramón would share with us his memories of those years when he started playing marimba: “I also started playing marimba because my grandpa had one. I was a little boy and he took me to play (with him). I played the bass tones! Yes, I played with my grandpa, my father and my uncles. There were about four of my uncles in the group and also other friends. We were about eight people playing my grandpa’s marimba” (Transl. Sofía Herrera).25 Those words were interwoven with the pictures hanging on the walls that HPERGLHGWKRVHPHPRULHV+LVYRLFHZDVVWLOOÀRDWLQJRQWKHDLUZKHQKLVVRQ José complemented his words. “It has been a really long time since my dad has his marimba sencilla. I think I OHDUQHGKRZWRSOD\DWWKHDJHRI¿YH,QRUGHUWRSOD\,ZRXOGVWDQGRQDOLWWOH stool and I already used to go play the marimba with him in the parties. And so on […] later on […] I enrolled in the Casa de la Cultura and then I left there and went somewhere else” (Transl. Sofía Herrera).26 Years after this conversation that I had listened to in a small and devastated community at the foot of the mountains, I would hear another story, which would also remind me of the same learning technique. We had arrived to Chicharras to visit the marimba ensemble Conjunto Escobar. The pavement of that house, where Don Arturo Escobar stored his marimba, had become our waiting room. The musicians had not arrived yet since they were still engaged in their farming activities. They would arrive one by one, captivated by the idea of speaking to those people from outside. There, on the broken and dirty pavement, Don Ausencio Tomás brought his childhood memories to life: “My dad was a marimbist and I was thrilled about it. I had some cousins, we were four, and one is [now] in Yucatán, Gabriel is his name. Yeah, we were related, a family! Cousins! And they also liked to play marimba. When [my dad and my 25 “Yo también aprendí porque mi abuelito tenia marimba. Yo era pequeño y me llevaban a tocar. ¡Yo tocaba los bajos! Sí, yo tocaba con mi abuelito, mi papá y mis tíos. Ahí tocaban como cuatro tíos y otros amigos. En la marimba que tenía mi abuelito tocábamos como ocho.” Interview by Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna with Ramón Gómez, marimbist of the marimba group Maderas de Bellas Artes, dated 19 February 2009, in the author’s private possession. 26 “Desde hace mucho tiempo que mi papá tiene su marimba sencilla. Creo que yo aprendí DODHGDGGHFLQFRDxRV3DUDWRFDUPHSDUDEDHQXQEDQTXLWR\\DLEDDWRFDUD¿HVWDVFRQ él. Y así […] luego […] me metí a la Casa de la Cultura y luego me salí de ahí y ya me fui a otro lado.” Interview by Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna with José Gómez, marimbist of the marimba group Maderas de Bellas Artes, dated 19 February 2009, in the author’s private possession. – 46 – EchoEs of a social lifE uncles] got the marimba, the second one they had brought from Trinitaria, they used to rehearse during the afternoons, from four to six. The old chaps came out from the rehearsal and we came in! We played it as best we could! Then [one day] my dad told me: –No. My son, if you are going to learn how to play a melody, then do it right, play in the right manner. And then he started teaching me how to play, how to make it right, how to play by ear”. (Transl. Sofía Herrera).27 7KLVODVWSKUDVHPDGHPHUHÀHFWRQWKHDJHQWVDQGagencies, which are part of the game and I reconstructed the dialogue I had held some days before, next to the planter at the park in Frontera Comalapa, with Don Manuel González. Under the shadow of that tree, his words were telling me a different story; the story of a musician coming from a marimbists’ family. “–Yes, my dad, my brothers, my cousins were all marimbists. They played marimba doble, but they never really tried to teach me! –Your dad didn’t teach you? –No! I learnt on my own! –Why? –Well, I don’t know! How could it be different? They were all older than me, they were boring! They did not have the patience to teach me! My cousins were older too. They didn’t teach their children either! But despite this, their kids all became musicians. The father of my teacher at the [Casa] de la Cultura was part of the [marimba] Carta Blanca and his kid learned how to play there and he subsequently taught his daughters! […] My cousins played there! –And did you learn from watching them play? –No! I had a friend, we were still little, and he had a small marimba [sencilla], quite small. He took us with him, instead of going out and playing with the others kids, we used to practice together, to make experiments on that little marimba! A small marimba, only the two of us played well, three of us played there! We started going out [¿?] It used to be cheap!! The marimba was small and people thought we were cute. We were small when we started! Four pesos per hour! […] The owner of the marimba charged four pesos. The owner of the marimba earned one peso for the marimba and one peso for him! And we, we earned one peso each of us! Per hour!” (Transl. Sofía Herrera).28 27 “Mi papá era marimbista y a mí me emocionaba la marimba. Yo tenía unos primos, éramos cuatro; uno está [ahora] en Yucatán, un tal Gabriel. ¡Éramos familia pues! ¡Primos! Y a aquellos también les gustaba tocar la marimba. Cuando [mi papá y mis tíos] tenían la marimba, la segunda marimba que trajeron de Trinitaria, ensayaban por las tardes; de las cuatro hasta las seis. Salían los viejos y ¡entrábamos nosotros!; ¡la agarrábamos como fuera! Entonces [un día] me dijo mi papá: —No hijito, si vas a aprender a tocar una pieza, aprende a marcarla bien. Y ahí empezó a enseñarme todo; a enseñarme como sacaba la música”. Interview by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez with Ausencio Tomás, marimbist of the marimba group Conjunto Escobar, dated 08 September 2016, in the author’s private possession. 28 “—¡Sí! mi papá, mis hermanos, mis primos eran marimbistas. Ellos tocaron marimba – 47 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas The learning method Kaptain (1991:54) had observed during his research was UHÀHFWHG LQ WKH VWRULHV PDQ\ RI WKH marimbistas sencillos. However, these stories were not “the only” story told by the marimbists from the highlands of Chiapas (see Brenner/Moreno/Bermúdez 2014; Bermúdez 2015). Don Manuel González had already shown us a further method of how marimba knowledge could also be acquired and my own experiences while learning to play the instrument also contradicted this unique possibility. If I, without knowing my father, and Don Manuel, having a father, who was not interested at all in teaching him, had entered this musical world, why should there be only one single story? The transmission of knowledge did not only take place from father to son or daughter, there were more possibilities within the learning process. Don Manuel González had used a self-taught method to approach the marimba endeavour. And he was certainly not the only marimbista sencillo that had learned on his own. It would happen again, in Chicharras, a place at the foot of the mountains, were the echoes of his story would return to my ears some days after. ,WZDVP\¿UVWYLVLWWRWKDWSODFH6RPHGD\VEHIRUH,KDGKHDUGWKHUHZDV a marimba sencillaLQ&KLFKDUUDV0XFKWRRXUVXUSULVHZHZRXOG¿QGPRUH than one marimba ensemble there. We had arrived to Don Arturo Roblero’s house. His musicians had not arrived yet; they did not live in Chicharras. That morning he had sent for them to gather together and celebrate. I was standing in the middle of the room where they stored the marimbas, between the chaos formed by the curiosity of the neighbours and the lack of space. Don Arturo 5REOHURKDGOHIWWRWDNHDVKRZHU/DWHUWKDWGD\ZHZRXOG¿QGRXWWKDWKHZDV celebrating his birthday. When he came back he held a bottle of something doble, pero ¡nunca le pusieron empeño de enseñarme! —¿Su papá no le enseño? —¡No! ¡solo aprendí! —¿Por qué? —¡Pues no se! ¿qué quería? Es que eran; como ya estaban grandes, ¡eran aburridos pues! ¡no tenían paciencia para enseñar! Mis primos también ya eran grandes, ¡ellos no les enseñaron a sus hijos! En cambio, sus hijos salieron también músicos. El papá del maestro de la [Casa] de la Cultura era de la [marimba] Carta Blanca, y ahí aprendió su hijo. Ya él, ¡le enseño a sus hijas! […] ¡Ahí tocaban mis primos! —¿Y usted aprendió viéndolos a ellos? —¡No! Tenía un amigo, éramos chiquitos, él tenía una marimbita [sencilla] así chiquita. Él nos llevaba pues; en lugar de salir a jugar así con los demás amigos me iba yo con ellos a experimentar en la marimba, ¡a ensayar con ellos! Una marimbita chiquita, tocábamos dos nomás, ¡tres tocábamos ahí! En eso ya salíamos pues [¿?] ¡antes era barato! Era chiquita la marimba pues, y luego nosotros les caíamos a la gente en gracia; ¡chiquitos empezamos! ¡A cuatro pesos la hora! […] El dueño de la marimba cobraba cuatro pesos. El dueño de la marimbita ganaba ¡un peso para la marimba y un peso para él! Ya nosotros ¡un peso cada uno! ¡por hora!” Interview by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez with Manuel González, marimbist of the marimba group Trinos de la Selva, dated 04 September 2016, in the author’s private possession. – 48 – EchoEs of a social lifE that seemed to be tequila and his colleagues, who just had arrived, were more than pleased when they saw it. “–Nobody taught me how to play! – [Don Arturo would say]. –I learned from birth. When I was little, I gathered sticks and [cut them] with a machete. This way I started to create voices out of the wooden bars. I tuned the bars! I gathered 12 little bars. Nobody taught me! I made the bars, just like that, without any teacher. Then I tuned them one by one! Until they were all tuned. Once they were tuned, I started playing my pieces. I played the marimba pieces by ear! But who had made the marimba! Me, I made it myself, I tuned the keyboard! So, when I grew up, Mr. [Gregorio Escobar], who had a marimba, told me: –You will come with me and we’ll play together. So we started working together. Make some money! I started to play with them when I was 17! That age I began to play in their marimba ensemble! I was a kid. A kid! Just like my little girl!–he said pointing at his daughter–! I was about her size! Right there, I gather my sticks, I tuned them, and I took the sound out of the bars. Then I got together [with other kids] and we went out. My dad was astonished: –How did you manage to build a marimba? –my dad asked. He was amazed. Nobody taught me; I did it on my own! Yes! I heard them playing marimba. I was a kid. I heard them play! Only by listening to it, I was [amazed]! And as I could not play, since I did not have a marimba! So I made one myself, my little marimba! I made it! I was already 17 years old when I started to play with that guy [with Gregorio Escobar29]. And started earning money!” (Transl. Sofía Herrera).30 29 Don Arturo Escobar’s father, marimbist of the marimba ensemble Conjunto Escobar from Chicharras. 30 “—¡A mí nadie me enseñó! —[diría Don Arturo]. —Yo aprendí así de nacimiento. Cuando era chiquitito, juntaba unos palitos y los [cortaba] con un machete. Así iba componiendo las vocecitas de las tablas. ¡Yo entonaba las tablitas! Yo juntaba 12 tablitas, ¡nadie me enseñó! Hice las tablas así sin maestro. ¡luego las fui entonando!, hasta que quedaron entonaditas las 12 tablitas. Ya que estaban entonaditas, me ponía a sacar mis piececitas. ¡Sacaba las piezas de marimba! Pero ¿quién había hecho la marimbita? ¡Yo hice la marimbita, yo entonaba el teclado! Entonces ya de grande, el señor [Gregorio Escobar] quien tenía una marimba me dijo: —Tú vas a tocar conmigo. Y ya le entramos a la chamba. ¡A ganar una lanita! Ya empecé a tocar con ellos a los 17 años, a esa edad entre a tocar en la marimba. [Yo era] un chamaco. ¡chamaco! ¡así como mi mujercita—señalando a su hija—! ¡De ese tamaño era yo! Ahí juntaba mis palitos, los entonaba, le sacaba el sonido a la tabla. Ya [con otros] nos juntábamos y salíamos. Mi papá se admiraba; —¿Cómo es que se les quedó pues?’—decía mi papá. Él estaba asombrado. Nadie me enseñó; ¡yo solito pues! ¡sí! Oía que tocaban la marimba. Yo era chamaco. ¡Oía que tocaban! Nomás al oírla; ¡me quedaba [asombrado]! Y como no podía ir a tocar, ¡no tenía una marimba pues! ¡yo mismo hice mi marimbita! ¡La hice! Ya tenía 17 años cuando me metí a tocar con aquel. ¡Ya ganando pues!” Interview by Juan Bermúdez – 49 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas 'RQ$UWXUR VPLOHG ZKLOH WKDW WHTXLOD ¿OOHG WKH RQO\ JODVV DYDLODEOH LQ WKH room. As the glass was being passed from one hand to the other, the chaos disappeared. Each of the neighbours started to reserve a spot for the party. Don Hilario González was sitting on a corner, still holding the glass in his hand as he added some words to Don Arturo’s speech. “I learned as an adult! Yes! Just like that, as the young man there was saying; I just liked it! I saw it and liked it. I made some experiments with my marimba. I kept on making experiments with my marimba and developed my own style. Although, I still make mistakes, you are never 100% perfect. But at balls or dancing events, we do not make that many mistakes. But, well I learned about 12 years ago. I started getting feelings about learning how to play! We always play with a small marimba we had, it is known as La Callejera [–The stray marimba]. Every 10th of May we played to celebrate Mother’s day. Some friends would hold the marimba in the ravine and some would play. And we sang the “Mañanitas” [–Mexican birthday song–] for all mothers. It is not common anymore! Now, they use guitars! But this encouraged me to play. And when we got the marimba, that now belongs to engineer Abigail, it encouraged me again [to play] and I got even more [practice]. And I continued learning. I have not learned yet to play that good! But enough to cheer up the people!” (Transl. Sofía Herrera)31. The stories Don Hilario González and Don Arturo Roblero had shared with us formed part of a similar process to the one Don Manuel González had experienced. Nevertheless, my own experience, as well as some of the situations 'RQ-RVp*yPH]DQGHYHQ'RQ0DQXHOKLPVHOIKDGGHVFULEHGFRQ¿UPHGWKH existence of other pathways the marimbistas sencillos in the mountains of Chiapas could follow. The path that had induced me to the marimba endeavour, under an institutionalised organization was the Casa de la Cultura in San and Carlos Bermúdez with Arturo Roblero, marimbist of the marimba group Los Únicos de Chicharras, dated 07 September 2016, in the author’s private possession. 31 “¡Yo aprendí de grande! ¡sí! Así nomás como dice el joven ahí; ¡me gusto pues! Solito yo, con solo verlo. Ahí estuve experimentando en la marimba. Ya luego desarrollé bien mi manera de tocar. Aunque hasta la fecha falla uno pues; no está uno digamos a 100. Pero ya a un bailecito; Ahí no fallamos tanto. Pero sí, aprendí tal vez como hace unos 12 años. Empecé a tener ganas; ¡a aprender! Siempre tocamos con una marimbita que teníamos ahí, le decían La Callejera. Ahí íbamos todos a poner “las mañanitas” cada diez de mayo. Unos amigos agarrando la marimba en el barranco y otros tocando. Pero así le tocábamos sus “mañanitas” a las mamacitas. ¡Ya después no! Ahora ¡con guitarras salen pues! Pero ahí como que agarré un poquito de ánimo. Ya cuando se obtuvo la marimba, que está en poder del ingeniero Abigail, fue que me metí [a tocar] otra vez, y ya agarré otro poquito de [practica]. Ahí fui aprendiendo pues. ¡Y todavía no he aprendido bien! Pero ya con eso, ¡ya más o menos alegra uno a la comunidad!” Interview by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez with Hilario González, marimbist of the marimba group Los Únicos de Chicharras, dated 07 September 2016, in the author’s private possession. – 50 – EchoEs of a social lifE Cristóbal de las Casas. However, during my research stays in the region, I was QRWDEOHWR¿QGDQ\marimbista sencillo that shared my pathway. This does not mean, of course, that the marimba sencilla tradition is only transmitted from father to son or daughter, or learned through a self-taught method. The story shared by Don Francisco Mérida would show a noninstitutionalised way of learning how to play the instrument. “Back then we started playing marimba music. It is about 55 years ago, when ZH¿UVWVWDUWHGMXVWSUDFWLFLQJRQRXURZQ:HGLGQRWGRLWRQDIRUPDOEDVLV like we do it now, no! A man called Ignacio had [a marimba]. He taught us how to play! We continued learning how to play marimba. I still remember that gentleman. [I remember] he had a small marimba. We went over to his place when we were kids, to play marimba” (Transl. Sofía Herrera).32 Stories like this do not show isolated cases within this process; they raWKHU ¿QG UHVRQDQFH LQ WKH H[SHULHQFHV OLYHG E\ PDQ\ RI WKH marimbistas sencillos throughout their learning process (see Brenner/Moreno/Bermúdez 2014; Bermúdez 2015). Moreover, the lack of an instutionalised system exclusively devoted to teaching marimba sencilla does not imply that the marimbistas sencillos will not be able to perceive the existence of such a system. During a conversation with Don Hermilio Rodríguez I became aware of this possibility. “We need to improve! We have to improve what we already know! […] But [it LVGLI¿FXOW@VLQFHZHGRQRWKDYHD>WHDFKHU@VRPHERG\WRWHDFKXV%HFDXVHZH cannot go out [to play] as long we are not well-tuned. [...] They say, it might be possible to take [classes] in Bella Vista, but you have to go there! To walk to get there! [We could] try to ask them to send someone over here, but there in Bella Vista but in Comalapa, exactly! The Casa de la Cultura is there! And there, they teach you how to play. You go there and learn. You’ll see, we don’t go there. We wait until someone comes to get us! But this is not right! We should be the ones to go there!” (Transl. Sofía Herrera).33 32 “En aquel entonces comenzamos a tocar la música de la marimba. Ya tiene como 55 años que empezamos así nomás ensayando. No lo hacíamos así formalmente como lo estamos haciendo ahorita, ¡no! Un señor que se llama Ignacio tenía [una marimba]. ¡Él nos enseñó a tocar! Y ahí fuimos aprendiendo la marimba. Hasta la fecha recuerdo a este señor. [Recuerdo] que él tenía una marimbita. Ahí íbamos, éramos niños, a tocar la marimba”. Interview by Daniel Fuchsberger with Francisco Mérida, marimbist of the marimba group Brisas de Montebello, dated 30 December 2009, in the author’s private possession. 33 “¡Nosotros necesitamos mejorarnos! ¡lo que sabemos necesitamos mejorarlo más! […] Pero [es difícil] no habiendo un [maestro]; alguien que nos vaya enseñando. Porque no SRGHPRVVDOLU>DWRFDU@PLHQWUDVQRHVWHPRVELHQD¿QDGRV>«@'LFHQTXHDORPHMRUKD\ [clases] en Bella Vista, pero ¡hay que ir hasta allá! ¡caminar! sí, hay que ir hasta allá. [Podríamos] tratar de solicitarlos para que bajen; pero no, allá en Bella Vista no muy; en Co- – 51 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas The words shared by Don Hermilio did not only set me thinking about the DHVWKHWLF VHOIUHÀH[LRQ RI WKH marimbistas sencillos in Chiapas, but also showed me that they perceive the existence of an instutisionalised teaching method of the instrument, although it is not always physically and economically accessible. During the time I was able to share these experiences with the marimbistas sencillos from Chiapas, their desire to have access to this method was passed on me on different occasions. I heard one of these stories, from Doña Blanca González, under a small tin-roof terrace between ears of maize that hug out in the sun to dry next to freshly washed clothes. This was at La Grandeza, a small town nestled in the mountains, where after serving us some coffee and bread, Doña Blanca would express her desire to take classes. “It would be nice that this would be promoted here. That someone from outside or from here would teach us how to play the guitar, the drums, the marimba or the keyboard. But no! There is no such thing! They always say that [they will build] the Casa de la Cultura. The Casa de la Cultura! They have been saying this for years but nothing happens! Or sometimes they appoint someone to be director of Casa de la Cultura who makes no sense at all! And what can you OHDUQIURPKLP"+HFDQQRWHYHQSOD\WKHÀXWH´ 7UDQVO6RItD+HUUHUD 34 What Doña Blanca had shared with me, on that September week, formed part of an echo I had been hearing throughout my journey. Those experiences, the marimbistas sencillos had let me be part of during the time we spent together, do not only represent the different ways they approached the musical endeavour, but also part of the reality they were currently facing. The stories they had experienced showed different paths opened to marimbistas sencillos to approach the musical endeavour of the marimba, but were all those pathways the same? This knowledge could be passed on within one family from one generation to another, by external teachers, or by self-taught achievement. But how did this teaching process experienced by marimbistas sencillos actually malapa ¡sí! ¡Ahí está la Casa de la Cultura! y ahí sí es donde enseñan, ahí va uno a aprender. Pero va a ver que nosotros, hasta eso no, no nos vamos hasta allá. ¡Más esperamos que nos vengan a buscar! ¡que nos busquen pues! ¡pero no está bien así! ¡Nosotros debemos de ir buscar!” Interview by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez with Hermilo Rodríguez, marimbist of the marimba group Conjunto Escobar, dated 08 September 2016, in the author’s private possession. 34 “Estuviera bonito que acá se fomentara. Que viniera alguien de afuera, o alguien de aquí, que nos enseñara a tocar ya sea la guitarra, la batería, la marimba o el teclado. ¡Pero no! ¡no hay nada de eso! Siempre dicen que [van a construir] la Casa de la Cultura, ¡la Casa de la Cultura! Ya tienen años que vienen diciendo eso y ¡no se ve por ningún lado! O a veces ponen como director, según, de la Casa de la Cultura a alguien ¡que ni al caso! Y ¿qué te va DHQVHxDU"£6LQLXQDÀDXWDSXHGHWRFDU´,QWHUYLHZE\-XDQ%HUP~GH]DQG&DUORV%HUP~GH] with Blanca González, marimbist of the marimba group Alma de Acero, dated 07 September 2016, in the author’s private possession. – 52 – EchoEs of a social lifE take place? Some of the stories I heard from the marimbistas sencillos in the mountains of Chiapas mirrored the experiences I had gone through during the last years whilst learning how to play marimba doble. Others just contradicted the process I had experienced myself. 2.1.2. Form I still recall those misty Sunday mornings, where the sound of the marimEDZRXOGDFFRPSDQ\WKHÀDYRXURItamales and warm frijoles while family would gather together to start the day. These sounds had always formed part RIP\OLIHDOWKRXJK,FDQQRWUHPHPEHUWKH¿UVWWLPH,VDZDPDULPEDDQGIDU OHVVWKH¿UVWWLPH,KHDUGWKDWVRXQGWKDWZDVQRZVRIDPLOLDUWRPH0DQ\ years later, during my stays in the highlands of Chiapas, the stories that came across my path would not only bring me back to those misty mornings, but also to those moments when I used to stand on a stool trying to follow the instructions of my teacher to perform a piece of music. Later, back in Austria, I would become aware of how the learning process of the marimba in Chiapas actually took place. Being a marimbist, as the marimbistas sencillos of the highlands in Chiapas had explained to me, was a “matter of fate”; “you have it in your blood”. It is not necessary, however, to come from a family of musicians to “have it in your blood”, it is not about a biological reductionism, but rather about the effect caused by an agent or agency. One is called by the instrument, it is “fate”, or in other words, it is a “gift of God” that makes it possible to approach the marimba. The fascination of future marimbists towards the instrument has to be innate. However, this does not mean that the marimbistas sencillos should not invest their devotion and will in the learning process. Their approach to the marimba would a matter of fate and their devotion to explore the instruPHQWZRXOGEHWKHLUIXO¿OPHQW,IEHLQJDPDULPELVWLVVRPHWKLQJ\RXKDYHLQ your blood, how did this process “to become one” develop? In the stories shared by the marimbistas sencillos, the learning process they had gone through, either passing the experience from one generation to another, or learning with a self-taught method, or from external teachers, showed that the knowledge of the musical endeavour of the marimba sencilla could be acquired/transmitted in a very similar way. At the same time, this SURFHVVZDVDUHÀHFWLRQRIZKDW,KDGH[SHULHQFHGGXULQJP\HGXFDWLRQSURcess to become a marimbista doble. Particularly, the image of me standing on a stool, trying to follow my teacher in order to perform a piece of music kept echoing in my mind. The foundation of this process consisted of two simple, but at the same time complicated tasks: observing and experimenting. Reducing the learning process, and thus its complex network of interconnections between humans and non-humans, to only two solely (basic) char- – 53 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas acteristics, could and should be considered completely absurd. Nevertheless, if we understand these two characteristics as the basis and starting point of a dialectic and dynamic process, far more complex, that leads to endless interrelations and mechanisms that generate and establish a conglomerate of epistemic cultures (see Knorr-Cetina 2002 and 2007) and not as a process itself, this (apparent) reductionism could lead us to the beginning of a “deep understanding” of the processes and mechanisms involved during the creation, perception and assimilation of the auditory knowledge (see Brabec de Mori and Winter 2018; Bermúdez et al. 2018:286-288) of this musical tradition. Hence the strength of these two basic characteristics. During my research and according to the experiences I had made as marimbista doble, I observed, in consonance with some of the points set out by Kaptain (1991:54-58), that the learning/transmission process of the musical endeavour of the marimba, and especially of the marimba sencilla in Chiapas, mostly takes place in the frame of a direct teacher-pupil relationship. During this process the student observes his teacher while he is performing a piece of music and the duration of this process depends on his ability to observe/ memorize. Subsequently, he tries to reproduce what he observed by hitting the keys of the marimba with short movements of the mallets. If he fails to accomplish the piece of music, his teacher will interrupt his performance to show him what his mistake was. Then the teacher will play again the section the pupil failed to play with the mallets. In his research, Sergio Navarrete speaks about his experiences in relation to the marimba tradition among the Achí in Guatemala and even if the context is a different one, there are some similarities: ³0\ ¿UVW OHVVRQ SURFHHGHG LQ WKH WUDGLWLRQDO ZD\ &HOHVWLQR DQG KLV EURWKHUV played an abbreviated version of the simple, two-mallet son San Pablo so I could observe the movements and positions of the bass and listen to the rhythm and its changes. When the son ended, they pointed with their mallets to the different positions the bass hat played to orient me to the keyboard. Then, without further ado, we began to play the son San Pablo!” (Navarrete 2005:153). The scene described by Navarrete, despite the different context given, shows a similar teaching process to the existing one in Chiapas. The marimbistas sencillos in the highlands of Chiapas have experienced and will continue experiencing similar scenes for many years. This reproduction process not only transmits auditory knowledge, especially regarding the repertoire, to the next generation, but it also makes it possible to develop an ability that is intrinsically linked to the ability to observe of the potential marimbist, the ability to follow. Whilst enhancing their ability to observe, marimbists develop their ability to follow other marimbists during a musical performance. This ability will – 54 – EchoEs of a social lifE PDNHLWSRVVLEOHIRUWKHPWRUHSURGXFH DOPRVW ÀDZOHVVO\DOOSRVLWLRQVDQG movements required to perform a piece of music in “real time”. The development of this ability is linked to the process followed to acquire/exchange the repertoire and constitutes an essential part of it. Once prospective marimbists have acquired this ability, they will be able to learn new repertoires in a faster DQGPRUHHI¿FLHQWZD\7KLVZLOOPDNHLWSRVVLEOHIRUWKHPWRGHYHORSDQG become marimbists. Nevertheless, the success of this ability will not only depend on the capacity to observe and to react to the marimbists, but also on their previous auditory knowledge. Knowing the musical piece that is to be performed in advance (from hearing) is very useful and important for marimbists. This auditory experience will not only allow prospective marimbistas sencillos to focus on observing, reproducing and memorizing the movements and position of the mallets during the performance of the piece of music, but also to predict possible movements and therefore, to follow/reproduce them in “real time”. Moreover, the auditory prior knowledge will also be an important factor for the consolidation of the learning process by following a marimbist and it will lay the foundations for the memorizing process of the musical repertoire. Since the marimba sencilla repertoire is passed down orally, the marimbistas sencillos are not only required to adjust to certain technical skills, but also to memorize countless musical pieces that will form part of their standard repertoire in a IDVWDQGHI¿FLHQWZD\7KHLQWHUUHODWLRQEHWZHHQWKHLUDELOLW\WRREVHUYHWKHLU prior auditory knowledge and their ability to follow allows marimbistas sencillos “[…] to think strategically in terms of the execution of the [music] rather than merely [in a mechanical way]” (Navarrete 2005:153), which makes it possible to generate, establish and preserve a reproduction and memorizing process based on observation. This process, as well as the abilities and mechanisms related to it, are developed during the years of individual practice and exploration, therefore the childhood years, preferably in a family environment, are considered to be the best to begin with this process. The development of these abilities does not only require absolute dedication for longer periods of time, but also great learning flexibility and openness, which adults usually do not possess. At the same time, as the stories told by the marimbistas sencillos show, the development of these abilities is linked to the musical practice itself, whereas the active participation of the (prospective) marimbists in the ensemble is paraPRXQW7KLVRQWKHRWKHUKDQGLVDUHÀHFWLRQRIWKHSUREOHPVH[SHULHQFHG by (prospective) marimbistas sencillos who start the learning process at an advanced age. Additionally, the problems they face are related to limitations in regards to the possibility to access a teacher or ensemble. By prioritising the active participation of (prospective) marimbists in the marimba ensemble, the learning process tends to develop under a hierarchical order. In most of – 55 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas the cases, (future) marimbistas sencillos will start their learning process using two mallets on the bass (bajos) section and (then) they will continue the same process with three mallets on the “harmony” (centros). On these sections (prospective) marimbists will develop their ability to “carry the rhythm” (llevar el ritmo) of a piece of music. Once they master any of these sections, or in the best case, both of them, the marimbistas sencillos will be able to choose whether they want to continue developing this music practice (temporally) and join a marimba ensemble (or even more than one). The specialisation on these sections can lead to a dependence relation between teachers and (prospective) marimbistas sencillos, or with the leader of the group, which means that these marimbists are subject to his authority in economic and hierarchic terms when exercising their musical activity. Once they have learned to “carry the rhythm” of a piece of music, (prospective) marimbists should continue the learning process of the melodic secWLRQRIWKHPDULPEDPDLQO\WKH¿UVWYRLFHWRGHYHORSWKHDELOLW\WR³FDUU\WKH piece” (“llevar la pieza”). In comparison to the ability to “carry the rhythm”, this ability is more strongly linked to the capacity to explore and experiment. Therefore, besides the ability to observe, the marimbists that want to continue developing the melodic section of the marimba should not only deeply develop their technical skills to master situations where playing more complex passages with two to four mallets is required, but they should also develop their auditory knowledge in order to be able to reproduce and reinterpret what they have heard. This way, auditory experiments will be crucial throughout the learning process, especially for those marimbists that “carry the piece”. This experimentation process is inherently linked to the quality of the marimbistas sencillos to explore all technical and aesthetic possibilities of the instrument in its musical tradition on their own and to link this exploration to their technical skills, to their ability to memorize and to their auditory knowledge. Once they master all these abilities, the marimbistas sencillos will be in the position to modify the existing repertoire and, as a result, to access the possibility to lead musically their own marimba sencilla ensemble (see chapter 2.3.4). This implies at the same time their engagement to accept a new repertoire and to undergo the same teaching process with the less experienced marimbists in the group. Therefore, these two main characteristics foster the learning process, as well as their interrelations and mechanisms, which at the VDPHWLPHJHQHUDWHHVWDEOLVKDQGPDLQWDLQDVSHFL¿FDXGLWRU\NQRZOHGJHWKDW ensures the preservation of the diatonic marimba tradition. Different aspects of the learning process are shared by different marimba traditions, both in Chiapas (see Kaptain 1991) and in Guatemala (see Navarrete 2005); however, until now little has been written about the learning process of these marimba traditions and even less about their similarities and their differences. The need for in-depth research of this process is undoubted- – 56 – EchoEs of a social lifE ly evident, both in an individual fashion as well as in a comparative one that takes into consideration the complex and vast network of interconnections between human and non-human elements within this dynamic and dialectical process, as well as the countless interrelations and mechanisms that allow for the generation, establishment and preservation of the auditory knowledge RIWKLVWUDGLWLRQ)RUWKHWLPHEHLQJ,KRSHWKDWP\UHÀHFWLRQVPD\JXLGHXV towards the beginning of an in-depth analysis of the process. 2.2. Encounters with the Instruments There are some fairy tales which relate the wonderful encounters between two different beings that are destined to be together. Some of them are surrounded by romanticism and solemnity, while others drift between banality and the realm of everyday life. My encounter with the marimba doble, and a few years later with the marimba sencilla, would be imbued with such simplicity and ordinariness that it could be romantically regarded as fate. I do not remember precisely how old I was at the time of the encounter; it must have been when I was around six or seven years of age. Several attempts had been made in order to “keep me busy” in the afternoons while my mother was working, but all to no avail. After a while, each of these activities had become too easy and/or boring, ending with my consequent refusal to pursue them. The last one of these activities was piano lessons at Casa de la Cultura in San Cristóbal de las Casas. In the beginning, my interest in music helped me to keep going to class regularly; however, after a while I also got bored, but, paradoxically, in spite of the boredom I continued with the lessons. In the class next door, the marimba students alZD\VZHQWRXWWRSOD\VRFFHUDIWHU¿QLVKLQJWKHLUOHVVRQDQGLWZRXOGQRWEH long before I joined them. My interest in the piano began to fade shortly after, while, on the other hand, a growing interest in the marimba, the instrument of my (new) friends, began to become ingrained in me. Shortly after, I could not even picture myself away from the instrument, with some sort of fascination towards the instrument taking hold of me. The marimbistas sencillos of the Chiapas sierra believe that becoming a marimbist is a “matter of fate”; that you “have it in you”. Otherwise, how could you explain such a fascination for the instrument, sometimes from the cradle. They were summoned by the instrument toward such encounter. This agency capability that the marimbas sencillas can provoke allows us to perceive that “in addition to ‘determining’ and serving as a ‘backdrop for human action’, [instruments] might authorize, allow, afford, encourage, permit, sugJHVWLQÀXHQFHEORFNUHQGHUSRVVLEOHIRUELGDQGVRRQ´ /DWRXU  Such an encounter between the marimba and the musician, as well as the – 57 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas mutual fascination, triggers a social relationship between these actors whose interrelationship may “[…] facilitate, prevent, or mediate social interaction[s] among other characters” (Bates 2012:364). While my enthusiasm towards the marimba had not developed from birth, a fascination, very similar to that of marimbistas sencillos, had taken hold of me regarding its musical endeavour. During the days I spent in the Chiapas sierra among timid voices, they shared with me the stories of such encounters. We had arrived in Chicomuselo. It was a damp, clear morning, and that YLOODJH¿OOHGZLWKGXVW\URDGVDQGZLWKHUHGKRXVHVVHHPHGWUDSSHGLQDGLIferent era with the airs of distant centuries. An almost empty square, like the incoming heat, would welcome us, as we got prepared for the meeting with Diamantes de Chicomuselo. A vast patio surrounded by lush trees and by the dust coming from a nearby construction site would be the scene of the encounter. That February morning, some surreal wind seemed to be blowing freely in that junction that had branded me, leaving an imprint like the one left by the wind upon the rocks. There were four members of the group, all with worn out bodies and with faces scorched by the sun. They talked endlessly, standing in the middle of the plaza, exchanging toothless smiles among the constant motion of people and things. Their rough features contradicted the softness of their hearts. One of them, Don Mario García, would begin sharing with us the stories of his lifetime. A bit ashamed upon being under the spotlight of our attention, sitting in the shade he would grant us a smile every few words, a smile that showed a lack of teeth. In his body, branded by the effect of the passing time, one could SHUFHLYHWKHVLJQVRIDOLIH¿OOHGZLWKKDUGVKLS$IWHUDORQJVWUDLQRIFRQYHUsation, Don Mario shared with us the story of his encounter with the marimba. “I was just a child when my papa said to me: –Let me make something clear. We are going to strip the sugarcane. You just watch, and I’ll strip the leaves off. And there, [on the Field,] it was, a small marimbita just standing there, and I told him: –Papa! –and I started to cry–. Please buy me that marimba! Then [my dad] went to talk to the master: –Why don’t you sell [me the marimba]? My son laid eyes on it; he is even crying.’ –[my father says] –Really? The marimba?’ –[the master would reply]. –Yeah! –said my dad–: oh, would you take [?] two sugarcane strippings?’ –I’ll give it to you! Go ahead, take it! –[the master would reply]. Because my daddy worked there, right there, right there” (Transl. Sofía Herrera)35. 35 “Yo era un niño cuando un día mi papa me dijo: —Voy a hablarle claro. Vamos a ir a desojar la hoja de caña. Usted ve y yo voy a limpiar la caña. – 58 – EchoEs of a social lifE That encounter had created an everlasting connection between Don Mario and his marimba. He would only be apart from it, on a temporary basis, upon the death of his father a couple of years later. Sometime later, upon meeting Don Gilberto Zamorano and becoming Diamantes de Chicomuselo, his life would follow anew the path of the marimba. Many years after this moment, their paths would still run parallel. However, this fascination towards the instrument is not unique. I would hear a similar story from Don Audelino González sometime later. “Right there [at a dance, at the age of six] I saw the marimba. I wanted to play it, but we didn’t have the means to afford a marimba! So, what [my siblings and I] did was to put together some tin cans, and we nailed them together! There we would get our melodies from! Right there, with some little tin cans!” (Transl. Sofía Herrera).36 Their fascination with the marimba would make Don Mario García and Don Audelino González, along with most marimbistas sencillos in the Chiapas sierra, devote their lives to the marimba endeavour. The chance to have access to the instrument at a certain point in time would be different in each of the cases. The story that Don Audelino had shared with us is proof that having access to the instrument is something that cannot be taken for granted, since WKHVRFLRHFRQRPLFLVVXHVDORQJZLWKPDQ\RWKHUVZRXOGKDYHDQLQÀXHQFH on the situation. Having (access to) a marimba is essential to becoming a marimbist. The way in which marimbistas sencillos access the learning process depends greatly upon such possibility. The children of the marimbists are––in general––the most privileged in this aspect, since most of the times they have Y ahí, [en el campo], estaba una marimbita parada y le dije: —¡Papá! —y me puse a llorar—. ¡Cómpreme usted esa marimba! Entonces [mi papá] fue a hablar con el patrón: —¿por qué no [me] vendes [la marimba]? Ya la vio mi hijo; ya hasta llorando está—[diría mi papá]. —¿de verdad? ¿la marimba? —[diría el patrón]. —¡sí! —entonces dijo mi papá—: ¡ah! ¡sí! ¿si me acepta dos [¿?] de limpia de caña? —¡te la voy a dar! ¡llévala de una vez! —[respondería el patrón]. Como ahí trabajaba mi papacito, ahí trabajaba, ahí.” Interview by Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán with Mario García, marimbist of the marimba group Diamantes de Chicomuselo, dated 17 February 2009, in the author’s private possession. 36 “Ahí [–en un baile a la edad de seis años–] miré la marimba. Yo deseaba ejecutarla. ¡Pero no teníamos recursos como para comprar una marimba! Lo que hacíamos nosotros [–él y sus hermanos–] era juntar unos botes; ¡los clavábamos! ¡ahí sacábamos nuestras melodías! ¡ahí con unos botecitos!” Interview by Daniel Fuchsberger with Audelino González, marimbist of the marimba group Hermanos González, dated 06 February 2010, in the author’s private possession. – 59 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas “secure” access from the cradle. However, not all marimbistas sencillos come from families related to the marimba or from marimbists who have their own marimbas. Don Audelino would show us how some marimbists had crafted their own marimbas in order to have access to this musical endeavour, while others, on the other hand, would have become close to other musicians or, as it was my case, to certain institutions, in order to have access to the instrument. The need to have an instrument would continue even when the musical endeavour had been mastered. Marimbistas sencillos, through their musical endeavour, would need to own or have access to the instrument in order to put their labor into practice. Notwithstanding, since marimbas sencillas are a highly valuable instrument, economically speaking, acquiring them may be DGLI¿FXOWWDVNIRUPRVWmarimbistas sencillos. I could witness this at seeing, during my research stays in the area, the poor preservation conditions of the instruments, as well as the presence of only one new marimba sencilla, that of Don Arturo Escobar from Conjunto Escobar ensemble. The way in which marimbistas sencillos get hold of the instrument is quite eloquent with regards to the way in which tradition is at play, as well as to the many different mechaQLVPVDQGSURFHVVHVWKDWKDYHDQLQÀXHQFHXSRQWKHLUHVWKHWLFDQGWHFKQLFDO aspects and notions. If acquiring the instrument can be economically challenging for marimbistas sencillos and very few new marimbas sencillas are acquired, then how do marimbistas sencillos get hold of their marimba? In those days, during my research stays in the Chiapas sierra, I was in contact with different stories about the way the marimbistas sencillos had had access to their instrument. One such story I had heard in a small village nestled in the mountains. In Bejucal de Ocampo, in the yard of a small carpentry, the voice of Don Vidal Pérez brought me inside that story. “This [marimba] was brought here from Guatemala, from a place called Santa Eulalia; a place where they craft marimbas. And this one came here around 1940, since 1940. […] Yes, it is so very old. Yes, many many years old. Back then, one family which integrated an ensemble brought it along. Then they passed away, and others kept [the marimba], and then they also died; it’s those, the ones who just passed away, and then it’s us here, contemplating this. […] This little marimbita began to recover some six years ago, that more or less, EHFDXVHLWVSUHYLRXV>RZQHUV@DOUHDG\SDVVHGDZD\LW¶VOLNH¿YH\HDUVWKDWWKH one who owned this marimba passed away. Then a son [of his] kept [it] and then we kind of began to recover it; until today, one has managed to [recover it] a little.” (Transl. Sofía Herrera).37 37 “Esta [marimba] la trajeron de Guatemala, de un lugar que se llama Santa Eulalia; un lugar dónde fabrican marimbas. Y ésta vino aquí como allá en 1940, desde 1940. […] Sí, ya tiene muchísimos años. Sí, muchísimos años. Entonces la trajo, precisamente, una familia que formaba un conjunto. Entonces estos se murieron y se quedaron otros [con la marimba], – 60 – EchoEs of a social lifE The story that Don Vidal shared with us on that February morning in that place of the Chiapas sierra showed us not only that the instruments proper had a long history, as well as the marimba traditions in Mexico and Guatemala, but also that marimbistas sencillos establish a follow-up of the instruments proper. Thus, such follow-up shows the relationship between different groups of marimbas sencillas, as well as the permanent search and desire of marimbistas sencillos to obtain an instrument of their own. Notwithstanding, marimbas sencillas, considering their high economic value, tend to belong to one of the group members. That is why the other marimbistas sencillos that are part of the ensemble are constantly expectant about having a guaranteed access to the marimba. The owner’s decision, whatever the reason might be, to part with the instrument, will have a consequence on the musical practice of all members of the group, causing them to search for new forms to have access to a marimba. Several marimbistas sencillos KDG H[SUHVVHG WKH VDPH FRQÀLFW GXULQJ P\ VWD\V LQ WKH &KLDSDV sierra; however, the words that Don Ausencio Tomás shared with me, sitting on that dirty, broken bench in the house where Arturo Escobar keeps his marimba, were the ones that would let me approach the phenomenon in greater depth. “Unfortunately my uncle, the one who owned the marimba, decided to sell it. He sold it to some guy in San José! We were left without [marimba]. From then on, we were like seven, eight years without a marimba. We wanted a marimba, but, how could we do it? Suddenly, some Don Genaro from Comalapa showed up; he came to get his coffee! He was a coffee buyer! And there he comes to my uncle, the one who played marimba. –Don, I have one marimba for sale! If you have no cash, let’s make a deal. You give half the price in a deal and the other half in cash! –And how is the marimba? –The marimba is good! go try it out! If you like, go try it out. If you like it, we make the deal! My uncle has no money, then he says: –How much for the marimba? –I’ll give it to you very cheap, 1500! –back in those days, it’s about 22 years ago!–. I’ll leave it in 1500. Then my uncle comes to me and [he says to me:] y luego se murieron estos; son los que apenas acaban de fallecer, y luego ya nosotros venimos contemplando este [¿?]. […] Esta marimbita se empezó a recuperar desde hace unos seis años. Así aproximadamente, porque sus anteriores [dueños] ya fallecieron; ya tiene como cinco años que falleció el que era dueño de esta marimba. Entonces [se la] quedó un hijo [suyo] y pues la empezamos a recuperar; hasta hoy se le ha logrado [recuperar] un poquito.” Interview by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez with Vidal Pérez, marimbist of the marimba group Flor de un Amor, dated 20 February 2016, in the author’s private possession. – 61 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas –Sir [?] is selling a little marimba. Since you all know how to play the marimba but you don’t have one, why not take the chance! He says he accepts ‘bartering’ ‘an exchange’. And the other half in cash. He says he’ll come that day, how much could you get for him? –Well, I have my car, I have a TV set –[I told him]. Then how to do it. He says he wants 700 in cash. Then here I go and I call one other friend whose name is Armando Velázquez; he also liked [the marimba]. –Lend us a hand. We want to buy a marimbita! So we can have it here whene’er LWFRPHVKDQG\:K\JRDQG¿QGRQHDOOWKHZD\WKHUHLI\RXFDQKDYHDPDrimba in here! –And then, how much do you need? –We need 700. So here comes the Don [and tells us:] –Look, if you don’t have money, I can leave it in 1000. Get me a nice TV set and 500 cash. So I grabbed my TV, the only one I had, and there it goes! just out of our love for the marimba! And the other friend put in 500 pesos. And we went to see the marimba in Comalapa. We tried it out; it was four of us who went to try out the marimba. And Don Genaro[?] says: –Look, you like it! deal! I’ll buy you a drink! And he bought us a drink. That’s how we kept playing marimba” (Transl. Sofía Herrera).38 38 “Pero desgraciadamente mi tío, que era el dueño, vendió la marimba. ¡La vendió con uno de San José! Nos quedamos sin [marimba]. De ahí tardamos como siete, ocho años sin marimba. Queríamos una marimba, pero ¿cómo? De repente subió un tal Don Genaro de Comalapa; ¡que por su café! ¡era comprador de café! Y llegó con mi tío; aquel que tocaba marimba. —Don, ¡tengo una marimba en venta! Si no tiene dinero; hagamos un trato. ¡Me da la mitad del valor con un trato y la otra mitad en efectivo! —Y ¿cómo está la marimba? —¡La marimba esta buena! ¡vayan a probarla! Si quieren vayan a probarla. Si les gusta ¡hacemos el trato! Mi tío no tenía dinero. Entonces dice: —¿Por cuánto la marimba? —Te la voy a dar barata. ¡1500! —en aquel tiempo, ¡ya tiene como 22 años!—. Te la voy a dar a 1500. Entonces llega mi tío conmigo y [me dice:] —Don [¿?] está vendiendo una marimbita. Ya que ustedes saben tocar la marimba pero no tienen una; ¡aprovechen! Él recibe la mitad en “trueque”, “cambalache” y la otra mitad en efectivo. Dice que va a venir tal día. ¿cuánto pueden ustedes darle, conseguirle? —Pues la verdad, ahí tengo mi carro, ahí tengo una televisión —[le dije]. Ahora como hacerlo, dice que quiere 700 en efectivo. Entonces agarré y le hablo a otro mi amigo que se llama Armando Velázquez; aquel le gustaba también [la marimba]. —Échenos la mano. ¡Queremos comprar una marimbita! Para tenerla aquí, para cuando se necesite. ¡Para que va usted a ir a buscar marimba así lejos! ¡si aquí puede haber una marimba! —Y que, ¿cuánto necesitan? – 62 – EchoEs of a social lifE Marimbistas sencillos would not only face trouble at the time of getting a marimba, but also, as Don Ausencio mentions, at the time of picking up the instrument and taking it to one’s hometown: “And now, how can we carry it? Maybe some friend in San José [would help.] ¡Gonzalo Morales! He had a little car. […] Why don’t we go and tell Gonzalo to take the marimba for us? How much will he charge us? Maybe we could pay it by harvesting coffee! And so it was. I just went to get someone else and we went to talk to Gonzalo. –Of course, I can take it! There is my little car –[he said to us]. –And how much will you charge? –See, you just come out with two [¿?] of coffee and that’ it.! –Órale, of course! Then we take out the marimba, he put it inside the car and, there we go! We made a deal with the Sir and we took the marimba with us. Upon arriving at San José he tells us: –Look, you won’t have to clean my coffee. On such day I will be holding a birthday party in my house, so this is better, let the marimba come. This will be ¿QH\RX¶OOVHH7KHUHZLOOEHIRRG±6R\HV We came out from there with 200. The man still gave us 200 pesos. The gig was 400. We slept in San José; we had the marimba over there. With this marimba [?] we went out to different places. After that he sold the marimba because of that little problem and that’s that! The marimba was sold to give the money back to that one [partner]. And about me, I didn’t even get the TV set back! I just got some washing machine and, there, that’s it! And then I came here, and it was then when I met Don Arturo. And here we are now” (Transl. Sofía Herrera).39 —Pues necesitamos 700. Entonces llega el señor [y nos dice:] —Mira, si no tienes, te la dejo en 1000. Consígueme una televisión que esté buena y 500 en efectivo. Agarré mi televisión, la única que tenía; ¡y se fue! ¡por el gusto de la marimba! Y el otro amigo dio 500 pesos. Y fuimos a ver la marimba en Comalapa. La probamos; fuimos cuatro y probamos la marimba. Y nos dice Don Genaro[?]: —Mire, ¡les gusta! ¡trato! ¡les invito un trago! Ahí nos invitó un trago. Así seguimos tocando marimba.” Interview by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez with Ausencio Tomás, marimbist of the marimba group Conjunto Escobar, dated 08 September 2016, in the author’s private possession. 39 “Pero ahora, ¿cómo la llevamos? Igual y un amigo de San José [nos ayuda.] ¡Gonzalo Morales! Él tenía un carrito. […] ¿Por qué no le vamos a hablar a Gonzalo que nos lleve la marimba? ¿Cuánto nos cobrará? ¡Lo podríamos pagar cosechando café! Y así fue. Nomás fui a traer a otro y fuimos a platicar con Don Gonzalo. —Sí como no, ¡la puedo llevar! Ahí está el carrito —[nos dijo]. —Y ¿por cuánto nos la va a llevar? —Miren, me sacan unas dos [¿?] de café y ¡ya! —¡Órale! – 63 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas The words that Don Ausencio shared with us would echo, just the day after, in the recollections that Don Audeliano Roblero, sitting in his yard, would bring back to life that sunny morning with its heavy damp air, in the village guarded by the sierra and by river Tachinula. “We just brought down this [marimba] sencilla. And we took it down from the VLHUUDJR¿JXUH>)URP@OD(PSLQDGD>$UPDQGRRQWKHZD\WR6LOWHSHF@>«@ So just half way [down] here comes a truck that stops by; –And that marimba? –[the driver asked]. –We’re on the way to such place –[we told him] –Bring it up! We brought it up; in a truck, we could get it in! he was a friend! –And how much will it be? –It’s nothing, just give me something to buy a soda *RVK:HGLGZHOO>"@)URPWKHUHDQRWKHUIULHQGZHQWWR¿QGXVDWOD0DFD>"@ We brought it in, and that’s just how the marimbita came here. We came all the way until today!” (Transl. Sofía Herrera).40 Flying among clouds made of dust and time, these stories not only let us have a glimpse into the different aspects of the social and cultural life, as Bajamos la marimba, la metió en el carro y ¡para arriba! Hicimos trato con el señor y nos llevamos la marimba. Llegando a San José nos dice: ²0LUHQQRPHYDQDKDFHUPLOLPSLDGHFDIp7DOIHFKDYR\DWHQHUXQD¿HVWDGHFXPpleaños en mi casa, mejor ¡que venga la marimba! Va a ver comida, bueno, va ver; ¡se va a poner bueno! —¡Y sí pues! Ahí salimos ganando 200. Todavía el señor nos dio otros 200 pesos. Salió por 400 la tocada. Nos dormimos en San José; ahí teníamos la marimba. Con esa marimba [¿?] salimos en diferentes partes. Después se vendió la marimba porque empezó el detallito aquel; y ¡ya! Se vendió la marimba para regresarle el dinero a aquel [compañero]. Y pues yo ya no recuperé ¡ni la televisión! Me quedó una lavadora ahí… ¡ahí acabó! Y en eso vine para acá y ya fue cuando me encontré con Don Arturo. Hasta ahorita aquí estamos.” Interview by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez with Ausencio Tomás, marimbist of the marimba group Conjunto Escobar, dated 08 September 2016, in the author’s private possession. 40 “Hoy acabamos de bajar esta [marimba] sencilla. ¡Y la bajamos de la sierra! ¡ni te imaginas! [Desde] la Empinada; [Armando: ¡rumbo a Siltepec!] […] Pues por media [bajada] ahí venia un volteo y se paró; —¿y esa marimba? —[exclamó el conductor]. —Vamos hacia tal lugar —[le dijimos]. —¡Súbanla! La subimos; ¡en un volteo la metimos! ¡era un amigo! —y ¿cuándo es? —¡nada! ¡nomás denme para los refrescos! ¡*uta! Nos fue bien [¿?]. De ahí, otro amigo aquí me fue a alcanzar a la Maca[?]. La trajimos; y así vino la marimbita. ¡hasta hoy llegamos!” Interview by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez with Audelino Roblero, marimbist of the marimba group Brisas del Tachinula, dated 09 September 2016, in the author’s private possession. – 64 – EchoEs of a social lifE well as into the workings of different economic exchanges and processes of marimbistas sencillos in the Chiapas sierra: they also portray the existence of a market within the tradition of the marimba sencilla, where the instruments ±DQGWKHPXVLFLDQVDOVR±ZRXOGEHEDUWHUHGLQFRPSHQVDWLRQIRUWKHGLI¿FXOW\ of acquiring it. The words of Don Silvano Morales, surrounded by pieces of wood and old tube pipes, would put under the spotlight on this market. “This marimba must be [with me] around eight years. That’s right! I had one before, but I had to sell it [Then] I bought this one! It’s already eight years old; [I got the other one] some two or three years before this one. That’s right! [?] [then] I kept this one! That’s it! When you see someone who wants the marimba, you go and sell it! and then you buy another one. You can also make a little money with that” (Transl. Sofía Herrera).41 The words uttered by Don Silvano Morales would make me ponder over the strategies that marimbistas sencillos use in order to counteract the high economic value of the marimbas during their search to have access to the instrument, as well as the importance and the positioning of the instrument within the economic patrimony of the marimbists. These strategies are in dialectic relation with different epistemological processes that are experienced by the marimbists during the formative stage of their musical endeavour. On the process to become a marimbist, marimbistas sencillos will be in constant negotiation, both with themselves and with other actors, in order to generate the necessary social and economic processes for the acquisition and the generation of the auditory knowledge of their own musical tradition, as well as the necessary economic bases to the practice and upkeep of this activity. The story I heard from Don Claudio Mauricio in his courtyard on that distant February morning is an example of the aforementioned processes: “Then, later on, we were growing […] we bought a marimba sencilla, a little one. There we used to play the three of us, me, my elder brother and the one who is younger than me [he said, pointing out to his brothers]. Then we began and I said to them: ±/HW¶VJRRXWDQGPDNHVRPHPRQH\0D\EH¿YHSHVRVDQKRXU Then we go out and serenade; and there we were. So, from then on, we were improving more and more. Then we bought another marimba […] When we 41 “Esta marimba tiene como unos 8 años [conmigo]. ¡Sí pues! Antes tuve una pero después la vendí. ¡[Luego] compré esta! Ya tiene ocho años; [La otra la conseguí] unos dos o tres años antes que esta. ¡Sí pues! [¿?] ¡ya [luego] me quedé con esta! ¡Así es!, cuando ves a alguien que quiere la marimba, entonces ¡se vende! y se vuelve a comprar otra. Y también de ahí se gana un dinerito.” Interview by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez with Silvano Morales, marimbist of the marimba group Alma Caminera, dated 04 September 2016, in the author’s private possession. – 65 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas already knew a bit more, then we started [playing] with this guy from Comalapa, his name was Aldemaro. There I was a tiplero, a segundero […] I used to follow the pieces, what the maestro was playing. Just hearing and I was already playing. Later I went to the maestro and told him: –Look, lend me the marimba! I am going to play with three mallets, –I said. Here, I am going to play my pieces and you accompany me. Then, after a while I left them. It was then when my brothers and I bought a marimba, and I told them: –I already know […] how to play! Let’s buy a marimba, I play the pieces and you accompany me. At the time, another boy convinced me that I played with them; that another friend and I played with them. –OK, but [only] if you give me the chance to lead the melody. I am going to get the marimba tenor with four mallets. Let’s see, what do you think. So, you’ll see that I am going to give it a go –[I told them]. It was then that I started to play with the four mallets, and I kept on improving. Then we bought a marimba with my [brothers]. A full marimba, one requinta and one big marimba. We played only marimba, with no drums. We went out to play in dance balls, in gatherings, in weddings, quinceañeras […] Later on I told my [brothers]: –Look, let’s buy another marimba. And let’s buy also some drums […] Then I convinced three other guys to play with us; it was already six of us. The six of us began to play” (Transl. Sofía Herrera).42 42 “Ya después, ya que fuimos creciendo […] compramos una marimba sencilla, así chiquita. Ahí ya tocábamos los tres; yo, mi hermano el más viejo y él que es menor que yo –[señalando a sus hermanos]. Entonces empezamos y les dije: —¡Salgamos a ganar! Quizás cinco pesos la hora. Ahí salíamos a dar serenata; y así estuvimos. Entonces ya desde aquel tiempo nosotros fuimos mejorando cada vez más y más. Entonces compramos otra marimba. […] Ya que supimos un poquito más nos metimos [a tocar] con un muchacho de Comalapa que se llamaba Aldemaro. Ahí yo era tiplero, era segundero. […] Yo iba siguiendo las piezas; lo que el maestro tocaba. Oyendo y ya iba tocando. Ya después, fui con el maestro y le dije: —Mira, ¡préstame la marimba! Voy a tocar con tres baquetas —le dije. Aquí en el centro voy a tocar mis piezas y usted me acompaña. Luego de un tiempo me salí de ahí. Entonces fue cuando con mis hermanos compramos una marimba y les dije: —¡Yo ya se […] tocar! Compremos una marimba; yo voy a tocar las piezas y ustedes me van a acompañar. En eso otro muchacho me convenció de que tocara con ellos; que otro compañero y yo tocáramos con ellos. —Bueno, pero [solo] si me dan oportunidad de que yo lleve la melodía. Voy a agarrar la marimba tenor con cuatro baquetas. A ver, ¿como lo ven? Pues vas a saber, pero yo voy a hacer la lucha —[les dije]. Entonces ya empecé a tocar con las cuatro baquetas; así fui mejorando. Entonces compramos una marimba con mis [hermanos]. Ya la marimba completa; una requinta y una marimba grande. Tocábamos con pura marimba; sin batería. Ya salíamos a tocar en bailes, en convivios, en casamientos, quinceañeras. […] Después les dije a mis [hermanos]: – 66 – EchoEs of a social lifE The words that Don Claudio had shared with us would resound in those stories that the marimbistas sencillos shared with me during my stays in the Chiapas sierra. If the generation of the auditory knowledge of marimbistas sencillos during their formation process implied not only the acquisition of certain physical and mental skills, but also the ability to develop a mechanism for economic generation and sustenance for the practice of such activities, then the functioning of such socioeconomic process is of the utmost importance for the understanding of this musical tradition. 2.3. Becoming a Group 7KHGD\¿QLVKHGZDNLQJXSDQGZDVFRPPHQFLQJLWVIUHQHWLFZDON&ORXGV of dust emanated from the porous streets of Frontera Comalapa. Amidst that chaos, a strange body navigated among the automobiles and food stalls, among people and hungry dogs. Three men of strong and burned Visages melted their silhouettes in an object during their walk. The sweat of their bodies left a mark in those shirts worn out by the sun. We were eating in a corner close to the central plaza. At the back, that strange body submerged in that dust cloud started to take a shape known by us. By that dusty street, a marimba was getting closer. After their labours in the countryside, the members of the Hermanos Santizo marimba would meet to carry their music to everyone who wanted to listen. Carrying their marimba from bar to bar, they would go looking for an open market for their music. If the clients did not look for them, then they would themselves go looking for them. 2.3.1. Linking the Group One of the most important processes in the preservation of this musical tradition would be the development of a mechanism that allows for the generation and economic sustenance of marimbistas sencillos. Marimba groups of the sierra of Chiapas are confronted on a daily basis with the need to get a “gig” LQRUGHUWRVXUYLYH7KLVSUDFWLFHKRZHYHUHQWDLOVWKHIXO¿OPHQWRIDZKROH series of processes in order for it to take place in a satisfactory fashion. Before they are able to put their musical endeavour into practice in an economically productive context, marimbistas sencillos will need to create some kind of labour bond with other marimbists. —Miren, compremos otra marimba. Y compremos también una batería. […] Ya fue que convencí a otros tres muchachos para tocar; ya éramos seis. Ya empezamos a tocar los seis.” Interview by Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán with Claudio Mauricio, marimbist of the marimba group Brisas del Grijalva, dated 16 February 2009, in the author’s private possession. – 67 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas As already mentioned, it is essential for marimbistas sencillos to have assured access to a marimba in order to put their musical endeavour into practice. However, very few marimbistas sencillos¿QGWKHPVHOYHVLQWKH situation of having a marimba of their own. This fact will promote both the generation and the settlement of a hierarchical system, both in the economic and the musical aspects of this tradition; this would cause the marimbistas sencillos who own an instrument to be in charge of organizing and directing WKH PDULPED JURXS LQ WKH PXVLFDO DQG LQ WKH ¿QDQFLDO DVSHFW DV ZHOO DV generating the mechanisms needed for their economic sustenance43. The owner of the marimba, being the (future) director of the group, will have to seek the surroundings for marimbistas sencillos willing to be part of the ensemble, either on a temporary or on a permanent basis. Due to the economic relevance that the practice of such musical endeavour may entail for marimbistas sencillos, this search tends to take place preferably within WKHLURZQIDPLOLHV7KLVJXDUDQWHHVRQWKHRQHKDQGWKH¿QDQFLDOVXVWHQDQFH of the family and, on the other, a more stable and constant functioning within the ensemble. Thus, the marimba, as well as the auditory knowledge of this tradition, becomes a fundamental inheritance and a family legacy of marimbistas sencillos. Nonetheless, as I could witness during my stays in the sierra of Chiapas, the number of families of marimbistas sencillos that have devoted themselves to continuing this musical practice is increasingly small (see Bermúdez 2015; Brenner/Moreno/Bermúdez 2014). The echo of this history would be sensed not only in the recollections of marimbists of the sierra of Chiapas, but also in the words of Don Gilberto Zamorano, which are still resounding in my memory: “I have four male sons, but no, they don’t like it. And the marimba is just lying there at home! But no, no way. They don’t like it! –Learn! –[I say to them]. –No! That thing is yours. Go on and sell it! What on Earth do you want that marimba for [–they say to me]. Because they don’t like it. Some people say to me: ±7HDFK\RXUFKLOGUHQ:K\GR\RXKDYHWRUXQ>WR¿QGPXVLFLDQV@":KHQHYHU you got a gig, there are your children! But they don’t like it, so I just can’t force them” (Transl. Sofía Herrera).44 43 Most of the time, the owner of the marimba is also a marimbista sencillo, being in charge RIWKH¿QDQFLDODVZHOODVWKHPXVLFDOGLUHFWLRQRIWKHJURXS1HYHUWKHOHVVLQVRPHPDULPED groups these activities are shared with other members of the ensemble or are left in charge of a person outside the group. The ensemble Diamantes del Paraiso is an example of the latter case, where the instruments that the ensemble uses belong to a person that is not part of the group; in this case the activities and decisions regarding the group, both musical and ¿QDQFLDODUHPDGHE\SHUVRQVDQGIRUUHDVRQVRXWVLGHRIWKHJURXS 44 “Tengo cuatro hijos varones, pero no, no les gusta. ¡Y la marimba está ahí en mi casa! – 68 – EchoEs of a social lifE This situation has forced marimbistas sencillos to expand their search outside the family circle. In case they cannot integrate a family group, the owner of the marimba45ZLOO¿UVWJHWLQFRQWDFWZLWKRWKHUmarimbistas sencillos within their own circle of friends, inviting them to participate in their (future) group, or, in any case, to pass any information about other marimbistas sencillos who might be interested in joining the ensemble. While on this search, however, they will not only attempt to create permanent labour bonds with a small group of marimbists to establish with them a marimba group of their own, but also to create a network of possible substitute players, which would allow them to maintain their marimba ensemble at work. Some aspects of the formation process of the ensemble are a part of both PDULPEDWUDGLWLRQVLQ&KLDSDVKRZHYHULQWKHVSHFL¿FFDVHRImarimba sencilla, the small number and the old age of marimbistas sencillos still at work, has caused the preservation of the ensembles to greatly depend on the creation and upkeep of such networks of possible (future) members. The existence of such a network allows for the mobility of marimbists between groups, thus DOORZLQJIRUWKHSUHVHUYDWLRQRIDVXI¿FLHQWQXPEHURIPXVLFLDQVLQWKHHQsembles and guaranteeing the practice of the musical activity of marimbistas sencillos. This situation has promoted the notion that marimbists can belong to one or more ensembles, either at their place of origin or at different places, as well as allowed for a marimba ensemble to have different formations. 2.3.2. Types of Ensemble The echoes of these stories do not only present us with some of the different contexts where marimbistas sencillos would undertake their performances, but also the ways in which they adapt their musical activities, as well as their formation, to the different aesthetic conceptions and expectations which constitute the frame for the context of their performance. Marimba ensembles may be as diverse as the contexts where they put into practice their musical Pero no, ni queriendo. ¡No les gusta! —¡Aprendan! —[les digo]. —¡No! Esa es cosa de usted. ¡Ya véndala! ¿Para que quiere usted esa marimba? [—me dicen]. Porque no les gusta. Varia gente me dice: —¡Enséñale a tus hijos! ¿Para que vas a salir corriendo [a buscar músicos]? Cuando tengas una tocada; ¡ahí estarían tus hijos! Pero como no les gusta, ¡no los puedo obligar!”. Interview by Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán with Gilberto Zamorano, marimbist of the marimba group Diamantes de Chicomuselo, dated 17 February 2009, in the author’s private possession. 45 It is not always the owner of the marimba who takes the initiative for establishing this contact. Often, it is the marimbistas sencillos themselves who make an attempt to be part of a certain ensemble. – 69 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas endeavours. Depending on the economic possibilities of the marimbistas sencillos, as well as on the physical restrictions and possibilities offered by the context of their performance, ensembles may vary the number of participants as well as any additional instrumentation. Nonetheless, the musical function RIWKHPDULPELVWVZLOOUHPDLQFRQVWDQWUHJDUGOHVVRIWKH¿QDOIRUPDWLRQRI the ensemble. In spite of this diversity, marimba ensembles may be divided into two basic kinds: marimbas on the one hand and marimbas orquestas on the other.46 Figure 8. “Marimba” group Diamantes de Chicomuselo. Marimbas (Figure 8) are characterized by the exclusive use of marimbas during their performance, which means these groups do not include any other instruments as an element of their instrumentation. These kinds of ensembles GRQRWKDYHD¿[HGIRUPDWLRQEXWDUHIRUPHGZLWKDYDULDEOHDPRXQWRIPDrimbists, ranging from two to seven musicians, all distributed between one DQGWZRPDULPEDV7KHYDU\LQJQXPEHURISDUWLFLSDQWVKDVDQLQÀXHQFHRQ the different possible formations, as well as on the heterogeneous distribution of musical functions within the ensemble, which are distributed according to WKHQXPEHURIPDULPELVWVDQGWKHLUWHFKQLFDOFDSDELOLWLHV7KXVZHFDQ¿QG on the one hand, a marimba like that of the Hermanos Santizo group, with three members and one marimba, who are distributed in bass, harmony and 46 Both kinds of ensembles are also present in the marimba doble tradition. However, diIIHUHQFHVFDQEHLGHQWL¿HGLQWKHLQVWUXPHQWDWLRQDVZHOODVLQWKHLUIRUPDWLRQ – 70 – EchoEs of a social lifE RQH³VRORLVW´ZKRSOD\VWKH¿UVWDQGVHFRQGYRLFHZLWKIRXUPDOOHWVDQGRQ the other hand, a marimba such as the Brisas del Grijalva group, consisting RI¿YHPXVLFLDQVLQWZRPDULPEDVGLYLGHGLQWRbass, harmony, second, first, and one “soloist”, who not only doubles the voices, but who also interpret improvisation passages. On the contrary, marimbas orquestas (Figure 9) are groups who include other instruments in their formation such as bass and drums. These ensemEOHVGRQRWKDYHD¿[HGIRUPDWLRQMXVWOLNHmarimbas, though the existing formations tend to be more similar and constant. This groups are generally made up of three to seven marimbists distributed in two marimbas, one set of drums, sometimes a bass, and very seldom some other instruments such as saxophones, trumpets and/or keyboard. Nonetheless, in spite of the inclusion of more instruments, marimbas orquestas within the marimba sencilla tradition tend to keep a “reduced” number of members, which varies between ¿YHWRVHYHQPHPEHUV2QHH[DPSOHRIWKLVNLQGRI³UHGXFHG´HQVHPEOHFDQ be found in Hermanos Méndez group, which includes three marimbists–bass and harmony, first, and a “soloist”–distributed in two marimbas, as well as a drum set and a bass. This type of marimba orquestas is contrasting to their namesakes within the marimba doble tradition, where such ensembles may include around 15 musicians taking part in the group. During my research VWD\VKRZHYHU,FRXOGQRW¿QGHQVHPEOHVRIVXFKGLPHQVLRQVZLWKLQWKHWUDdition of the marimba sencilla. The largest marimba orquestaWKDW,FRXOG¿QG ZDV'LDPDQWHVGHO3DUDtVRJURXSZKLFKLQFOXGHV¿YHPDULPELVWVDORQJZLWK a bass, a drum set, congas and one keyboard. The formation of either kind of ensemble will depend mainly on the economic situation of the marimbistas sencillos, which will allow or restrict the acquisition of more than one marimEDDQGRURIRWKHULQVWUXPHQWVDVZHOODVWKHLUDELOLW\WR¿QGDQGMRLQRWKHU musicians for integrating the ensemble. Likewise, the aesthetic demands of the public, as well as the physical restrictions and possibilities offered by the context of performance, will lead the marimbistas sencillos to opt for a certain kind of ensemble and, were it the case, to adapt it according to their own needs. 2.3.3. An Insight Regarding Musical Development Once they have created the marimba group–and its corresponding circulation network–, marimbistas sencillos are able to devote themselves to the acquisition and settling of the repertoire; the marimbista sencillo who is the musical director47 of the group is in charge of acquiring the new repertoire. 47 As mentioned in note 43, the musical direction of the group can be assumed by other members of the ensemble. In this case, the owner of the marimba would be devoted to the economic management of the group, as well as to the procurement of its preservation. I – 71 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas 7KHLU VHOHFWLRQ VKDOO EH LQÀXHQFHG E\ WKH UHSHUWRLUH SUHYLRXVO\ DFTXLUHG by the different members of the group, as well as by the contexts in which they will put into practice their musical endeavour (see chapter 3.1.). There DUHRWKHUIDFWRUVWKDWZLOODOVRKDYHDGH¿QLQJLQÀXHQFHXSRQWKLVGHFLVLRQ among them are which pieces of the repertoire are demanded by the audience, as well as the personal taste of the marimbistas sencillos, especially that of the director of the group, who shall decide, by “consensus” with the other members of the group what repertoire will be played. Figure 9. “Marimba orquesta” group Hermanos Vázquez. Once they have come to an agreement, the musical director of the group will be compelled to acquire new repertoire and, depending on the chosen piece, to enter negotiation with human agents–other musicians–and/or non-human agents–the radio–to warrant their access to auditory knowledge of such repertoire–including the obligations and responsibilities which correspond to the performance context. The way they appropriate the repertoire will vary depending on who is the agent responsible for the transfer of this knowledge. In case this agent is another musician, the musical director of the group will learn this repertoire by the traditional means of transmission of auditory knowledge. On the other hand, if it depends on a non-human agent–particularly the radio–, the musical director of the group will have to acquire the had the chance to see an example of this possibility in the case of marimba Los Únicos de &KLFKDUUDVZKHUH'RQ$UWXUR5REOHURLVWKHRZQHURIWKHPDULPEDDVZHOODVLWV¿QDQFLDO director, whereas Don Hilario González is the musical director. – 72 – EchoEs of a social lifE QHZ UHSHUWRLUH ¿JXULQJ RXW E\ WKHPVHOYHV KRZ WR SOD\ WKH VRQJ ³E\ HDU´ this being the most common means of acquisition of new repertoire. In both cases, added to the inexistence of a written means for the transmission of the repertoire within this musical tradition, the musical director of the group will have the obligation of showing this new repertoire in the same way that the learning process takes place to the (less experienced) marimbists of the group in any of the positions. Upon joining the group, the marimbistas sencillos will (again) be submerged in a process of acquisition and improvement of different skills, which will allow them to develop as marimbists, both individually and collectively. On the one hand, during the process of acquisition of a new repertoire, marimbistas sencillos will not only widen their auditory knowledge, as well as their technical abilities for the instrument, but they will also develop a “sense of group”, which shall in turn allow them to musically adapt themselves to one another. On the other hand, upon developing this “sense”, marimbistas sencillos will be equally fostering and increasing their ability to “follow”; with this, probably unknowingly, they will be stimulating the skills that will allow them to access and adapt themselves to performing under different groups and situations. The process of becoming a group is thus intrinsically linked to the process of becoming a marimbist. Nonetheless, the intensity with which they shall be able to devote themselves to the process will depend, on the one hand, on the pre-existing economic possibilities, as well as on the geographic spread of the members of the group and, on the other side, of the possibility/ability that the marimbists can obtain/produce for the generation of the necessary economic sources for their self-sustainment. The words of Don Audeliano Roblero and Don Armando Escobar mirror this situation: “[Armando]: –we almost don’t see each other! That because my brother lives far away. [Audeliano]: –When there is a gig, let’s say there’ll be a gig; they come see us three days before. Then we call for our two mates who live over there at La Noria. [..] Then they come and we rehearse; some three afternoons! [Armando]: –But we don’t rehearse often! That for the same reason that they don’t live here all [members]. [But when there’s something] we now get ready and go to playing!” (Transl. Sofía Herrera).48 48 “[Armando]: —¡casi no nos vemos seguido! Por lo mismo de que mi hermano vive lejos. [Audeliano]: —Cuando hay una tocada, digamos que habrá una tocada; nos vienen a ver tres días antes. Entonces mandamos a traer a nuestros dos compañeros que viven allá en La Noria. [..] Ya vienen, y ensayamos; ¡unas tres tardes! [Armando]: —¡Pero no ensayamos seguido! Por lo mismo que no viven aquí todos los [miembros]. [Pero si sale algo] ya nos preparamos y ¡vamos a tocar!” Interview by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez with Audeliano Roblero, marimbist of the marimba group – 73 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas Figure 10. Don Silvano Morales (left) playing with three mallets in his right hand. The words of Don Audeliano and Don Armando resound through the stories of what marimbistas sencillos have gone through in the sierra of Chiapas. The hardship they must face to dedicate exclusively to their musical endeavour, as well as the reduced visibility that this tradition has to suffer, have both caused a generalized situation of less virtuoso technical development. Despite this, LWLVSRVVLEOHWR¿QGmarimbistas sencillos who have acquired and developed a more virtuoso technique in this musical tradition. I had the chance to experience an example of such possibility on a damp September day in a small house on a lost spot of Chicomuselo. A narrow stony path had led us to the home of Don Silvano Morales. Our car had remained a few blocks behind, defeated by the mountainous opposition of that muddy road. Don Silvano was in his yard waiting for the musicians to arrive; in a couple of hours they were supposed to go play for a birthday party. It would be there, surrounded by old lead pipes and by a large bundle–which we later found out were his marimbas–, that Don Silvano would share with us several aspects related to his musical endeavour. After a long while, the hour of their engagement coming near, only one of his musicians had arrived. Don Silvano, seemingly more embarrassed by our presence than by the lack of punctuality of his marimbists, would later ask us: –and, would you like us to play a little something? It’s just that those are not showing up. If you want to listen to us49, we’ll play! How come you won’t listen Brisas del Tachinula, dated 09 September 2016, in the author’s private possession. 49 Personal message from Silvano Morales to the author. – 74 – EchoEs of a social lifE to us–. Without hesitating, Don Silvano and Don Manuel would immediately play for us part of their repertoire. That afternoon, thanks to the tardiness of some of the musicians of the Alma Caminera marimba, I had the chance to witness something that is supposed to be impossible: Don Silvano would play with three mallets in his right hand (Figure 10). This dumbfounded me; in all my years as a marimbist I had not frequently had the chance to witness such a performance technique. If in the realm of marimba de concierto such a technique was considered advanced, its mere existence in the realm of marimba sencilla had been until that moment unexpected. During my stays in the sierra of Chiapas I had the chance to witness not only that the development of more virtuosic techniques was possible, but also that other musical aspects, such as improvisation–which had previously been considered alien to this tradition–were not only present, but were indeed, as in the case of marimba doble (see Moreno 2016:204-295), an essential part of the performance of marimba sencilla. 7KHQHHGWRNHHSWKHJURXSDWZRUNLQVSLWHRIWKHÀXFWXDWLRQRIWKHPXVLcians, had led Don Silvano to develop certain technical skills needed to make up for the inconsistency and geographical spread of his musicians. The different problems that marimbistas sencillos have to face during their development as DJURXSZRXOGKDYHDVLJQL¿FDQWLQÀXHQFHLQWKHFRQGLWLRQVDQGVWUDWHJLHVWKDW they were to put to use during their formation as marimbists, as well as in the ways and strategies they intended to use during their musical endeavour. In the case of Don Silvano, developing the skill to play with three mallets in one hand would grant him the chance to simultaneously assume more than one role in the ensemble, which consequently made him less dependent on other musicians, FRQIHUULQJKLPJUHDWHUÀH[LELOLW\DWWKHWLPHRIDFTXLULQJDJLJDVZHOODVJLYLQJ him the chance to improve his economic situation upon having to distribute WKHHDUQLQJVEHWZHHQIHZHUPXVLFLDQV&RQWUDVWLQJO\WKHVHGLI¿FXOWLHVZRXOG cause a less virtuosic technical development in the marimbists of the ensemble. In any case, the marimbistas sencillos, once the group has been formed, have the need to develop different mechanisms and strategies to engage in an ecoQRPLFDOO\SUR¿WDEOHSHUIRUPDQFH 2.3.4. Getting the Gig It seemed as if the day would not move forward. The heaviness of the air had SHWUL¿HGHYHU\WKLQJWKDWJRWLQLWVZD\$VZHZDONHGZHFRXOGIHHOWKHDLU skimming and it made us feel as if we were walking on water. Don Armando had already let himself sink down on a chair under the shadow of that humble terrace with its tin roof; it would not take long until our heavy bodies would follow his example. Whilst telling his stories, his memories were swimming OLNH¿VKLQWKHPRLVWDLUDGYHQWXUHVPLVIRUWXQHVUHDOLWLHVDQGDVSLUDWLRQV – 75 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas His words were woven into the sounds of the street and the roosters crowing, as they became heavy metaphors for the life of the marimbists in the highland of Chiapas. “Our aim is to improve, of course! Well, we cannot say that everything is perfect here, where we live; There is not much work! At least now, during this season, there are fewer job opportunities for musicians. But we always say: if only we would improve, if only we would have some sound equipment, then we could take [our music] somewhere else, to a place where there are more job opportunities. To Chicomuselo, or to Comalapa for instance! There is lots of work. Musicians always have work to do there. That would be our aim, to improve, to SRVLWLRQRXUVHOYHVDQGWRREWDLQEHQH¿WVH[DFWO\WKDW(YHU\WKLQJLV¿QHKHUH but there is almost no work. There are almost no gigs. But, if you make yourself known and people have heard from you, then they look for you. If they know that you are well organized, that you work properly, then people search for you” (Transl. Sofía Herrera).50 The marimbistas sencillos in the highland of Chiapas continuously see themselves forced to generate different mechanisms and strategies that allow them WRIXOO\GHYHORSWKHLUPXVLFDOWDVNVDQGDWWKHVDPHWLPHLPSURYHWKHLU¿QDQcial situation. These mechanisms and strategies will depend on the conditions and contexts the marimbists live in, as well as on the kind of event they will perform at. In order to get a gig, the marimbistas sencillos will not only have to develop an attractive musical performance for their audience and increase their visibility within the region, but they also have to adjust their musical activities to the different types of performances they get access to (see chapter 3.1.), as well as to the economic situation and the aesthetic preferences of their audience, and therefore they are immersed in an endless bargaining with other actors. As I witnessed during my stays in the highland of Chiapas, the marimbistas sencillos have mainly employed two strategies to position and GHYHORSWKHLUPXVLFDOWDVNV7KH¿UVWDQGDWWKHVDPHWLPHWKHPRVWFRPPRQ strategy, treats this process in a more passive manner, as the marimbistas 50 “Nuestro objetivo está en ¡mejorar pues! Bueno, no podemos decir que aquí dónde vivimos todo es perfecto; ¡No hay mucho trabajo! Al menos ahorita, en esta temporada, baja un poco el trabajo de la música. Pero nosotros siempre hemos comentado; si mejoráramos, si tuviéramos también un equipo de sonido, entonces podríamos llevar [nuestra música] un día a un lugar donde haya más trabajo. Por ejemplo, a Chicomuselo, a ¡Comalapa! Ahí es donde hay trabajo. Ahí siempre tienen trabajo los músicos. Ese sería el objetivo de mejorar; poder SRVLFLRQDUQRV\£TXHKD\DEHQH¿FLR£HVR$TXtWDPELpQHVWiELHQSHURDTXtFDVLQRKD\ trabajo. Tocadas casi no hay. Pero, si uno se da a conocer, pienso que la gente entonces sí te busca. Si saben que uno está bien organizado, que ya uno está funcionando bien, entonces a uno lo busca la gente.” Interview by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez with Armando Escobar, marimbist of the marimba group Brisas del Tachinula, dated 09 September 2016, in the author’s private possession. – 76 – EchoEs of a social lifE sencillos just wait until the audience interested in their music approaches and hires them to provide musical accompaniment for their events. Under this strategy, the marimbistas sencillos are forced to generate mechanisms that allow them to increase their visibility and thus be perceived by the audience as part of the supply of the local music market. The word-of-mouth advertising from their family and friends and later through former or existing clients will be one of the main ways for the marimbistas sencillos to make a name. The implementation of this advertising strategy, in combination with their musical activities, will not be reduced to the local sphere, but it will also be aimed at achieving regional visibility in proportion to the potential of the respective market. The second option refers to a more active approach to this process. Under this strategy, the marimbistas sencillos go out and look for possible places to perform and ways to develop their performance. The implementation of this strategy becomes clearly visible if we take the marimba ensemble Diamantes de Chicomuselo as an example, who are known for carrying their marimba from bar to bar, searching for an audience willing to hear their performance. This kind of ensemble is occasionally known under the name (marimbas) “putillas”51, which refers to the method they use to gain customers. A further strategy is the one used by the marimba ensemble Trinos de la Selva, who, due to their advanced age and physical condition, chose a different alternative that consists of offering their musical performance on a corner at the central park in Frontera Comalapa. These groups choosing the referred strategies in RUGHUWRREWDLQPRUHÀH[LELOLW\ZKLOVWDFTXLULQJFXVWRPHUVDQGWKHLQFUHDVHRI the visibility of the ensemble, is essential to the execution of their activities, DVLQWKHFDVHRIWKH¿UVWVWUDWHJ\DOWKRXJKWKH\ZRXOGEHOHVVGHSHQGHQWRQLW The success of the strategy chosen by the marimbistas sencillos that consists RIRIIHULQJWKHLUSHUIRUPDQFHXQGHUVSHFL¿FFRQWH[WVGRHVKRZHYHUGHSHQG on the acceptance coming from the audience and the value they place on their performance. Once they have access to the music market, the marimbistas sencillos will bargain the monetary value of their performance with a countless number of artists. This will not only depend on the extension and diversity of the music market where they develop their activities, but also on the economic opportunities and aesthetic preferences of the audience they have access to. Nevertheless, due to the low social status of the marimbistas sencillos they will be set in an unequal position in comparison to other artists participating in this negotiation. The words that Don Francisco would share with me on that September morning would come into being in this negotiation: 51 The term putilla is derived from the word puta, which is used in Chiapas to refer to sexual workers or to women, whose behaviour transgresses the norms related to the exercise of sexuality that are imposed to the feminine sex. – 77 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas “People mainly call [the mariachis] when they want to serenade someone. Although they are expensive, people like them! We charge less, but yet, people try to get even a lower price. They almost want us to play for free! And many people, among them the mariachis, tell us: –You are really blowing it!! And I ask; –why? –The marimba is nicer. With the marimba you can dance! And are you charging for this? ±,FKDUJH±VDLGP\¿HQG± ±, FKDUJH  IRU WHQRU WZHOYHVRQJV DQG \RX SOD\ IRU ¿YH KRXUV DQG RQO\ charge two thousand pesos! And not even like this people want us! Five hours! You put more efforts. And if we also take a drum kit, a tololón, you can charge a bit more. But people will just not pay for it. They do not want to! They like the marimba EHWWHURQO\WKHPDULPED>«@:HFKDUJHWZRWKRXVDQGSHVRVIRU¿YHKRXUVEXW still they want us to charge less. I then tell them: –You do not bargain with the mariachi, you do not keep telling them to charge only thousand pesos. Why not them! Always us! You only bargain with us! The positive part is that here and there, there are people that are really nice, people that know about music and they support us. They give us 100 pesos! The former president would come and support us! He would pay 800! 500! We would pay two songs when he came over and would support us. […] Or some good-hearted person would say: –Here you go, go and get yourselves a soft drink! But well this is just a kind gesture. That’s it! It would be great that the municipal president would come and support us with a small salary. But no! They have a different perspective! Many people say they should support us! Because we are cheering up Comalapa. Without these marimbas, everything is much sadder! That’s why elderly people come here! Not now, because it is cold and if they think that it will rain, then they don’t come! They are the some that come and pay! From time to time there are young people that like music. But the ones that pay for their songs are the elderly! But what are ten pesos worth after all? […] It should be more, but how! My God! If \RXLQFUHDVHWKHSULFHE\¿YHSHVRVWKH\GRQ¶WSD\7KH\KDUGO\DFFHSWWRSD\ 10 pesos” (Transl. Sofía Herrera).52 52 “A [los mariachis] les hablan mucho para dar serenatas. Solo que ellos cobran caro, pero ¡a la gente les gusta! Nosotros cobramos más baratito, sin embargo, hay veces que a pesar de que uno les da un precio menor, la gente busca pagarnos menos. ¡Quieren que uno vaya ya regalado! Y muchos, así como los mariachis, nos dicen: —¡Ustedes de una vez la riegan! —¿Por qué? —le digo. —Es más bonita la marimba. Con la marimba ¡se baila! Y ¿están cobrando eso? Yo cobro 1500 —me dijo un amigo—. —Yo cobro 1500 por 10 o 12 canciones; y ustedes tocan cinco horas y cobrar ¡dos mil pesos! – 78 – EchoEs of a social lifE The scenes described by Don Francisco, as well as the endless bargaining process involved, are shared by the marimbistas sencillos throughout the highland of Chiapas. Once they have become established in the market, regardless of the mechanisms and strategies they have used to achieve this, they will then be able to improve their economic situation since this will mean that they have found a new source of income. The revenues of the marimbistas sencillos, resulting from their musical activities, are distributed among the members of the group in equal parts. Although this practice is customary among most of the groups, there might be some divergences due to criteria such as age or gender of the marimbists. 7KLV HTXLWDEOH YLHZ WRZDUGV WKH GLVWULEXWLRQ RI WKH EHQH¿WV LV QRW RQO\ widespread among the marimbists, but also towards the marimba itself, since it is treated as if it were one of the (human) members of the group, this status is unique for this instrument. With this, the marimba will not only allow the marimbistas sencillos to execute their performance, but also to multiply their EHQH¿WV$VDUHVXOWWKHPDULPEDSRVVHVVHVDGRXEOHIXQFWLRQLWLVQRWRQO\D material object, but rather more the patrimony of the marimbists since it is a relevant income generator. The process of becoming a marimbist is ample and complex. The creation of different mechanisms to generate one’s own hearing skills, as well as different strategies to create and maintain cohesion among the group that at the same time adjusts to different contexts, makes it possible for the marimbis¡Y ni así nos quiere la gente! ¡cinco horas! Uno se esfuerza más. Así como estamos; si llevamos un bateria y un tololón, un violoncito, ya se cobra un poquito más. Pero ¡no lo paga la gente! ¡no les gusta! Les gusta más la marimba, la pura marimba. […] Le cobramos cinco horas dos mil pesos, pero aún quieren que se les dé más barato. Yo ya les digo: —Ustedes al mariachi no le están diciendo que les dé a mil. ¡Porque ellos nunca! Pero a uno ¡sí le regatean! Lo bueno es que a veces viene gente que es a todo dar, les gusta la música, saben de esta música, y a veces lo apoyan a uno. Nos dejan unos ¡100 pesos! Cuando estaba el presidente pasado nos venía a apoyar; de ¡800!, de ¡500! Tocábamos unas dos piezas cuando él iba pasando y a nosotros nos dejaba. […] O alguna otra persona que tiene buen corazón nos dice: —Tomen pues para su refresco. Ahí ya es cuestión de ellos pues. ¡Así es! Bueno fuera que la presidencia municipal nos apoyara con un pequeño salario. ¡Nooo! ¡ellos no lo ven así! Y eso mucha gente lo dice; que nos deberían de ¡apoyar! Porque estamos alegrando Comalapa. Sin estas marimbas aquí ¡todo está triste! ¡Si por eso vienen los viejitos! Son los que vienen a pagar, a veces uno que otro joven que le gusta la música. Vienen a pagar sus piezas ¡los viejitos! Aquí se llena; ahorita no, por el frío, piensan que va a llover y ya no vienen. De ahí siempre vienen los señores. ¡Nos vienen a pagar! Pero ¿qué son 10 pesitos? ¿qué son 10 pesos ¡pues!? […] Debería de ser más, pero ni como. ¡Hay dios! Si uno le sube cinco pesos más ¡ya no lo pagan! Apenas si quieren dar los 10 pesitos.” Interview by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez with Francisco Villatoro, marimbist of the marimba group Trinos de la Selva, dated 04 September 2016, in the author’s private possession. – 79 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas tas sencillos to negotiate with endless actors to successfully accomplish their performance and to ensure their economic survival. The circumstances under which they will experience these performances will resound and will dialectally form part of the process itself. Whilst developing these mechanisms and strategies, the marimbistas sencillos set the grounds to fully experience their performance. – 80 – 3. Echoes of a Performance I The light of that sunny morning refuses to pass through the battered curtain that guarded the entrance to the room. A metal door at the back; small tables, SODVWLFFKDLUVDQGHPSW\ERWWOHVSLOHGXSQH[WWKHP$QDSSDUHQWO\LQ¿QLWH myriad of beer boxes decorated the wall. A boy leans out the metal door and VWDUWVSORGGLQJDURXQGWKHSODFH+HJHWVFORVHUWRWKH¿UVWWDEOHDQGFRQWLnues walking towards the second one, and as he passes each table, he immerses himself in an unceasing exchange of words; one table after the other. He leaves the room smiling and walking at a brisk pace. A man crosses the room with a somnambulistic sway and he places himself in a corner. He takes some coins out of his pocket and the jukebox starts to play. Vicente Fernández’s YRLFH¿OOVWKHURRPZLWKLWVUHYHUEHUDWLQJVRXQG$VWKHFXUWDLQVVWDUWWRGUDZ the sun rays illuminate the room. The shape of the boy, which was previously circulating around the tables, appears from behind the light; he is carrying something on his shoulder. The room darkens again, as the object he is carrying ¿OOVWKHHQWUDQFHDQGKLQGHUVWKHOLJKWIURPSDVVLQJWKURXJK+LVFROOHDJXHV DFFRPSDQ\KLPDQGWKH\¿QGDSODFHDFURVVWKHURRPEHWZHHQFUDWHVDWDGDUN corner. The boy approaches a table again; he exchanges a couple of words and smiles. He then returns to the dark corner, speaks to his colleagues and they reply with a smile. You can still hear the voice of Vicente in the background. One marimba and three musicians at the cantina. At once, the marimba ensemble Hermanos Santizo starts to play, joining the echoes of the place. Their music melts into the echoes of the Vicente Fernández song, and the music imbues the bottles of aguardiente. II The hustle and bustle at the central square, with its exuberant anarchy, fuses into a dance of lights and sounds. The lights of the cars slowly driving by provide a carmine red frame to this dance. In the centre of the square, there is a kiosk lighted up among the shadows of palms without coconuts but insWHDGZLWKSDSHU¿JXUHVKDQJLQJIURPLWXQGHUDVN\IUHHRIVWDUV)RRGVWDOOV a child crying; a mascot advertising medicines, the lips of a lover. Fresh air blows during an itinerant encounter under this new sky. Synchronous sounds of a diachronic life intertwine our steps; danzon, reggaeton, bolero and cum- – 81 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas bia; a street vendor selling tamales53 DQG ¿UHZRUNV LQ WKH VN\$ VXUUHDOLVW soundscape served as framework to the performance awaited by the audience. Different sounds started to emerge from the interior of the bandstand. Two marimbas played by a dozen musicians intertwined their voice and the live sound of the trumpets and saxophones. The rhythmic beat of the drums and WKHFRQJDVVHHPHGWREHOLJKWLQJD¿UHLQWKHDWPRVSKHUH6ORZOLNHOHDYHV blown by the wind, the peasants would slowly start to move their tired bodies to encompass a clumsy and uncontrolled dance. The park, its people, its life, its time: they were all celebrating that night. III $ODUJHWDEOHG¿OOHGDOOWKHVSDFHRIWKHFRXUW\DUGZKLFKVKRUWO\EHIRUHKDG been empty. A chaotic passivity emerged from the awakening of that morning. A small battered room seemed to be the centre of the world. Colours, odours, tastes, agitated women coming in and out. Next to the house, two marimbas observed the chaotic pace of those dancing women. A bottle of aguardiente (spirits) at their feet; four marimbists guarding it. At the back, that table starts WR¿OOXSZLWKOLIHDVGLYHUVHDVWKHFRORXUVRIWKHUDLQERZ0HQZHUHVLWWLQJ SHWUL¿HGLQWLPHZRUGVEDUHO\HVFDSHGIURPWKHLUPRXWKV$VVRRQDVDERWWOH had emptied its soul, the next one follows, and the next. Exquisite intense odours overrun the table. The sounds of the marimba, followed, the women danced, and the men stare at them. A man dances; the roosters are pecking at crumbs around his feet. A man approaches the marimbists; “play a ranchera!” he says. The marimbists play. A new bottle is opened. The time passes by and the voices get louder. “Cuatro Milpas!” I hear someone with a dry voice call IURPWKHEDFN7KHPDULPEDHQVHPEOHIXO¿OVWKHUHTXHVW7KHVXQLVWLUHGDQG draws back and the food returns to the table. The voice of the marimba wraps up the evening, a new bottle is opened. The stars are born, a new bottle is RSHQHG7KHYRLFHVEHFRPHVLOHQWRQHPRUHERWWOH7KHWLPHSHWUL¿HVDVWKH marimba sings accompanying the sunrise. *** 3.1. Musical Occasions The echoes of these stories do not only show us the diverse context in which the marimbistas sencillos would develop their performances, but they also give us a hint on how they adapt their musical activities, and their education 53 A tamalLVDWUDGLWLRQDOGLVKPDGHRIFRUQGRXJKZLWKGLIIHUHQW¿OOLQJVDQGVWHDPHGLQD corn husk or banana leaf. – 82 – EchoEs of a PErformancE to the different concepts and aesthetic expectations that build the frame that embeds their performance. During my stays in the highland of Chiapas, I witnessed these and other performances and had the opportunity to observe the contexts in which the marimba sencilla has found a space to develop and maintain its performance. 3.1.1. Las Fiestas – The Celebrations The most common occasion where the marimbistas sencillos¿QGDVSDFHWR perform is at celebrations. In Chiapas, as in many other places around the world, this means social one-time events such as weddings, but also cyclical events, such as birthdays are occasions where food, alcohol and music play an important role. During these celebrations the use of the marimba as musical source has reached great popularity among different social groups. Although in some regions of Chiapas other types of ensembles have challenged the popularity of marimba groups, the marimbas are still popular. The festive characters of these celebrations, as well as the auditory knowledge shared with the tradition of the marimba doble,KDYHLQÀXHQFHGWKHDXGLWRU\H[SHFWDWLRQV during these performances (See chapter 3.2). Despite the economic burden the organizers of the celebrations might face, the marimbas orquestas have developed to become one the most popular marimba ensembles for these kind of events. However, these marimba groups might differ in the number of marimbistas sencillos and instruments that constitute the ensemble, which varies depending on the regions (see chapter 2.3). These celebrations usually take place at the private domiciles of the people being celebrated, and depending on the economic possibilities of the organizers, there might be more or less people at the party. They will gather for many hours or even days to dance drink and eat in company of the person being celebrated. There are many reasons as to why these events take place, of how long they last and how they develop. The most common celebrations are birthday parties, among which, the 15th birthday, the so-called fiesta de quince años54, has a special status. These celebrations, however, do not have DVSHFL¿FVHTXHQFHVLQFHWKHZD\WKH\XQIROGGHSHQGVRQWKHDWPRVSKHUHDW the party and on how guests interact with each other. As a result, the music played by the marimba sencillaIXO¿OVDGXDOIXQFWLRQRQRQHKDQGLWLVD social catalyst, and on the other hand, it provides a frame and cohesion to isolated events that take place during the celebration. 54 The ¿HVWDGHTXLQFHDxRV (occasionally called quinceañeras) is a celebration of a girl’s ¿IWHHQWKELUWKGD\ 'XULQJ WKLV FHOHEUDWLRQ WKH JLUO LV LQWURGXFHG WR VRFLHW\ 0RUHRYHU WKH celebration may or may not have a religious connotation. This celebration takes place in different regions of Latin America as well as in the United States and Spain and it has deep roots in Mexican society. – 83 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas As a response to the changing circumstances during the celebrations, the marimbistas sencillos have chosen to base their performance on a well-strucWXUHGDQGFRQVWDQWVHTXHQFHWKDWHQVXUHVPRUHÀH[LELOLW\DVWKH\DUHDEOHWR easily react and adjust to private events. During this sequence the marimbistas sencillosZLOO¿UVWFUHDWH³EORFNVRUVHFWLRQV´ZKLFKXVXDOO\KDYHDGXUDWLRQRIPLQXWHV%\GH¿QLQJWKHGXUDWLRQWKH\FUHDWHDWLPHXQLWZKLFK makes it easier for the musicians to charge for their performance. These EORFNV KRZHYHU DUH KLJKO\ ÀH[LEOH LQ WHUPV RI PXVLFDO FRQWHQW DQG WKH\ might be interrupted (temporarily) due to a punctual event during the celebration. Additionally, their performance will take a different turn in terms of physical presence, since the musicians and the audience will be physically VHSDUDWHG GXULQJ WKH SHUIRUPDQFH DQG PRUHRYHU WKH\ ZLOO IXO¿O GLIIHUHQW functions (see Turino 2008:51-65). This kind of performance allows the marimbistas sencillos to have broader visual control of the development of the celebration, thus making it easier to adjust to the atmosphere and development of different events. In musical terms, however, the performance of the marimbistas sencillos tends to be more participative (see Turino 2008:28-51). Besides developing their performance in a more participative sense, the marimbistas sencillos interact in a more active manner during the execution of their musical performance and they react to the prevailing social atmosphere by adjusting their appearance to the imperative needs. The selection of the musical SLHFHV DV ZHOO DV WKH PRGL¿FDWLRQV LQ WHUPV RI GXUDWLRQ DQG WKH ZD\ WKH melodies are executed, are evidence of this interaction. In the same way, the choice of the repertoire used by the marimbistas sencillos during their performance is constantly negotiated with the audience during the complete event. Therefore, the repertoire and the composition of the ensemble of the marimbistas sencillos during these celebrations basically depends on the musical preferences of the audience. During my stays in the highland of Chiapas, I was able to observe that these preferences had led marimbists to include pieces from different genres, especially rancheras and corridos. These are widely accepted among different generations and diverse social groups. Songs such as “Cuatro milpas” (Figure 11) or “Hace un año” are a steady component of the repertoire at these celebrations. However, the demand for other genres such as bolero or música tropical mainly depends on the age of the audience and therefore on how they socialise. Songs like “El tacuazín” or “El perro ron” are usually requested by a younger audience, whilst songs such as “Amorcito corazón” or “Escarcha” correspond to the music of the “elderly” or “música de los viejitos” as it is called. This makes it clear as to why the repertoire at the parties varies according to the requests and thus is a constant negotiation between the marimbistas sencillos and their audience. – 84 – EchoEs of a PErformancE Although the marimba sencilla ensembles participate in different types of musical events, they mostly develop their performance at celebrations as mentioned before. Due to this fact, the marimba sencilla tradition has been threatened by emergence of different Evangelic churches in the region that attempt to restrain their members from consuming alcoholic beverages and from dancing, as well as, in some cases, from certain musical practices55, thus from participating in this kind of celebrations. This religion conversion process also reached the marimbistas sencillos, and as a result, those who converted into this religions, were forced to abandon their musical activities RWKHUVLQVWHDGWU\WR¿QGDZD\WRFRPELQHERWKDFWLYLWLHV$SHFXOLDUFDVH which clearly shows the marimbistas sencillos effort to fully develop both activities, is the case of the marimba ensemble Flor de un Amor, who despite forming part of one of these churches, adapted their activities and continued practicing music. “We are Jehovah’s witnesses! Therefore, we usually do not go to any birthday celebrations and are limited to a certain extent. When we play, we do it for friends that share our same beliefs. They know what we play; […] Sones and other traditional music, that is popular here, all of this […] But we do not go to fairs or festivals, like the celebration that takes place on the 19th of March […]. Because, as soon as the celebration is related to a saint, we just don’t go. We are happy that people like our music and if there is a wedding or anniversary [of members of our community], we do go!” (Transl. Sofía Herrera).56 In their pursuit to continue with their musical activities, they decided to limit the occasions, repertoires and context of their performances to the members of their community. They renounced the banalities of the celebrations, but they looked back to the origins of the tradition and thus towards their spiriWXDOLW\7KLVZD\WKH\ZHUHDEOHWR¿QGVSDFHVDQGRFFDVLRQVDOEHLWFRQWUDdictions, where their musical activities at celebrations were accepted by the members of their religious community. The fiestas would turn into one of the most important musical occasions for them in their course of their mu55 )RU D PRUH SURIRXQG YLHZ DERXW GLYHUVLW\ DQG WKH UHOLJLRXV FRQÀLFW LQ &KLDSDV VHH Rivera et al. 2011. 56 “¡Nosotros somos testigos de Jehová! Entonces normalmente no vamos a los cumpleaños; ahí estamos un poco limitados pues. Cuando tocamos lo hacemos para amigos con quienes compartimos la misma fe. Ellos ya saben lo que tocamos: […] Sones y todo lo WUDGLFLRQDOTXHVHGDDTXtSXHVVtWRGRHVR>«@3HURDIHULDVR¿HVWDVDVtFRPROD¿HVWDGHO 19 de marzo, ahí si no vamos; […] casi no vamos. Mire, porque a todo lo que se relaciona con la celebración de algún santo o así, pues ahí ya nos vamos. A uno le alegra que les guste lo que hacemos. Mire, si es una boda o un aniversario [dentro de nuestra comunidad], ¡pues allá vamos!” Interview by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez with Vidal Pérez, marimbist of the marimba group Flor de un Amor, dated 20 February 2016, in the author’s private possession. – 85 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas sical activity. The changing context of these celebrations not only forces the marimbists to continuously negotiate their performance with different actors given different circumstances, but it also compels them to search for new alternatives to execute their performance. Figure 11. Score of the piece “Cuatro Milpas”57. 57 All musical examples are represented as a leadsheet. The characteristic rhythmic-harmonic motif of the bass and the armonía (see chapter 3.2) introduced at the beginning is interpreted in the same way throughout the piece of music. – 86 – EchoEs of a PErformancE 3.1.2. From Bar to Bar: The “Putillas” Seeing a group of persons carrying a musical instrument with a length of about two and a half meters on the street might seem to be an isolated and picturesque event. Nevertheless, this practice is just one among others and, without doubt, it is one of the most appealing forms used by marimbistas sencillos58 to execute their performance (Figure 12). This practice consists of a group of marimbists carrying their instrument and going from one place to another to execute their performance. The mobility of this form has led to the reduction of the members of the group and the marimba constitutes the only instrument used. Whereas at the fiestas, in which the performance of the marimbistas sencillos only takes place in one single location with the same audience, this is a bipartite alternative: on one hand the marimbists constantly change location, and on the other the audience is always a different one. Figure 12. Hermanos Santizo carrying a marimba to the next location. As I could observe during my stays in the highland of Chiapas, the search for an audience and a location has been practiced by the marimbistas sencillos using different strategies. One of these is the strategy used by the marimba ensemble Hermanos Santizo, which is a more active approach. They carry their marimba all day long from one bar to another searching for an audience 58 Unlike other musical occasions where the participation of women in the performance of the marimba sencilla is possible, in this kind of performance the presence of women is not welcomed by the members. Therefore, women are completely excluded. – 87 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas willing to hear their music. The members of this ensemble start their search in the place where they store the marimba and continue during the whole day going from one place to another until the night falls. When their search is concluded, the marimbists go back to the storage place of their instrument and if it is too far away, they look for an alternative place to leave the marimba until the next day. A more passive strategy is the one used by the marimba ensemble Trinos de la Selva. The members of this group are older and their physical condition is not what it used to be, therefore they use a more passive strategy. Instead of carrying the marimba all day long from one place to the other, they limit their activities to a certain number of locations, such as a corner at the central park in Frontera Comalapa and/or places close or on the way to it. These mobile strategies are both characteristic of this musical occasion and t promote the development of the performance by constantly moving from one location to the other. Once the marimbists have found a potential location to execute their musical appearance, usually a bar, one of the marimbistas sencillos enters the bar and explores the audience: this step is at the same time the preamble to their performance. If someone is willing to pay for their music, the rest of the marimbists enter the place and look for a place to mount their marimba and to make their appearance. Once the place has been chosen, the next step consists in determining the repertoire, which is usually selected by the person that hires them, and they then start to play. After each song the marimbists UHQHJRWLDWHWKHUHSHUWRLUHDQGWKLVSURFHGXUHJRHVRQXQWLOWKH\¿QLVKWKHLU performance. During their performance, the interaction of the marimbistas sencillos will focus on the requests of the person that has hired them and they ignore any other musical event that takes place simultaneously for the duration of their performance. As it can be observed, this musical occasion forms part of other musical worlds. The synchronic development of other musics or musical activities, be it live music, or played from a device, is fairly common in this context. Nevertheless, each of these performances seem to be isolated from the rest. As the marimbistas sencillos limit their performance to a reduced number of people, they create their own sound space59, and the space in the room is divided among the different performances taking place simultaneously, and the same happens to the different musical worlds coexisting in this room. This kind of performance does not exclusively take place in closed spaces such as bars. As in the case of the marimba ensemble Trinos de la selva, the performance can also take place in open spaces. 59 I understand sound space as a space where sounds are created, either consciously or unconsciously in order to create a physical non existing space. This space provides the performers with an identity that helps them to differentiate themselves from other identities formed by sound spaces. – 88 – EchoEs of a PErformancE The repertoire used by the marimbistas sencillos during their performance under this context is manifold, since it fully depends on the queries of the audience. This forces the marimbists to memorize endless musical pieces and to include them in their repertoire. At the same time, they must be up-to-date regarding the current and new preferences of their audience and they must also be able to quickly adjust to any changes taking place. Although the marimbistas sencillos continuously learn new pieces, it is also possible to distinguish a standard repertoire depending on the existing groups, on regional preferences and on determined audiences. As I could observe during my stay in the highland of Chiapas, the audience at the bars rather show preferences for genres similar to the northern music or música norteña, whereas in public places, such as the central square, people tend to prefer boleros and sones. 3.1.3. Civic and Political Holidays For civic holidays, the marimbistas sencillos have found a small niche where they can carry out their musical endeavour, apart from developing their performance in parties or bars. As a part of their regular tasks, different governmental institutions organize the commemoration of several civic anniversaries, political events and sociocultural meetings, among which many require dancing and music. Now, even though for the events taking place in the urban centres of the region the musical performances may require different musics and different musicians, outside of these the ones in charge are the marimbistas sencillos. Compared to other musical instances where the marimbistas sencillos are involved, under these circumstances the performance of their musical endeavour does not depend on their wish, but is rather subordinated to the needs and goals of the governmental institutions that organize them. By becoming part of the representation of these institutions to society, the marimbistas sencillos¶SHUIRUPDQFHLVLQFRUSRUDWHGLQWRDVWUXFWXUH¿[DWHGWR the theatricality of the (re)presentation of the governing politics, and because of it their performance develops within a context that is more concerned with presentations. In these instances, the musical endeavour of the performance of the marimbistas sencillos is developed as if it were a “concert”. Because of that, the marimbists’ performance is executed physically and symbolically apart from their audience, as a clear separation between musician and audience exists: with the former on a stage and the latter sitting in chairs parallel to WKHVWDJH,QWKHVDPHZD\WKLVGLVWLQFWLRQLVUHÀHFWHGLQWKHLQWHUDFWLRQEHtween performer and audience, where the latter has no control over the development of the performance and the musical execution. This would be the only instance in the musical practice of the marimbistas sencillos where the – 89 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas distinction between performer and audience would be as clear. At the same time, the repertoire and the formation used at these events by the marimbistas sencillos depends mainly on the musical preferences of the organizers or the goals set by the organizing governmental institution. Just as in the fiestas, the festive character of these celebrations and the auditory knowledge shared with the marimba dobleWUDGLWLRQZRXOGKDYHLQÀXHQFHGWKHDFWRUV¶DXGLWRU\ expectations of these performances. This turns the marimba orquesta into the preferred type of ensemble to perform in these kinds of events. Similarly to the other contexts, during their musical endeavours the repertoire utilized by these ensembles would be extremely diverse, drifting between different musics during the performance. However, in accordance to the occasion, the marimbistas sencillos incorporate pieces into the repertoire that are used solely on these contexts, such as, for example, the “National Anthem”, “Cielito lindo” or “Viva México” during the celebration of the national holidays. 3.1.4. Religious Celebrations The musical practice of the marimbistas sencillos is developed not only in seFXODUFRQWH[WVEXWZHFDQDOVR¿QGLWLQHFFOHVLDVWLFDORQHV'LYHUVHUHOLJLRXV festivities, primarily to commemorate a saint or a virgin, are accompanied by music. In these celebrations, the marimbistas sencillos have found a space where they can develop their musical endeavour. Throughout my research in the area, I could witness, however, that their musical practice develops in two modalities, two different types of performance. On the one hand, groups such as the marimba Maderas de Bellas Artes have adopted a musical practice that develops, and which is a part of the ritual performance (see Turner 1982) in and during the religious celebration. On the other hand, diverse groups have found a space for the development of their performance outside and after the religious celebration, while this is also separated from the ritual performance of this celebration. ,QWKH¿UVWFDVHWKHSHUIRUPDQFHRIWKHmarimbistas sencillos exists in a more participative context. By being part of the ritual performance of this celebration, the marimbistas sencillos interact in a more active way with the participant agents during the musical execution, constantly adapting their performance to the dominant necessities throughout the progress of different events. Changes in the form, duration or manner of interpreting their repertoire are VRPHRIWKHZD\VLQZKLFKWKLVLQWHUDFWLRQFDQEHUHÀHFWHG$WWKHVDPHWLPH as a result of this interaction, the marimbistas sencillos may integrate a speFL¿FUHSHUWRLUHIRUWKHVHIHVWLYLWLHVWKDWKLJKOLJKWWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHUHligious celebration. Similarly, each piece of this repertoire can be linked to some patron saint, performed in the festivities that honour them. Thus, pieces such as “San Rafael” (Figure 13) can be interpreted in celebrations linked to – 90 – EchoEs of a PErformancE Saint Raphael, while “La Guadalupana” likewise can be interpreted in festivities linked to the Virgin of Guadalupe. Once the ritualFRQWH[W¿QLVKHVWKLVUHOLJLRXVFHOHEUDWLRQJRHVWRDSKDVHRI reintegration marked by the development of a much more secular celebration at the church atrium. In this process of reintegration, the performance of the marimbistas sencillos take the function of catalyst in the metamorphosis between the ecclesiastic life and the secular life of the community members. In this musical event, the performance can physically develop in a more presentational sense, where musicians and audience are physically separated during the performance’s development, as well as under differentiated roles. In the musical aspect, however, the performance of the marimbists tends to be much more participative, interacting in a more active way with the public at the moment of the musical execution. This would be similar to the kind of performance that the marimbists carry out during the fiestas. As in that case, the repertoire of the marimbistas sencillos can be extremely varied and depends primarily on the musical taste of the audience gathered. – 91 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas Figure 13. Score of the piece “San Rafael” I was able to witness, in a small village located in the heart of the Chiapas sierra, another musical occasion linked––although without being an explicit part of them––to the formerly mentioned religious festivals where the marimbistas sencillos were to carry out––although to a lesser degree––their musical undertaking. Every year, as a part of the Easter celebrations, the villagers of El Pacayal and of Monte Redondo gather in the village roads to perform the danza de moros and the danza de judios, parts of the danzas de la conquista, which are present in different parts of Mexico, Latin America and Spain. The characters in these dances can also be as varied as the places where they are SHUIRUPHG QRWZLWKVWDQGLQJ WKH\ DOZD\V UHSUHVHQW WKH ¿JKW EHWZHHQ good and evil. Good is represented by characters with a direct relation to the Catholic faith, whereas evil is represented by pagan characters60; it is represented in the case of the danza de judios in Pacayal by a group of men and children who go dancing along the roads dressed as women––signifying the evils of 60 )RU D PRUH LQGHSWK SHUVSHFWLYH RQ GDQ]DV GH OD FRQTXLVWD VHH -iXUHJXL%RQ¿JOLROL 1996 & Matos 2008:60-65. – 92 – EchoEs of a PErformancE society––and following the orders of a devil to the rhythm of marimba music. In this musical occasion, the performance of the marimbistas sencillos takes place in a more participative sense, seeking, despite the instrument’s limitations, the active participation of the members of the community in the development of the dance. Figure 14. People at danza de judios dancing to marimba music. While the musical occasions in which the marimbistas sencillos carry out their musical undertaking operate within different contexts and aesthetic conceptions, as well as different performance modes, it is possible to see a certain continuity in their repertoire and performative forms. This continuity, however, can not only be seen between the different musical worlds of the marimbistas sencillos, but also between them and the musical worlds of the marimba doble. There is no doubt that different aspects and contexts during these musical occasions are shared by diverse marimba traditions in Chiapas; notwithstanding, very little has been written about the diverse musical worlds of these marimba traditions and even less about their similarities and divergences. The need for an in-depth research of the functioning of these musical worlds in an individual, as well as a comparative manner, is more than evident. – 93 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas 3.2. The Repertoires Unlike other musical traditions in Mexico that offer a steady and “closed” repertoire, the traditional repertoire of the marimba–sencilla and doble in Chiapas is dynamic and “open”. It is characterized by adapting a wide range of genres belonging to different musical traditions, as well as by the continuous expansion of its repertoire. Marimbistas sencillos are always actively adding new pieces to their repertoire, and it is evident that while a standard repertoire is not being created, a group of favorite genres destined for certain locations Figure 15. Score of the piece “Motozintla”. – 94 – EchoEs of a PErformancE and audiences certainly is. The different musical genres are thus adapted to the needs and musical performances of marimba groups. As it was already mentioned (see 2.3.2), marimba groups may present very different formations; however, the presence of two “sections” with heterogeneous functions that are clearly distinguished can be appreciated: one “lleva la pieza” (“carry the piece”) and the other “lleva el ritmo´ ³FDUU\WKHUK\WKP´ 7KH¿UVWRQHLV dedicated to playing the melodic part of a certain musical piece. The second one plays not only the harmonic section of the piece, but also those rhythmic-harmonic motifs that characterize the genre to be interpreted and which allow for auditory recognition. One to four marimbistas generally “carry the piece”, that is those who play the main melody of the musical pieces, as well as other accompanying voices; ranging between two and four. Depending on the formation of the ensemble, the marimbistas that belong to this section will be in charge of two or three PXVLFDOIXQFWLRQVZLWKLQWKHHQVHPEOHWKH¿UVWYRLFHSDUW NQRZQDVtiplista), who plays the main tune with two mallets in unison; the second voice part (known as segundero), who plays a second and third voice part harmoniously (generally at a distance of third and/or sixth) with two mallets; and a soloist voice part (known as tenorista), who plays the main tune along with the other voice parts, as well as several ornaments and soloist passages using four mallets. By contrast, one to two marimbistas generally “carry the rhythm”, divided into two musical functions: the bass (known as bajista), who uses two mallets and has a role similar to that of the bass in other kind of ensembles; and the armonía (known as centrista), who has a rhythmic-harmonic role in the ensemble playing the harmonic progressions of the musical piece with three mallets.61 As a whole, these two functions allow for the recognition of the musical genre that is being played when interpreting a series of characteristic rhythmic-harmonic motifs. While these characteristic rhythmic-harmonic motifs may be summarized into ideal theoretical models, in practice its application is usually much more varied, although they can still be recognized. One can see how these rhythmic-harmonic motifs are played by the section that “carries the rhythm” using as an example the son (de marimba)62, which is the most emblematic musical genre of the marimba music, while not always the one most commonly played. 61 For further information regarding the functioning and the performative techniques of marimba groups in Chiapas see: Brenner 2007:234-246 and Moreno 2019. It is worth mentioning that what Brenner described can also be applied to the tradition of marimba sencilla in Chiapas. 62 The word son can make reference to a wide variety of musical forms in Mexico. Some of its variants are the sones de mariachi (mariachi son), sones jarochos (jarocho son) and sones huastecos (huasteco son). – 95 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas Like in the case of other kinds of sones, in the sones de marimba the sesquialtera63 is frequently used as a rhythmic model throughout the musical SLHFH7KLVUK\WKPLFXQGHUVWDQGLQJLVUHÀHFWHGLQWKHFRQVWDQWFKDQJHDQGRU juxtaposition of binary (6/8) and ternary rhythms (3/4). However, it may be regarded not only within the rhythmic basis of the musical piece, but also in the resulting metric relation between the bajo and the armonía, which maintain a 3:2 relation whether vertically or horizontally. Apart from the use of the sesquialtera as a rhythmic model along the muVLFDOSLHFHVZHPD\DOVR¿QGDVHULHVRIUK\WKPLFKDUPRQLFPRWLIVWKDWDUH characteristic of sones de marimba in the section that “carries the rhythm”. One example of these motifs can be found in one of the “traditional” ways to accompany a son (Figure 16). In this case, the sesquialtera rhythms would be left behind in a second plane, giving rise to a mostly binary piece. Standard) Varation) Figure 16. Rhythmic-harmonic motifs of a marimba son. During my stays at the Chiapas sierra, I had the chance to listen to a wide variety of rhythmic-harmonic motifs such as this; whereas the son is the most emblematic genre of this musical tradition, countless other musical genres are played in the marimba sencilla with boleros, rancheras and cumbias among the most popular. Like in the case of the son, one can see the use of characteristic motifs in their performance on the marimba sencilla. The rhythmic-harmonic motif that is the most common for accompanying the bolero, for instance, presents a dialogue (call & response) between the bajo, playing a basic rhythm ( h q q ), and the armonía, moving at a constant off-beat rhythm. 63 According to Stanford: “contrary to what has been said by some authorities, this word derives from the Latin meaning ‘six that alters’, or, be it, which may regroup itself in two groups of three or three groups of two” (Stanford 1972:77). – 96 – EchoEs of a PErformancE Standard) Varation) Figure 17. Rhythmic-harmonic motifs of a bolero. Contrastingly, the rhythmic-harmonic motif that characterizes rancheras (Figure 18) and corridos (Figure 19), reminds us of the “traditional” accompaniment of valses and polkas. Figure 18. Rhythmic-harmonic motif of a ranchera. Figure 19. Rhythmic-harmonic motif of a corrido. These kinds of rhythmic and harmonic motifs can be found in each of the genres performed by the marimba sencilla. In the case of cumbia, for instanFHZH¿QGDEDVVLQWKHPRVWZLGHVSUHDGPRWLIVLPLODUWRWKHEDVLFUK\WKP of bolero, but accompanied by the armonía with accents on the weaker beats. – 97 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas Figure 20. Rhythmic-harmonic motif of a cumbia. The use of this kind of (standard) motifs enables marimbistas sencillos and their audience to recognize and acoustically classify the piece being perIRUPHGLQWRDJHQUHDQGDVSHFL¿FSHUIRUPDQFHFRQWH[W7KHFOHDUGLYLVLRQ between functions and voices in the section that “carry the piece” makes it possible for marimbistas sencillos WR JHQHUDWH D PXFK HDVLHU DQG HI¿FLHQW system aimed at reproducing any piece of music. Although the characteristics mentioned before help us gain a general idea as to how the marimba groups work, there is still much research work to do in regard to the generation process and the adoption of a repertoire within the marimba sencilla tradition. 3.3. Excursus – About the Adoption Process of Marimba Music in Chiapas As mentioned before, unlike other musical traditions in Mexico that offer a steady and “closed” repertoire, the traditional repertoire of the marimba–sencilla and doble in Chiapas is dynamic and “open”. But how is it that these diverse musical practices, contexts and repertoires are perceived as one single tradition? In order to answer this question, it is important to consider different historical developments of the instrument, as well repertoire and execution techniques. The form of the marimbas in Latin America was not always as we know it. Before the 20th century, marimbas in Chiapas looked completely different and were mainly used by “Indians” and “African” slaves (Brenner 2007:109-115). During this time, the marimbas were barely visible. Nevertheless, the Marimbas also found some admirers outside of these cohorts and it did not take long for this instrument to undergo–as it is often described in some literature–a “civilizing process” (Godínez 2015:119-125). The new diatonic marimba sencilla appeared in a new cultural environment. It changed its performance space from the countryside to small urban centres in Chiapas and found new cultural carriers among the “mestizo population”. – 98 – EchoEs of a PErformancE The newly founded marimba ensembles tried to establish themeselves in economic terms and to position their performances in religious and secular celebrations. However, problems regarding the repertoire the audience expected to hear at the celebrations quickly arose. It did not take long until the PDULPEDVXQGHUZHQWDPRUSKRORJLFDOPRGL¿FDWLRQ:LWKWKHGHYHORSPHQWRI the chromatic marimba doble by Corazón de Jesús Borraz Moreno at the end of the 19th century, the musicians were able to play any repertoire (Brenner 2007:115-117). From this moment on, the marimba tradition started an adaptation and assimilation process that resulted in the perception of different repertoires and performance contexts as a single unit in the marimba tradition. By the end of the 19th century, shortly after the chromatic marimba had been developed, a niche opened up in the middle-upper classes of the urban cenWUHVLQ&KLDSDV7KLVZRUOGVWURQJO\LQÀXHQFHGWKHPDULPEDWUDGLWLRQDWERWK the individual and the collective level. Some marimba musicians were themselves part of these cohorts and in some of these families the marimba doble established itself as a substitute to the piano, since it was cheaper and easier to purchase (Kaptain 1991:54-58). This made marimbists adapt themselves to new musical forms, mainly to so called “classical music” and include it in their repertoire. Moreover, a large group of musicians concluded higher studies in music and founded marimba quartets. Thanks to these ensembles, and especially to the group Cuarteto Hnos. Gómez, the marimba doble gained more prestige and a broader acceptance within the rest of the population. This new acceptance of the instrument made possible the foundation of larger ensembles such as the marimba ensemble formed by Franscisco Borraz, consisting of eight musicians and two marimbas and also other instruments such as drums and trumpets. This served as a standard composition for other groups (see Brenner 2007:119-20; Moreno 2016:157-165). Some of these new marimba orquestas were supported by different public institutions and soon replaced the military bands and the estate’s orchestras in Chiapas. The marimba assumed a special role among the middle classes in the urban centres in Chiapas as a result of the regular performances in public ORFDWLRQVDVZHOODVLQRI¿FLDOFHUHPRQLHV VHH0RUHQR 7KH increasing popularity was accompanied by the adaptation and appropriation of other music worlds. On one hand, there was a wide repertoire which comprises different forms of popular music, and on the other hand, the marimba music became part of a political movement, the so called nacionalismo cultural (Brenner 2007:120). By slowly conquering dance events, the marimba groups adapted to form part of the dancing repertoire of the middle classes. This process and the appropriation of other kinds of music such as bolero and swing was especially reinforced by the constant circular migration of the musicians to Mexico City and to USA, but also by the radio and cinema industry (Moreno 2016:171- – 99 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas  $ SDUWLFXODUO\ LQÀXHQWLDO JURXS WKDW DGDSWHG GLIIHUHQW UHSHUWRLUHV DQG introduced the marimba music to the new media was the ensemble Marimba Hnos. Dominguez. Their presence in the radio broadcast show XEW not only LQWHQVL¿HG WKH YLVLELOLW\ RI WKH PDULPED EXW DOVR VHUYHG DV UROH PRGHO WR other ensembles. (Brenner 2007:120-122). Besides the appropriation of popular musical forms, the marimba became part of the nacionalismo cultural. This movement was aimed at building a “Panmexican” identity with a double glorious past: the mestizo culture and the indigenous culture, whereas the indigenous culture had to adapt to the modern and positivist culture of modern Mexico. (See Monsiváis 2010:114-123; Villoro 2014:185-197). Under the leadership of the Mexican government, the marimba orquestas played an important role in the movement taking place in Chiapas (Brenner 2007:120). Thanks to the musical versatility, all requested repertoires could be executed and this lead to the creation of this “Mexican identity”. On one hand, they could play their “own” repertoire, and on the other, traditional music from other regions according to different aesthetic perceptions. They could play the traditional repertoire of Modern Mexico. The great versatility of the marimbas repertoire, which comprises “classical”, “popular” and “traditional” music, made it possible for the marimba orquestas to gain popularity in different cultural cohorts. All these different music worlds did not only have an impact on the repertoire, but also on the performance context of the marimba tradition. Together with the repertoire, the marimba ensembles also got hold of their performance spaces and contexts. Firstly, the marimba orquestas began more and more to replace music orchestras and ensembles at dancing events. And secondly, as a result of the institutionalization of the marimba orquestas, more concerts took place. Until this moment, there were two different performance forms the marimba tradition that were coexisting: the participatory performance including “popular” and “traditional” repertoires, basically “celebrations”, and additionally the presentational performances, this means “concerts”, with a “classical” and “traditional” repertoire, which had partially been rewritten. This panorama changed as of the 40s as different developments led to the fusion of all performance contexts. From the 1940s through the 1970s, marimba orquestas experienced their golden era. These ensembles were so popular that they basically accompanied every public and private event. This great popularity led to the development of varied processes that resulted in the fusion of different performance contexts and repertoires and thus to the creation of new performance forms. On one hand, the music industry in Mexico City noticed the great potential marimba orquestas offered and therefore put pressure on the repertoire played by marimba ensembles that had signed a contract. These music publishers chose the repertoire and to what extent it would be recorded and were – 100 – EchoEs of a PErformancE also in charge of launching marimba music into the Latin-American market. Large marimba orquestas conquered this mediatic panorama and became role models in regard to repertoire for younger musicians in Chiapas. The repertoire of these marimba orquestas rapidly became the standard repertoire of recently-established marimba ensembles and of new comers (see Moreno 2016:189-199). Furthermore, the popularity of these groups generated new performance possibilities. One of these is the so called “mano a mano” (hand to hand). This performance takes places at dancing events and two marimba orquestas are placed opposite to each other and alternate, representing a “marimba duel”. In addition to a vast repertoire, virtuosity was also expected as these dancingevents (Moreno 2016:177-178). As a consequence, the pieces that formed part of the “concert” repertoire were adapted to the standard dancing repertoire of these groups. Finally, the music market reached its peak in Chiapas in the 60s. The regional radio stations continuously broadcast the new record productions of the marimbas orquestas and made this kind of music accessible to all groups of the population. The marimba thrust its way through the secular and religious life of the population in Chiapas in such a strong manner that every event of every-daylife was accompanied by marimba music. The music was played at home, at all kinds of celebrations and in church during the mass. This way, marimbas, and particularly the marimba doble and the musicians, became an essential component in the creation of the identity of people in Chiapas. While the marimba sencilla would not have participated actively in the generation of this adaptation and assimilation practice, it would have been inÀXHQFHGMXVWOLNHmarimba doble, by the processes that made it possible. After the development of the marimba doble, the marimbistas sencillos would have continued carrying out their musical endeavour by adapting to their repertoire, the musics and kinds of performances that the marimbistas dobles were assimilating. The acceptance and appropriation of a versatile repertoire by the cultural bearers of the marimba tradition, as well as the adaptation of various forms of performances to a new hybrid form, laid the foundation for the perception of the different musical worlds of the marimba as a single tradition. As a result, every kind of music can now form part of the repertoire and the marimba tradition is open to new forms of the continuum between participative and presentational performance forms. From this moment on, marimba repertoires developed in response to a constantly swinging pendulum between music geared toward dancing on the one hand and listening on the other. – 101 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas 3.4. ¿Y Si No Sale? ¡Pues le Buscamos! – a Solution to the Melodic and Harmonic Limitations of the Instrument By making the aforementioned process of adaptation and assimilation their own, the marimbistas sencillos have to profess a practice in which any music could be a part of their repertoire. Several of these musics, nonetheless, are conceived under the musical possibilities of a chromatic scale: the marimba sencilla ¿QGV LWVHOI FRQIURQWHG±±EHLQJ D GLDWRQLF LQVWUXPHQW±DJDLQVW D limitation of its harmonic and melodic possibilities at the moment of performing this repertoire. While this adaptation and assimilation process allows the marimbistas sencillos to access a greater number of audiences and musical occasions, this dynamic conception of the repertoire entails the need to create a mechanism for the adequacy of these musics to the realities of their performance. During the process of acquiring a new repertoire, the marimbistas sencillos are in negotiation between the different musical aspects of the musical piece and their possibilities, as well as those of their instrument’s to carry them out. The way this negotiation is carried out depends, primordially, on the possibilities and/or technical limitations of those marimbists, which allows them access, as well as its form, to a certain repertoire. These limitations and/ or technical possibilities, however, are particular to the reality of each marimbist, and thus the existence of mechanisms that are common for their solution are hard to ascertain. On the other hand, the musical limitations of the instrument are generalized in the tradition of marimba sencilla. In this case the marimbistas sencillos, facing a common problem, have developed common techniques for its solution. During my research in the Chiapas mountains I was able to observe some of the mechanisms that they have developed to surmount these limitations. 7KH¿UVWRIWKHVHPHFKDQLVPVLVUHÀHFWHGLQWKHDGDSWDWLRQRIWKHPHORGLF development of new repertoire to the possibilities of the instrument. Several of the musical pieces that are added to the repertoire of marimbistas sencillos include chromatic alterations in their melodies. These alterations, being outside of the original diatonic scale, are physically non-existent in a marimba sencilla. Consequently, the marimbistas sencillos will be forced to employ various strategies in order to substitute these alterations for other notes (physically existent) within the diatonic scale; the form of these strategies depends on the amount of notes to be changed and their position within the melodic development. The most common of these strategies used by marimbistas sencillos is substituting these note(s) for the preceding or following note(s) in the melodic development (Figure 21). Even if this strategy for substitution can be applied to any number of musical pieces, thus reducing the melodic limitations of the marimba sencilla, the harmonic limitations of the instrument that the marimbistas sencillos – 102 – EchoEs of a PErformancE can encounter during the acquisition of their repertoire demand the use of other strategies in order to be solved. Figure 21. Example of a melodic substitution in the piece “El Sapo”. The second of these mechanisms can then be seen in the adaptation of the harmonic development of new repertoire to the possibilities of the instrument and to the harmonic knowledge of the marimbistas sencillos. Several musics that the marimbistas sencillos assimilate into their repertoire not only make use of alterations within the development of their melodies, but also harmonies, either by modulations or extensions, that include notes outside the original scale. Through the course of my investigations, I could observe some of the strategies employed by marimbistas sencillos in order to solve these harmonic limitations. These are mainly based on the simplification of the harmonic development; however, the degree and extension of this simSOL¿FDWLRQ GHSHQGV RQ WKH KDUPRQLF GHYHORSPHQW LWVHOI DV ZHOO DV RQ WKH technical limitations and/or abilities of the marimbistas sencillos. In the case that the piece that is to be adapted has a “simple” harmonic development and sporadic harmonic extensions, the marimbistas sencillos take out these extensions, reducing the chords to triads or––in some cases––seventh chords. Even if this strategy can be used in any number of musical pieces, there are other pieces in which their harmonic development is much more “complex”––as is the case with some boleros. In these cases, the marimbistas sencillos are not only facing the physical limitations of the instrument, but also their own (auditory) limitations, since many of these harmonies are unknown to marimbistas sencillos. Not being a part of their “repertoire”, many of these harmonies are not heard by them, causing the need to––consciously or unconsciously––adapt and/or reharmoQL]HWKHVHVHFWLRQV$OWKRXJKWKLVKDUPRQLF³VLPSOL¿FDWLRQ´SURFHVVGHSHQGV on the technical abilities and/or limitations of the marimbistas sencillos, it is possible to observe a tendency towards the use of cadences around the I, IV or V(7) degree of the scale in this “reharmonization” (Figure 22). In the cases where this reharmonization is not possible, due to either the limitations of the instrument or the marimbistas sencillos themselves, they have to choose to omit these parts. – 103 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas Figure 22. Example of a harmonic adaptation in the piece “Amorcito corazón”. Until now, very little has been written regarding the inner workings of the various musical worlds of these marimba traditions, and even less regarding their similarities and differences. It has become clear that the performance of these marimbistas sencillos is much more complex and multifaceted than what is shown here. Nonetheless, I hope that for the time being this little representation of the various musical worlds in which the marimbistas sencillos carry out their musical endeavour can lead us to the beginning of a deeper analysis of this tradition. Undoubtedly, there is a need for a thorough investigation of the inner workings of these musical worlds that also takes into account the complex network of interconnections between humans and non-humans during this dialectic and dynamic process, as well as the endless number of interrelations and mechanisms that allow for the generation, establishment and preservation of this tradition’s auditory knowledge. – 104 – 4. Living the Performance – A Diachronic Dialogue Joy, sadness, hope, anxiety. As days went by, the echoes of the past and the voices of the present times were blending in my head. My time within that world was coming to an end and the stories of marimbistas sencillos, still ÀRDWLQJLQWKHDLUZHUHVWULYLQJWREHMRLQHGLQRQHVLQJOHYRLFH7KDWWLPH spent in the Chiapas sierra had allowed me to hear many of these voices which were apart in time and space. Once I was back in my everyday reality, those voices, refusing to die, would begin to gain a communal life within my head. A new voice would rise from those echoes in recollection of the lives of marimbistas sencillos in a diachronic dialogue through their performance. Figure 23. Marimba sencilla, reproduction by Víctor Mendívil. I remember that blue house, withering among palm trees and dust. Roosters stalked around among skinny mongrels, who lay in the soil as if they were dead. Right there, sitting in that patio, we were having coffee. The noise that came out from a small TV set was the sole company for the passing of time. Some voices would begin to mingle in the midst of that calm air. “The marimba is an old tradition. I was a little kid when I started playing it” –Don Ausencio would say–. Over there with my uncles. The bad thing is – 105 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas they made us carry it. Well, they were old! In those times, one had to carry the marimba, no other way of transporting it. There were no highways! We had to carry the marimba with mecapal.64 “Yes, well; I remember those years –Don Darinel would answer with a melancholic tone–. They were good years. Sadly, my uncles drank a lot, but it was because of the inspiration music gave them; in those times they used to play ‘Noche de Ronda’, ‘Mujer’, ‘Esperanza Linda’, ‘Un Viejo Amor’, songs like that. So, it makes sense; they would feel so much passion that they would have to drink. That’s how the problem started; they left us alone with the marimba. And it was one of those marimbas with a double bass. We couldn’t carry those! Well, back then I was just a kid”.65 $FRSLRXVODXJKWHURYHUÀRZVDPRQJWKHGXVWRIWKHSDWLR:LWKDVHULRXV tone, amidst all the laughter, Don Ausencio’s voice would be heard again. “Yes, they were good years; it’s harder now. There are marimbas, but people are starting to forget about them. A lot of people, the young more than any other, are forgetting about them. Only old people pay attention to us. That’s because they grew up with the marimba!”66 64 Excerpt from: “Entonces él tocaba ya el tenor cuando salieron los viejos allá a ensayar; entraba él, y yo entraba pues aquí en el bajo, o a veces le ayudaba a redoblar la música. Y ahí nos fuimos metiendo. Después dijeron ya los viejotes: —ahora sí, ¡ya no aguantamos salir! ¡A cargar la marimba!—. En ese tiempo se cargaba la marimba; no había transporte, ¡no había carretera! En los caminos había que cargar la marimba con mecapal. Y ahí iban a participar a algún evento que lo [..] para [..] algo. Y ya le digo que cargaban la marimbita. A Ojo de Agua y Cardenas bajamos ahí como cuatro, cinco veces. La lucha pasamos como dos, tres veces; bajamos aquí por [..] tres veces. San José; venimos como unas cinco veces. Aquí en Allende más bien venimos como tres veces. Platanal participamos dos veces. Aquí en Chicharras solo bajamos una vez. En Cuernavaca bajamos solo una vez también a tocar ahí con esa marimba. Pero ya nos metimos de lleno cuando ya aquellos ya no andaban cargando la marimba ni tocando porque era muy pesado. ¡Ahí entramos nosotros! Ahora si como dijo aquel —aunque sea medio changoneadon—; pero ahí íbamos ganando nuestros quintitos.” Interview by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez with Ausencio Tomás, marimbist of the marimba group Conjunto Escobar, dated 08 September 2016, in the author’s private possession. 65 Excerpt from: “Desgraciadamente mis tíos eran muy borrachos. Pero era por la inspiración pues de la música. Es que ellos tocaban en esa época; estaba quedando muy bien ‘Noche de ronda’, por ejemplo ‘Mujer’. Aquella que se llama ‘Esperanza linda’; el otro ‘Un viejo amor’, piezas de los años tal vez 60, como dice el amigo, de esa época. Pues sí, ellos lo tocaban, porque yo todavía no sentía tanta pasión como ellos pues; ellos ya bebían. Empezó el problema pues, nos dejaban con la marimba de aquellas marimbas que tienen doble bajo ¿no? ¿cuántas octavas tienen? No lo podíamos cargar entre tres; y yo era chamaco pues.” Interview by Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán with Darinel López, marimbist of the marimba group Ecos del Grijalva, dated 20 February 2009, in the author’s private possession. 66 Excerpt from: “Marimbitas hay, lo que pasa es que se esta olvidano. Mucha gente ya casi, mas que nada la juventud, ¡ya nos están olvidando! Ahorita los que le están poniendo mucha atención a la marimba ya son los señores grandes. Como con la marimba se crecieron ellos pues, pues ya están acostumbrados y les gusta mucho.” Interview by Juan Bermúdez – 106 – Living the Performance – a Diachronic DiaLogue “Kids these days! –Don Elías would bellow–. They go one way and old people go another. Ever since the keyboard came out; that thing took down the marimba some notches. Now only old people use it. I don’t get it. All the young people went straight for the keyboard! Oh, how they like those big groups with keyboards”.67 $JDLQODXJKWHU¿OOVWKHDWPRVSKHUH'RQ$XVHQFLR¶VDQG'RQ(OtDV¶VVRlemnity evaporates into the humid air. Don Manuel’s voice begins to be heard. Its mirth blends with everyone’s laughter. “Yes! Of course, we play for old people! We even forget the melodies! It’s just that old ladies want to hear their old songs. They’re so many one forgets. And the old men request songs from when they were youngsters. One forgets!”68 “But it’s not just the music! –Don Darinel would respond–. They not only want new music, they also want new instruments. Each day people ask more of us. The marimba by itself is not enough for them; they also want drums, keyboard or bass. I see this with my friend Emilio; We barely play anymore! We used to play often, every two weeks or even more often. Not anymore! Now people prefer the keyboard. And they don’t even play! They only set a disc and done; without other friends, without other musicians. And they give themselves the luxury of charging less, while with the marimba, there are seven of us!”69 and Carlos Bermúdez with Ausencio Tomás, marimbist of the marimba group Conjunto Escobar, dated 08 September 2016, in the author’s private possession 67 Excerpt from: “De que yo comencé, a la gente, podemos decir, porque yo todavía me gusta la marimba pues soy músico; […] Pero la gente le gusta la marimba. ¡Ehhh la marimba! Pero ya atreves de que salió digamos el teclado que le decimos; el teclado le vino a dar un bajón a la marimba. Pues sí, porque no se, la juventud se fue al teclado, a los grupos así grande de teclado. Y a la gente que le gusta la marimba es la gente de edad. Los señores somos los que pedimos a gritos que se le de un levantón a la marimba. Nos peleamos con la juventud. La juventud se va por este lado y la gente grande se va por la marimba.” Interview by Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna with Elías Anzueto, marimbist of the marimba group Hermanos Cano, dated 17 February 2009, in the author’s private possession. 68 Excerpt from: “Hasta las melodías ya se olvida uno. Es que las señoras grandes tienen sus piezas de antes; ¡hay veces que se le olvida uno de tantas! Que se acuerda uno las toca uno; sino se acuerda pues; ¡es que son muchas! ¡Y los viejitos piden sus piezas de antes! De cuando eran jóvenes pues. Hay las piden pues ellos. Ya uno se le olvidan, de tantos.” Interview by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez with Manuel González, marimbist of the marimba group Trinos de la Selva, dated 04 September 2016, in the author’s private possession. 69 Excerpt from: “No solo la música [ha ido cambiando], sino el instrumento que tengo. Porque cada día la gente exige más pues. Ya la pura marimba, ya no, ya no muy quiere la gente. Sí, es triste pues, yo me doy cuenta porque aquí el amigo [–Emilio Pérez–] pues de repente tocan, por lo mismo! Y antes hijola! seguido! Seguidito cada quince [días] o menos ¢QR"\DKRUDFRPRTXHVHKDGHWHQLGRSRUORPLVPRSXHVTXHODJHQWH\DSUH¿HUHHOWHFODGR Con teclado, nomás le ponen el disquete y ¡pua! Sin más amigos, sin más elementos, ¡sólo! £KDFHOD¿QWDTXHWRFD<VHGDHOOXMRGHFREUDUPHQRVSXHVSRUTXHODPDULPEDDVtFRPR – 107 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas Don Gilberto’s voice resounds in the background: “I don’t know why people are forgetting about the marimba. I do not understand this, I really don’t! We have two saxophones and a keyboard. But I don’t have it because I like it; ,KDYHLWEHFDXVH,QHHGWR¿QGZRUN´70 “Exactly! Thank God they still to hire me –Don Hector would chime LQ±1RZ,KDGWRVWRSSOD\LQJEHFDXVH,FXWP\¿QJHUV,KDYHQ¶WEHHQDEOH to play for four months! The machete hit me right here –showing the deep wound in his hand–. I hit it wrong and it slipped from me. Almost lost my ¿QJHUV &XW P\ ZKROH KDQG XS$QG ZHOO LW¶V VWLOO KHDOLQJ WKDW¶V ZK\ , haven’t been able to play. But, I am already recovering to keep at it with my music, thank God”.71 A gust of wind blows violently through the patio, leaving a cloud of GXVWÀRDWLQJRQWKHSODFH7KHGRJVKXQJU\VWD\LPPRELOHDOPRVWQRQexistent, before the frantic movement of the roosters. Among the chaotic movement caused by that cloud of the dust, the faces of the marimbistas sencillos can still be seen. A voice, airy and juvenile, invites them from within the house to take refuge inside. With a slow and tired step, these men gather and accept the invitation. Between them, as if carried by the same wind, a murmur is heard saying: “And your children also play the marimba?” “You think? –Don Silvano’s voice made itself heard– I’ve got two sons; them I wanted to teach, but they don’t want to! They say they’re ‘modern’. They don’t want to listen to the marimba. Only románticas, that’s all they want to hear. That music they do like! Only reggaeton!”72 esta marimba ya completito son siete los que tocan la marimba.” Interview by Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán with Darinel López, marimbist of the marimba group Ecos del Grijalva, dated 20 February 2009, in the author’s private possession. 70 Excerpt from: “Yo no se por qué estaban olvidándose de la marimba pues. Yo no sé, realmente no le encuentro yo chiste a lo demás, yo lo tengo lo demás, tenemos dos sax y un teclado, pero yo lo tengo por; ya ahora si por necesidad de trabajar. No es porque me guste mucho, tan bonita es la marimba y más cuando esta lleno de teclería y cuando está compactado todo. No hombre si deveras, yo a veces se me ruedan las lagrimas cuando estoy tocando algo bonito en pura marimba.” Interview by Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán with Gilberto Zamorano, marimbist of the marimba group Diamantes de Chicomuselo, dated 17 February 2009, in the author’s private possession. 71 Excerpt from: “Sí, ¡gracias a dios que a mi me buscan! Más que me quedé porque ya llevo cuatro meses que me corté los dedos. ¡Aquí me llegó el machete!! ¡paso aquí, paso aquí! Y hasta la fecha esta sanando. Se escapo uno; casi me saque todo lo que fue aquí. [..] rellenando mis deditos y por eso los deje unos días; ¡y ahora me sigue molestando otra vez! Y a ver si ya otra vez; […] Ya más o menos; ya le empiezo; hay sigo. Me quedé, ¡me quedé! Pero gracias a dios ya ahorita me estoy recuperando para seguirle otra vez a la música.” Interview by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez with Hector Morales, marimbist of the marimba group Lira de Cristal, dated 06 September 2016, in the author’s private possession. 72 Excerpt from: “¡Tengo mis dos hijos! Sí; pues ellos, también les quise enseñar un su – 108 – Living the Performance – a Diachronic DiaLogue “You see, neither do my daughters –Don Francisco would add–. They’re evangelical; they go to a church. They sing there, but no marimba. They never learned! Just us, just my brothers and me; we come from a family of musicians”.73 Sitting now in the corner, with a glass in his hands, Don Arturo would add with a tattered voice: “I don’t see any future. I named my group ‘Los Únicos de Chicharras’. We’re the only ones that play; the day we die is the day the marimba dies. That’s why we named ourselves that; we are the only ones. Nobody wants to play anymore; young people want something else. Only their phones! All day they’re on their phones. And then there’s the music they listen to; not even they can understand it. Do you think they’re going to want to play the marimba? That’s why we named ourselves that. The day we die is the day the marimba dies. We’re the last ones! When we’re gone everything will be over!”74 “Don’t be such a downer, Arturo! There’s still a lot of people that like the art of the marimba. We are here too; if God allows us to keep on living, we’ll NHHS¿JKWLQJIRURXUWUDGLWLRQ:HGRQ¶WZDQWWRORVHWKHPXVLFRIWKHPDULPba, just like you. And you see, there’s some young guys learning in the Casa tiempecito, pero casi no muy se dedican pues. Porque ya los hijos ahorita ya casi son “modernos”; ¡ya no quieren escuchar la marimba! Quieren pura “romanticas”, ¡esas les gustan! ¡puro reggaetón!” Interview by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez with Silvano Morales, marimbist of the marimba group Alma Caminera, dated 04 September 2016, in the author’s private possession. 73 Excerpt from: “¡No! ¡ninguno de ellos! Ellas son evangélicas mis hijas! Ellas van a una iglesia; ahí cantan ellas, pero nunca aprendieron esto. ¡Nunca lo aprendieron! Solamente nosotros; ¡solamente yo! Mis hermanos sí; ¡todos eran músicos! Mi papa, todos eran; de parte de mi papá, de mi mamá todos eran músicos. ¡guitarra y todo!” Interview by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez with Francisco Villatoro, marimbist of the marimba group Trinos de la Selva, dated 04 September 2016, in the author’s private possession. 74 Excerpt from: “El nombre del grupo aquí este; ‘Los únicos de Chicharras’ porque aquí nosotros, ya nosotros nos morimos, él, él o yo, nos morimos y ¡se va a acabar la marimba! ¡se va a acabar la marimba! Se va acabar la marimba porque ya no hay más gente que toquen la marimba. Por eso pusimos el nombre del grupo; ‘Los únicos de Chicharras’ ¡Los únicos porque acabó! Aquí Arturo Roblero, el otro Arturo [Robles], –el otro también se llama Arturo–; ya muriendo nosotros ¡se terminó la marimba! Ya no hay más que se ponen a hacer un conjunto de marimba. ¡Nada! Puros jóvenes; ya es otro; ¡puro celular! Ya andan con su celular los jóvenes; ¡unas musicotas! ¡no se entiende! ¡ni ellos lo entienden! Ahí andan con su musicota; ¡ahí andan con su celular! y ahí van con su celular; unas musicotas bien feas. Yo digo que ni ellos lo entienden. ¿Se van a acercar a la marimba? ¿cuándo? Por eso yo me puse a pensar: le vamos a poner al grupo de la marimba ‘los únicos de Chicharras’ porque ¡somos los únicos! Ya vas a morir ya con nosotros; hay otra marimba de Comalapa; pero ya en Chicharras, ¡ya no! Ya dejó de participar ya con su marimba, porque ya se murieron los de la marimba. ¡Y ahí se va a acabar todo! Por eso le pusimos ese nombre al conjunto; porque al morir nosotros, ¡ahí terminó todo!” Interview by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez with Arturo Cano, marimbist of the marimba group Los Únicos de Chicharras, dated 07 September 2016, in the author’s private possession. – 109 – de la Cultura. They learn to love the marimba there; they also get used to listening to it. There’s still many marimbas and kids who play them too; they’re learning. The future of our tradition is there! Our music will always exist. If we die, others remain. And that’s how it’ll be; some will like it and will keep on learning. And so, our music will continue its existence”.75 75 Excerpt from: “Ah, pues aquí hay mucho de que; nosotros lo que queremos es no perder el arte de la marimba. Porque va a ver que, esta marimba pues realmente está reconocida pues de varios años, cuando muy se empezó a hacer pues. Desde entonces lo que más estimamos es esta música que es digamos natural. Que no es necesidad de eléctrico y todo eso. Por eso nosotros es lo que siempre, no perdemos la costumbre de la marimbita. Entonces por eso nosotros aquí mientras dios nos tenga vivo pues seguimos continuando con la marimbita. ¡Y es lo más que nos gusta pues! Por eso es que, entonces seguimos con ella. ¡sí pues! Es eso lo que nosotros tenemos esta ambición de tener la marimbita para cualquier evento; FXDOTXLHU¿HVWHFLWD>«@$KSXHVTXHODSHUVRQDDKRULWDYDXVWHGDYHUODKXPDQLGDGTXH ya los jovenes ya casi no tienen esa idea de; y algunos jovenes que están aprendiendo en la [casa de] la cultura pues; ellos también, ellos allá agarran la marimba y se ya se acostumbran pues a escuchar la marimba. Pues creo que éste aquí, pues puede seguir la tradición de la marimbita. Porque no se puede perder porque; ahorita aquí en Comalapa hay muchas marimbas; ¡ahí hay niños que han aprendido! Entonces ellos pues, ya casi más o menos, ya tienen ese conocimiento que; la música no es tan fácil que se va a perder porque siempre va a seguir pues continuando mientras que vamos enseñando mas. ¡Ahí van quedando otros! Sí, porque como le digo: es que si aquí se termina uno pues, muere uno en un accidente o no se que, pero ¡la música sigue estando! Y así es ¡ahí vamos! Hay unos que van aprendiendo; les van gustando la música.” Interview by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez with Silvano Morales, marimbist of the marimba group Alma Caminera, dated 04 September 2016, in the author’s private possession. – 110 – 5. Conclusion Ever since marimbas were brought to America they have formed part of different Latin American music cultures. Sources attest that this instrument, or rather the underlying idea of it, was brought to different parts of the American Continent during the period between the 16th and 19th century by African slaves (see Brenner 2007:77-192). The Latin American marimbas conquered different regions and adjusted to diverse sociocultural contexts. Nowadays, the marimba is present in Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador and Brazil, whereas there is a VSHFL¿FPDULPEDWUDGLWLRQIRUHDFKFRXQWU\,Q0H[LFRWKHPDULPEDWUDGLWLRQ prevails in the Federal State of Chiapas. There, the marimba is the traditional instrument per se and it seems to be omnipresent in the musical landscape. Since it arrived in these lands, the marimba was continuously adapted to different existing contexts, modifying its aspect and size as time went by. However, it was around 1897 when the marimba would undergo its most drastic physical transformation with Corazón de Jesús Borraz Moreno. The insertion of a second row of keys, which would turn it into a chromatic instrument, not only would drastically changed the shape of the instrument, but would also start–perhaps unknowingly–a cultural revolution that would in turn lead it to the conquest of new contexts and musical worlds, as well as to it becoming an indisputable element of different cultural cohorts in Chiapas. From then on, two different kinds of marimbas would lead a parallel existence in Chiapas; the marimba sencilla––diatonic––and the marimba doble–– chromatic. The chromatic marimba doble can nowadays be found in almost all regions of Chiapas, in both, rural andurban centers it possesses great transregional visibility. The diatonic Marimba sencilla is the counterpart to it, and it can only be found in a few regions,––particularly in rural spaces––and its YLVLELOLW\LVVRLQVLJQL¿FDQWWKDWDWSUHVHQWVRPHPDULPELVWVDQGUHVHDUFKHV KDYH GHFODUHG LW DQ H[WLQFW LQVWUXPHQW +RZHYHU LW LV VWLOO SRVVLEOH WR ¿QG marimbas sencillas in the surrounding areas of Amatenango de la Frontera, Bella Vista, Bejucal de Ocampo, Chicomuselo, Frontera Comalapa, Mazapa de Madero, Motozintla, El Porvenir, Reforma, Siltepec, Solosuchiapa, Tapachula, La Trinitaria and Venustiano Carranza. The validity of this geographic distribution is emphasised by the emic conceptualization of the term “marimba sencilla”. In the regions where this type of marimba is common, the term “marimba sencilla” is naturally linked to the instrument, whereas in the regions where this type of marimba is not present, or barely present, the term is understood, at best, as an ensemble of chromatic marimbas without other instruments. – 111 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas In Chiapas there are two different kinds of marimbas sencillas; the marimba sencilla grande and the marimba sencilla tenor, which differ particularly LQWKHLUVL]HDQGPXVLFDOUDQJH7KH¿UVWLVDURXQGWZRPHWHUVORQJDQGKDV DUDQJHRIDERXW¿YHDQGDKDOIRFWDYHVZKLOHWKHVHFRQGLVDERXWRQHDQG a half meters long and its range is not much greater than three and a half octaves. Unlike the marimbas sencillas in Guatemala and Central America, in Chiapas, marimbas are tuned according to the well-tempered system. The techniques to modify the tuning of a marimba sencilla described by Kaptain (1991:38; see too Brenner 2007:254), could not further be observed in the IUDPHRIWKHUHVHDUFK¿HOGDFWLYLWLHVLQWKHPRXQWDLQVRI&KLDSDV$OWKRXJK many of these instruments have a tempered tuning, it is common for their intonation to vary strongly from the original tuning. This is due to the advanced age of the instruments and, consequently, their poor physical state ––especially in the case of the keys getting worn down––. Nowadays, very few marimba makers in Chiapas still work in the crafting of marimbas sencillas. Even when the marimbistas sencillos need the instrument to partake in their musical endeavour, their economic situation does not allow them to (continually) acquire new instruments, which is why they have developed a marketplace for second-hand instruments in order to counter this situation, thus reducing the demand for new marimbas sencillas even more. This has led marimba makers to give up on crafting these instruments. During P\LQYHVWLJDWLRQVLQWKH]RQH,FRXOGRQO\¿QG¿YHFUDIWVPHQLQ0RWR]LQWOD Las Campanas and Frontera Comalapa, who still make these instruments. The marimbas sencillas in Chiapas show a wide variety of ornamentation. Their frames (faldones) can be adorned with bright-coloured monochromatic paints or simple varnishes, as well as with relief carvings or the same inlays that characterize the marimba doble7KLVYDULHW\RIRUQDPHQWDWLRQUHÀHFWVWKHLQWHUUHODtions between the marimba traditions of Chiapas and Guatemala, as well as the different migration movements that take place in this border area. Most of the still active marimbistas sencillos in these regions also work in the agricultural sector. The poor living conditions of these marimbists do not allow them to pursue their musical activities as a full-time employment. Some of these marimbists come from families of musicians and started to play marimba sencilla at an early age; some developed a personal interest for the instrument at a later stage. Both, however, share a similar process–– either they are autodidacts or they learnt how to play from their families or friends––when acquiring the auditory knowledge of this musical tradition. The process of learning and transmission in the marimba sencilla tradition begins with a teacher-student relationship. There, the new marimbist watches their teacher from the side while the teacher plays one song, so that, subsequently, after being (re)oriented on the marimba––with small movements of the mallets on top of the keyboard–– the student will have to reproduce – 112 – ConClusion it. This process of reproduction not only transmits an auditory knowledge–– especially in regard to their musical repertoire––to the next generation, but it will also develop the ability to follow, which will allow the marimbistas sencillos, merged with their previous auditory knowledge, to learn new musical repertoires more quickly and effectively. This process, together with the abilities and mechanisms related to it, is developed through years of practice and individual exploration, the childhood years––preferably in a family setting––being considered the best for this process. Simultaneously, the active participation of the (new) marimbists in the ensemble is prioritized during this learning process. Having access to a marimba is crucial aspect for the marimbistas sencillos. For the most part, the learning process will depend on this possibility, along with the possibility to be able (in the future) to put into practice their musical endeavour. This is a situation that will prevail throughout the musician’s life, as marimbas sencillas are an instrument with a high economic value, its acquisition being a hard task for the majority of marimbists; generally, the instruments belong to only one of the members of the group, which has led to those marimbistas sencillos who own the instrument to be, primarily, LQFKDUJHRIIRUPLQJDQGGLUHFWLQJWKHJURXSERWKPXVLFDOO\DQG¿QDQFLDOO\ Before being able to fully put into practice––in an economically sustainable manner––their musical endeavour, the marimbistas sencillos will need to establish a professional link with other marimbists, preferably within their own family or social networks. During this search, however, they will not only have to establish professional links with a small circle of marimbists to be able to set up their own group, but they will also have to create a network of possible substitutes, which will be of great importance to the survival of the ensemble. This has allowed marimbistas sencillos to belong to various ensembles either in their places of origin or in different places, also enabling marimba ensembles to include different formations. These ensembles can be as diverse as the contexts in which they perform. Notwithstanding, marimba HQVHPEOHVFDQEHFODVVL¿HGLQWRWZREDVLFJURXSVRQWKHRQHVLGHWKHmarimbas, characterized by the exclusive use of marimbas, and on the other, the marimbas orquestas, which also include other instruments such as drums or bass. Depending on the economic possibilities of the marimbistas sencillos, as well as on the physical restrictions and possibilities presented by the context of their performance, the number of members in the ensembles will vary, as well as any additional instrumentation. The musical group being formed, the marimbistas sencillos will not only have to develop a performative style that is attractive to their audience, but they will also have to adapt the musical activities to the different styles of performance they can access, as well as to the economic situation and the aesthetic preferences of their audience. As I was able to witness during my stays – 113 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas in the Chiapas sierra, the marimbistas sencillos would make use of two strategies for the positioning and development of their musical endeavour; on one side and under a much more passive treatment, the marimbists would wait for an audience interested in their music to hire them to play in some event; on the other side, they would go out and look by themselves for possible places where they could develop their performance. Once established in the market, whatever the mechanisms and strategies used, they would be in a position to improve their economic situation by acquiring a new source of income. The earnings obtained during their musical endeavour are equally distributed among all members of the group. This is not only valid between marimbists, but also applies to the marimba itself, a status that only this instrument possesses. Thus, it would bestow the marimba with a double function in the patrimony of the marimbists, becoming not only a material good, but also an important economical tool. The most common occasion where marimbistas sencillos have found a space to develop their performance is at parties, which take place mainly in the place of residence of the people being celebrated. Here, the marimbas orquestas have become the favourite type of group. During these parties, the performance of the marimbistas sencillosZLOOGHYHORSLQ³VHWV´ZLWKD¿[HG duration––generally of 60 minutes––, a format that allows them to adapt freeO\WRWKHFKDQJLQJFRQGLWLRQVRISDUWLHVDQGDOVRPDNHVLWHDVLHUIRUWKH¿nancial management of their performance. The repertoire that is used in these celebrations mainly depends on the musical preferences of the public, with a tendency for rancheras, corridos and música tropical. These parties, however, are not the only places where marimbistas sencillos may develop their performance. One of these occasions, and perhaps the most picturesque of all, shows the marimbistas sencillos while they carry the marimba up a hill, immersed in the search of possible venues where they could perform. In comparison to the fiestas, where the marimbistas sencillos performance occurs in one location and with one audience, under this modality their performance must be developed under an incessant change of location and listeners. The repertoire that the marimbistas sencillos use during this context is extremely varied, with a tendency, however, towards genres such as música ranchera, or boleros and sones. Now, even though these performative contexts are the most common, they are not the only opportunities for the marimbists to develop their musical task. Marimbistas sencillos have also found a small niche in several civic and religious festivities. Various governmental institutions organize different civic anniversaries, political events and sociocultural meetings; the performance of the marimbistas sencillos during these events develops in a more presentational manner, being incorporated, at the same time, into the theatricality of the ruling political representation. Unlike other musical instances where the – 114 – ConClusion marimbistas sencillos are present, under these circumstances, the practice of their musical endeavour is subordinated to the needs and goals of the organizing governmental institutions. At the same time, in the ecclesiastical environments the musical practice of the marimbistas sencillos develops in two different modalities and ways to perform. On the one hand, there is the performance that expands and is part of the ritual performance in and during the religious celebration and, on the other hand, a performance that takes place outside and after this religious celebration. On both instances, the marimbists add to their repertoire pieces that are used solely in these celebrations. The repertoire of the marimbas sencillas in Chiapas is characterised by its dynamism and openness, thus any type of music can form part of it. It is also open to different forms of performances that range from participative to presentational appearances. This broad and dynamic spectrum of their performing practices is an essential component of the integration and identity building process of different social groups and can be considered a continuum between the chromatic and the diatonic marimba traditions in Chiapas, under consideration of the melodic and harmonic possibilities of each instrument. By practicing a musical task where any given music can be a part of their repertoire, the marimbistas sencillos must establish a way to adapt certain musical genres––which are created with the possibilities of a chromatic scale in mind––to the realities of their performance. This can be observed in the adaptation of the melodic and harmonic development of the repertoire, whether E\VLPSOL¿FDWLRQRUE\RPLVVLRQWRWKHSK\VLFDOSRVVLELOLWLHVRIWKHLQVWUXment and the technical capabilities of the marimbistas sencillos themselves. Up until this moment, very little has been said about the tradition of the marimba sencilla in Chiapas. Its limited visibility in the big urban centres, along with the lack of interest from researchers, make it seem as though it is extinct. It is clear that the performances of the marimbistas sencillos, as well as the circumstances of their musical task, are far more complex and far more multifaceted than what has been exposed here. However, for the time EHLQJWKLVZRUNLQWHQGVWRFUHDWHD¿UVWLPDJHRIWKHFXUUHQWVLWXDWLRQRIWKLV music tradition. A deeper understanding of this tradition would require further research in this region, as well as in other parts of Mexico and Guatemala where the tradition is still alive. Nonetheless, I am convinced that this small re-presentation of the different (musical) worlds where marimbistas sencillos put into practice their musical endeavour may in turn lead to the beginning of an in-depth analysis of this tradition. The knowledge acquired during my UHVHDUFKVKDOOEHVHHQDVWKHEDVHDQGWKH¿UVWVWHSWRZDUGVDGHHSHUXQGHUstanding of this music tradition. – 115 – – 116 – 6. References 6.1. List of Figures Figure Figure 1. Name Source Geographic dissemination of the marimba sencilla in Chiapas Juan Bermúdez Figure 2. Keyboard and mallets of a marimba sencilla Arturo Cigarroa Figure 3. Resonators with cachimbas (membranes) Helmut Brenner Figure 4. Musical tuning of the marimbas of the group Diamantes de Chicomuselo Juan Bermúdez Figure 5. Decoration of several marimba sencilla’ frames Juan Bermúdez Figure 6. Marimba sencilla Juan Bermúdez )LJXUH 2UJDQRORJLFDOVSHFL¿FDWLRQVRIWKHmarimba sencilla based on Brenner (2007:293-294) Brenner 2007:293-294 Figure 8. “Marimba” group Diamantes de Chicomuselo Juan Bermúdez Figure 9. “Marimba orquesta” group Hermanos Vázquez Daniel Fuchsberger Figure 10. Don Silvano Morales (left) playing with three mallets in his right hand Juan Bermúdez Figure 11. Score of the piece “Cuatro Milpas” Juan Bermúdez Figure 12. Hermanos Santizo carrying a marimba to the next location Juan Bermúdez Figure 13. Score of the piece “San Rafael” Juan Bermúdez Figure 14. People at danza de judios dancing to marimba musicIsrael Moreno Figure 15. Score of the piece “Motozintla” Juan Bermúdez Figure 16. Rhythmic-harmonic motifs of a marimba son Juan Bermúdez Figure 17. Rhythmic-harmonic motifs of a bolero Juan Bermúdez Figure 18. Rhythmic-harmonic motif of a ranchera Juan Bermúdez Figure 19. Rhythmic-harmonic motif of a corrido Juan Bermúdez Figure 20. Rhythmic-harmonic motif of a cumbia Juan Bermúdez Figure 21. Example of a melodic substitution in the piece “El Sapo” Juan Bermúdez Figure 22. Example of a harmonic adaptation in the piece “Amorcito corazón” Juan Bermúdez Figure 23. Marimba sencilla, reproduction by V. M. Víctor Mendívil – 117 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas 6.2. 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Historia breve, Mexico: El Colegio de México – Fondo de Cultura Económica. zepedA, Eraclio 2000 De la Marimba al Son y otros cuentos (antología), Mexico: Ediciones Casa Juan Pablos. – 122 – RefeRences 6.3. Appendix 6.3.1. List of Interviews Name Birth year Marimba group Info. of interview Rubén Aguilar Pérez –– Brisas de Montebello 30. Dec. 2009; Nueva Independencia by Daniel Fuchsberger and Israel Moreno Manuel Ansueto Gordillo 1946 Brisas del Grijalva 16. Feb. 2009; Frontera Comalapa by Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán Elías Salomón Anzueto Velázquez 1955 Hermanos Cano 17. Feb. 2009; Frontera Comalapa by Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna Efraín Gregorio Calvo Herrera –– Trinos de la Selva 04. Sept. 2016; Frontera Comalapa by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Arturo Cano Gómez –– –– 17. Feb. 2009; Frontera Comalapa by Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna Gilder Cano Roblero 1950 Hermanos Cano 17. Feb. 2009; Frontera Comalapa by Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna Isidro Cano Roblero 1968 Hermanos Cano 17. Feb. 2009; Frontera Comalapa by Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna José María Cano Roblero 1956 Hermanos Cano 17. Feb. 2009; Frontera Comalapa by Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna – 123 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas Juan Cano Roblero 1968 Hermanos Cano 17. Feb. 2009; Frontera Comalapa by Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna Beltrán Castellanos Pascasio 1958 Brisas de Chicomuselo 17. Feb. 2009; Chicomuselo by Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna Fredy De León Altuzar –– –– 14. Jan. 2010; Frontera Comalapa by Daniel Fuchsberger Juan Delgado Camposeco § Reina Guadalupana 30. Dec. 2009; Guadalupe Victoria by Daniel Fuchsberger and Israel Moreno Guadalupe Díaz Verdugo –– Perla de Chiapas 14-15. Jan. 2010; Bacanton by Daniel Fuchsberger Arturo Escobar Díaz 1948 Conjunto Escobar 07-08. Sept. 2016; Chicharras by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Armando Escobar Roblero 1964 Brisas del Tachinula 09. Sept. 2016; Piedra Labrada by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Enendy Escobar Vázquez 1963 Diamantes de Chicomuselo 17. Feb. 2009; Chicomuselo by Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán Basilio Felipe Marcos –– Reina Guadalupana 30. Dec. 2009; Guadalupe Victoria by Daniel Fuchsberger and Israel Moreno Manuel Flores Hernández –– Alma Caminera 04. Sept. 2016; Chicomuselo by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez – 124 – RefeRences Armando García Escalante § Diamantes de Chicomuselo 17. Feb. 2009; Chicomuselo by Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán Mario García Escalante § Diamantes de Chicomuselo 17. Feb. 2009; Chicomuselo by Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán Hermelindo García Ruiz 1946 Brisas de Chicomuselo 17. Feb. 2009; Chicomuselo by Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna Enrique García Santizo 1954 Brisas del Grijalva 16. Feb. 2009; Frontera Comalapa by Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán José Bulmaro Gómez Mazariegos 1979 Maderas de Bellas Artes 18. Feb. 2009; Motozintla by Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna Ramón Gómez Roblero 1943 Maderas de Bellas Artes 18. Feb. 2009; Motozintla by Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna Hilario González López –– Los Únicos de Chicharras 07. Sept. 2016; Chicharras by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Ilarion González López 1963 Los Únicos de Chicharras 07. Sept. 2016; Chicharras by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Abimael González Martínez 1970 Hermanos González 06. Feb. 2010; El Sabinalito by Daniel Fuchsberger Audelino González Martínez 1971 Hermanos González 06. Feb. 2010; El Sabinalito by Daniel Fuchsberger – 125 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas Filegonio González Martínez 1965 Hermanos González 06. Feb. 2010; El Sabinalito by Daniel Fuchsberger Carlos González Pérez 1942 Hermanos Santizo 16. Feb. 2009; Frontera Comalapa by Arturo Cigarroa, Irene Márquez, Efraín Paniagua und Ignacio Ruiz Blanca González Roblero 1988 Alma de Acero 07. Sept. 2016; La Grandeza by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Elmar González Roblero 1944 Los Únicos de Chicharras 07. Sept. 2016; Chicharras by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Lino González Roblero –– Alma de Acero 20. Feb. 2016; La Grandeza by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Sara González Roblero –– Alma de Acero 07. Sept. 2016; La Grandeza by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Yolidorei Gónzález Roblero –– Alma de Acero 20. Feb. 2016; La Grandeza by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Emin González Vázquez 1968 Los Únicos de Chicharras 07. Sept. 2016; Chicharras by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Rodrigo González Velazquez –– Alma de Acero 20. Feb. 2016; La Grandeza by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Manuel de Jesús González –– Trinos de la Selva 04. Sept. 2016; Frontera Comalapa by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez – 126 – RefeRences Carlos Gramajo Castellano 1954 Brisas de Chicomuselo 17. Feb. 2009; Chicomuselo by Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna Amílcar Gramajo Gordillo 1940 Brisas de Chicomuselo 17. Feb. 2009; Chicomuselo by Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna German Hernández Hernández –– Perla de Montebello 19. Feb. 2016; Santa Rita by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Román Herrera de Paz 1956 –– 04. Sept. 2016; Chicomuselo by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Mario Jiménez Jiménez 1959 Hermanos Méndez 18. Feb. 2009; Motozintla by Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán Olegario Jiménez Jiménez 1954 Hermanos Méndez 18. Feb. 2009; Motozintla by Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán Pablo Octavio López Camey 1953 Brisas de Montebello 30. Dec. 2009; Nueva Independencia by Daniel Fuchsberger and Israel Moreno Nabor López García 1975 Brisas de Montebello 30. Dec. 2009; Nueva Independencia by Daniel Fuchsberger and Israel Moreno Bulmaro López López 1962 Hermanos Cano 17. Feb. 2009; Frontera Comalapa by Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna – 127 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas Darinel López Roque 1948 Ecos del Grijalva 20. Feb. 2009; Amatenango de la Frontera by Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán Claudio Mauricio Roblero 1935 Brisas del Grijalva 16. Feb. 2009; Frontera Comalapa by Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán Eleazar Mauricio Roblero 1944 Brisas del Grijalva 16. Feb. 2009; Frontera Comalapa by Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán Romeo Mejía Escalante 1962 Hermanos Pérez 18. Feb. 2009; Motozintla by Arturo Cigarroa, Irene Márquez, Efraín Paniagua and Ignacio Ruiz Francisco Méndez Echeverría 1965 Hermanos Méndez 18. Feb. 2009; Motozintla by Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán Santiago Méndez Echeverría 1962 Hermanos Méndez 18. Feb. 2009; Motozintla by Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán Baudilio Mérida Camey 1951 Brisas de Montebello 30. Dec. 2009; Nueva Independencia by Daniel Fuchsberger and Israel Moreno Francisco Mérida Camey 1927 Brisas de Montebello 30. Dec. 2009; Nueva Independencia by Daniel Fuchsberger and Israel Moreno Antonio de Jesús Mérida Robles 1942 Maderas de Bellas Artes 18. Feb. 2009; Motozintla by Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna – 128 – RefeRences Héctor Morales Ramírez 1948 Lira de Cristal 06. Sept. 2016; Siltepec by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Silvano Morales 1969 Alma Caminera 04. Sept. 2016; Chicomuselo by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Limber Ortega Vázquez 1958 Brisas del Grijalva 16. Feb. 2009; Frontera Comalapa by Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán Olivar Ortíz Morales 1983 Ecos del Grijalva 20. Feb. 2009; Amatenango de la Frontera by Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán Amancio Pérez González 1953 Hermanos Pérez 18. Feb. 2009; Motozintla by Arturo Cigarroa, Irene Márquez, Efraín Paniagua and Ignacio Ruiz Nerix Pérez González 1982 Hermanos Pérez 18. Feb. 2009; Motozintla by Arturo Cigarroa, Irene Márquez, Efraín Paniagua and Ignacio Ruiz Hausleben René Pérez Pérez 1994 Hermanos Pérez 18. Feb. 2009; Motozintla by Arturo Cigarroa, Irene Márquez, Efraín Paniagua and Ignacio Ruiz 3RU¿ULR3pUH]3pUH] 1934 Hermanos Pérez 18. Feb. 2009; Motozintla by Arturo Cigarroa, Irene Márquez, Efraín Paniagua and Ignacio Ruiz – 129 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas Emilio Pérez Roblero 1948 Ecos del Grijalva 20. Feb. 2009; Amatenango de la Frontera by Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán Vidal Pérez Santizo –– Flor de un amor 20. Feb. 2016; Bejucal de Ocampo by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Rigoberto Pérez Vázquez 1963 Hermanos Vázquez 30. Dec. 2009; La Rinconada by Daniel Fuchsberger and Israel Moreno Bernabé Ramos López 1953 Maderas de Bellas Artes 18. Feb. 2009; Motozintla by Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna Leonel Regalado –– Brisas de Chicomuselo 17. Feb. 2009; Chicomuselo by Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna Leodegario Nicolás Roblero Gálvez 1940 Hermanos Santizo 16. Feb. 2009; Frontera Comalapa by Arturo Cigarroa, Irene Márquez, Efraín Paniagua und Ignacio Ruiz Audeliano Modesto Roblero Pérez 1962 Brisas del Tachinula 09. Sept. 2016; Piedra Labrada by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Elpidio Roblero Pérez 1937 Brisas de Montebello 30. Dec. 2009; Nueva Independencia by Daniel Fuchsberger and Israel Moreno Arturo Roblero Velázquez 1941 Los Únicos de Chicharras 07. Sept. 2016; Chicharras by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez – 130 – RefeRences Hermilo Rodríguez Macario 1964 Conjunto Escobar 08. Sept. 2016; Chicharras by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez José Arturo Ruiz García 1963 Brisas de Chicomuselo 17. Feb. 2009; Chicomuselo by Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna Milton Santizo Morales 1977 Hermanos Santizo 16. Feb. 2009; Frontera Comalapa by Arturo Cigarroa, Irene Márquez, Efraín Paniagua und Ignacio Ruiz Bernardino Santizo Rodríguez 1949 Hermanos Santizo 16. Feb. 2009; Frontera Comalapa by Arturo Cigarroa, Irene Márquez, Efraín Paniagua und Ignacio Ruiz Ausencio Marino Tomás Rodríguez 1960 Conjunto Escobar 08. Sept. 2016; Chicharras by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Manuel Vázquez García 1951 Hermanos Vázquez 30. Dec. 2009; La Rinconada by Daniel Fuchsberger and Israel Moreno Lorenzo Vázquez Pereyra 1959 Hermanos Vázquez 30. Dec. 2009; La Rinconada by Daniel Fuchsberger and Israel Moreno Antonio Vázquez Roblero 1938 Brisas de Montebello 30. Dec. 2009; Nueva Independencia by Daniel Fuchsberger and Israel Moreno Everardo Vázquez Vázquez 1979 Hermanos Vázquez 30. Dec. 2009; La Rinconada by Daniel Fuchsberger and Israel Moreno – 131 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas Manuel Vázquez Vázquez 1976 Hermanos Vázquez 30. Dec. 2009; La Rinconada by Daniel Fuchsberger and Israel Moreno Benjamín Velázquez 1944 24 de Junio 19. Feb. 2016; Las Ventanas by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Francisco Villatoro Hernández 1963 Trinos de la Selva 04. Sept. 2016; Frontera Comalapa by Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Gilberto Zamorano Ramírez –– Diamantes de Chicomuselo 17. Feb. 2009; Chicomuselo by Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán 6.3.2. List of Recorded Music Name Genre Played by Recorded by Amor a la ligera Ranchera Brisas del Grijalva Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán Amorcito Corrido Hermanos Méndez Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán Amorcito corazón Bolero Conjunto Escobar Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Anda ausente Ranchera Conjunto Escobar Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Ángel o mujer Bolero Maderas de Bellas Artes Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna Camino de Michoacán Corrido Hermanos Santizo Arturo Cigarroa, Irene Márquez, Efraín Paniagua and Ignacio Ruiz – 132 – RefeRences Camino de San Cristóbal Son Brisas de Chicomuselo Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna Cartas marcadas Ranchera Alma caminera Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Cielo azul, cielo nublado Corrido Alma caminera Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Cuando el indio llora Son Trinos de la Selva Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Cuando llora el indio Son Hermanos Santizo Arturo Cigarroa, Irene Márquez, Efraín Paniagua and Ignacio Ruiz Cuando llora el indio Son Brisas de Chicomuselo Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna Cuatro milpas Ranchera Hermanos Pérez Arturo Cigarroa, Irene Márquez, Efraín Paniagua und Ignacio Ruiz Cuatro milpas Ranchera Brisas del Grijalva Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán Chilca y copal Son Hermanos Méndez Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán Échame la tierra encima Waltz Hermanos Santizo Arturo Cigarroa, Irene Márquez, Efraín Paniagua and Ignacio Ruiz El Agrarista Ranchera Hermanos Pérez Arturo Cigarroa, Irene Márquez, Efraín Paniagua and Ignacio Ruiz El capotín Son Ecos del Grijalva Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán El frijolito Corrido Alma caminera Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez – 133 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas El mariachi loco Cumbia Hermanos Méndez Arturo Cigarroa, Irene Márquez, Efraín Paniagua and Ignacio Ruiz El palomo enamorado Son Hermanos Méndez Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán El rengo del gallo Giro Corrido Brisas del Tachinula Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez El rey quiché Son Maderas de Bellas Artes Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna El sapo Son Hermanos Santizo Arturo Cigarroa, Irene Márquez, Efraín Paniagua and Ignacio Ruiz El venadito Corrido Hermanos Pérez Arturo Cigarroa, Irene Márquez, Efraín Paniagua and Ignacio Ruiz Entre copa y copa Ranchera Alma caminera Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Ferrocarril de los Altos Foxtrot Trinos de la Selva Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Hace un año Ranchera Hermanos Pérez Arturo Cigarroa, Irene Márquez, Efraín Paniagua and Ignacio Ruiz La cacerola Tropical Hermanos Cano Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna La colocha March Hermanos Cano Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna /D¿HVWDGH mi pueblo Son Ecos del Grijalva Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán – 134 – RefeRences La guadalupana Corrido Hermanos Santizo Arturo Cigarroa, Irene Márquez, Efraín Paniagua and Ignacio Ruiz La que se fue Ranchera Diamantes de Chicomuselo Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán La sanjuanerita Son Hermanos Cano Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna La Virgen de Guadalupe Son Ecos del Grijalva Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán Mi lindo cafetal Cumbia Hermanos Santizo Arturo Cigarroa, Irene Márquez, Efraín Paniagua and Ignacio Ruiz Mi ranchito triste Ranchera Conjunto Escobar Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Motozintla Bolero Maderas de Bellas Artes Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna Pañuelito Son Diamantes de Chicomuselo Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán San Francisco Son Maderas de Bellas Artes Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna San Rafael Son Maderas de Bellas Artes Israel Moreno, Betsabé Reyes and Daniel Reyna Sangre de vino Ranchera Ecos del Grijalva Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán Sentencia de amor Bolero Hermanos Santizo Arturo Cigarroa, Irene Márquez, Efraín Paniagua and Ignacio Ruiz – 135 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas Son guatemalteco Son Diamantes de Chicomuselo Juan Bermúdez, Humberto Gordillo and Guillermo Santillán Soy puro mexicano Corrido Hermanos Pérez Arturo Cigarroa, Irene Márquez, Efraín Paniagua and Ignacio Ruiz Te vas ángel mío Corrido Alma caminera Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Una página más Ranchera Alma caminera Juan Bermúdez and Carlos Bermúdez Una sombra Waltz Hermanos Santizo Arturo Cigarroa, Irene Márquez, Efraín Paniagua and Ignacio Ruiz Y que me lleva el diablo Ranchera Hermanos Pérez Arturo Cigarroa, Irene Márquez, Efraín Paniagua and Ignacio Ruiz – 136 – RefeRences 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 105, 111, 112, 114, 115, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122 Chicharras, 18, 19, 20, 46, 48, 49, 50, 73, 105, 108, 109 Chicomuselo, 9, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 34, 36, 37, 44, 58, 59, 69, 70, 74, 76, 77, 107, 111, 117, 118 6.4. Index A aguardiente, 44, 81, 82 America, 31, 36, 111 Amorcito corazón, 84, 104 Arturo Cano, 41, 109 Austria, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 26, 28, 53 C Cielito lindo, 90 Colombia, 31, 111 Conjunto Escobar, 46, 47, 49, 52, 60, 63, 64, 105, 106 Costa Rica, 31, 111, 119 Cuarteto Hnos. Gómez, 99 Cuatro milpas, 9, 82, 84, 86, 117 cumbia, 10, 43, 81, 82, 86, 96, 97, 98, 117 B Bejucal de Ocampo, 20, 34, 60, 111, 130 Belize, 31, 111, 119 Betsabé Reyes, 20, 46, 106 Bolero, 10, 11, 13, 15, 81, 84, 89, 96, 97, 99, 103, 114, 117, 132, 135 bolillos, 40 Borraz Moreno, Corazón de Jesús, 32, 99, 111 Borraz, Franscisco, 99 Brazil, 31, 111 Brenner, Helmut, 5, 17, 27, 28, 117 Brisas del Grijalva, 67, 71, 123 D danza de judios, 9, 92, 93, 117 danza de moros, 92, 120 danzas de la conquista, 92 danzon, 81 Diamantes de Chicomuselo, 9, 36, 37, 44, 58, 59, 69, 70, 77, 107, 117 Diamantes del Paraiso, 68, 72 Dios nunca muere, 31 C Cachimba, 36, 37, 40, 117 Carlos Nandayapa, 41 Carta Blanca, 47, 48 Casa de la Cultura, 45, 46, 51, 52, 57, 109 Central America, 36, 45, 112 cera de campeche, 40, 41 E Ecuador, 31, 111, 119 El Pacayal, 92 El pañuelo rojo, 31 El perro ron, 84 El Salvador, 31, 111, 119 El Sapo, 10, 103, 117 El tacuazín, 84 Escarcha, 84 Escobar, Armando, 18, 74, 77 Escobar, Arturo, 18, 46, 49, 60, 61, 106 Esperanza Linda, 106 CH Chiapa de Corzo, 34 Chiapas, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 20, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 44, 45, 48, 51, 52, 53, 54, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 65, 67, 68, 69, 70, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 83, 84, 85, 87, 89, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, – 137 – EchoEs of thE Past: thE MariMba Sencilla in chiaPas J Jobo, 40 F Faldón / faldones, 40, 112 Fernández, Vicente, 81 Frontera Comalapa, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 34, 41, 43, 44, 47, 67, 78, 88, 111, 112, 118 Fuchsberger, Daniel, 18, 28, 51, 59, 117 K Kaptain, Laurence, 27, 32, 45, 120 L La Callejera, 50 La Grandeza, 18, 52, 126 La Guadalupana, 91, 135 La Noria, 74 La Trinitaria, 34, 111 Lago Internacional, 34 Las Campanas, 41, 112 Latin America, 31, 36, 83, 92, 98 Los Únicos de Chicharras, 50, 73, 108, 109 G García, Armando, 18, 44, 125 García, Mario, 18, 58, 59, 125 Gómez, José, 45, 46, 51 Gómez, Ramón, 41, 46 González, Audelino, 18, 59, 125 González, Blanca, 18, 52, 126 González, Hilario, 18, 50, 73, 125 González, Manuel, 47, 48, 50, 107 Graz, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 26, 118, 119, 120, 121 Guatemala, 28, 31, 34, 36, 38, 43, 44, 45, 54, 57, 60, 61 111, 112, 115, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122 M Maderas de Bellas Artes, 46, 90 mariachis, 78. 79 marimba de concierto, 33, 75 Marimba Hnos. Dominguez, 100 marimba industrial, 33 marimba sencilla grande, 35, 112 marimba sencilla tenor, 35, 112 Mauricio, Claudio, 19, 66, 67, 128 Mérida, Francisco, 19, 51, 128 Mexico, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 26 28, 48, 61, 92, 94, 95, 98, 99, 100, 111, 115, 119, 120, 121, 122 Mirliton, 40 Monte Redondo, 92 Morales, Silvano, 9, 19, 65, 74, 75, 108, 109, 117, 129 Moreno, Israel, 19, 27, 28, 35, 46, 106, 117, 118, 119, 120 Motozintla, 9, 18, 19, 20, 34, 41, 94, 111, 112, 117, 118 Mujer, 106 Music School, 25,, 26, 28 música norteña, 89 música ranchera, 11, 13, 15, 114 música tropical, 84, 114 H Hace un año, 84, 134 Hermanos Méndez, 71 Hermanos Santizo, 9, 68, 71, 81, 87, 117 Hermanos Vázquez, 9, 72, 117, 130, 131, 132 Hérnandez, Amador, 27 Hernández, German, 19, 33, 127 Herrera, Sofía, 19, 25, 31, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 59, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 69, 74, 76, 79, 85 Himno del agrarista, 31 Honduras, 31, 111, 119 Hormiguillo, 39 Huizizil, 40 I Israel Moreno, 19, 27, 28, 35, 46, 106, 117, 118, 119, 120 – 138 – RefeRences T tamales, 53, 82 tecomates, 40 Tomás, Ausencio, 46, 47, 61, 63, 64, 105, 106 Trinos de la selva , 43, 44, 48, 78, 80, 88, 107, 108, 123 Tuxtla Gutiérrez, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122 Tziscao, 34 N Navarrete, Sergio, 54 Nicaragua, 31, 111, 119 Nicke, 25, 26, 121 Noche de Ronda, 106 P Pérez, Vidal, 20, 60, 61, 85, 130 Pineda del Valle, Cesar, 27 pumpos, 40 R reggaeton, 43, 81, 108 Roblero, Arturo, 20, 48, 49, 50, 73, 109, 130 Roblero, Audeliano, 20, 64, 74, 130 Rodríguez, Hermilio, 51 románticas, 108 U Un Viejo Amor, 106 United States, 83 V Venustiano Carranza, 34, 41, 111 Villatoro, Francisco, 21, 44, 80, 108, 132 Virgin of Guadalupe, 91 Viva México, 90 S San Cristóbal de las Casas, 17, 21, 51, 57 San Rafael, 9, 90, 91, 92, 117, 135 Siltepec, 19, 34, 64, 65, 111, 129 Silvano Morales, 9, 19, 65, 74, 75, 108, 109, 117, 129 sones, 85, 89, 95, 96, 114 Spain, 31, 83, 92 X xylophone, 27 Z Zamorano, Gilberto, 21, 59, 69, 107, 132 – 139 –