Environmental Survey and photographic documentation of a forest edge hamlet situated in the Eastern Himalayas, India

SCHOLAR SUMMIT 2017 PAPER PROCEEDINGS HOSTED BY: UNIVERSITAS INDONESIA 10 – 11 OKTOBER 2017 ii List of Contents LIST OF CONTENT .............................................................................................................................. iii WELCOME REMARKS ...................................................................................................................... ix Rector ............................................................................................................................................................. ix Vice Rectors for Academic and Students Affairs ............................................................................... x Head of International Office ................................................................................................................... xi FULL PAPER ............................................................................................................................................. 1 HEALTH SCIENCE .................................................................................................................................. 1 Adeela Rehman (International Islamic University, Malaysia) ....................................................... 2 Ahmad Fahim Fathullah (Cyberjaya University College of Medical Science)............................... 12 Arofi Kurniawan (Tohoku University Graduate School of Dentistry) ...................................... 22 Budi Anna Keliat (Universitas Indonesia) ......................................................................................... 32 Debby Rosita (Universitas Indonesia) ................................................................................................. 47 Eden Delight Miro (Ateneo de Manila University) ......................................................................... 56 Faya Nuralda Sitompul (Universitas Indonesia) .............................................................................. 68 Hashem Salarzadeh Jenatabadi (Unievrsity of Malaya)................................................................. 79 Hesti Atasasih (Universitas Indonesia) ............................................................................................... 85 Husda Oktavianoor (Universitas Indonesia) ...................................................................................... 94 Nur Faizzati Nawawi (Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia) ............................................................101 Reisy Tane (Universitas Indonesia) ...................................................................................................113 Rita Nursuhaila Ridzuan (Islamic Science University of Malaysia) ........................................122 Rohana Jani (University of Malaya) ..................................................................................................139 Shahab E Saqib (Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand) ........................................................143 Siti Rahayu Nadhiroh (Universitas Indonesia) ...............................................................................152 Yati Afiyanti (Universitas Indonesia)................................................................................................162 Yoyo (Universitas Indonesia) ..............................................................................................................174 Zariyantey Abd Hamid (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia) ........................................................184 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY .....................................................................................................193 iii Abinubli Tariswafi Mawarid (Tohoku University) .......................................................................194 Ahmad Afif Fathullah (University of Malaya) ...............................................................................199 Alex L. Suherman (University of Oxford) .......................................................................................207 Bhattacharya Sayan (Nalanda University) .......................................................................................221 Arkajyoti Shome (Pondicherry University) .....................................................................................238 Brit Anak Kayan (University of Malaya) .........................................................................................251 Clayvon J. Pascua (De La Salle University) ....................................................................................262 Che Wan Jasimah bt Wan Mohamed Radzi (University of Malaya) .......................................272 Faridah Sonsudin (University of Malaya) ........................................................................................282 Haizhou Du (Shanghai University) ....................................................................................................295 Hayat Ullah (Asian Institute of Technology) ..................................................................................303 James Guild (S. Rajaratnam School, Nanyang Technological University) ............................312 M. Octaviano Pratama (Universitas Indonesia) ..............................................................................321 M. Fitri Yahaya (University of Malaya) ...........................................................................................337 Nadzirah Sofia Anuar (University of Malaya) ................................................................................344 Rizwan Ul-Haq (Muhammad Ali Jinnah University) ...................................................................350 Noor Zulaika Musa (University of Malayas) ..................................................................................359 Nurush Syahadah bin Mahmud (University of Malaya) ..............................................................368 Nur Fazilah Abdul Mutalib (University of Malaya)......................................................................380 Payam Shafigh (University of Malaya).............................................................................................384 Rui Tang Guo (Shanghai University) ................................................................................................393 Shuhei Yabe (Tohoku University) ......................................................................................................400 S. N Surip (Universiti Teknologi MARA) .......................................................................................405 Wen Huang Wang (Tohoku University) ...........................................................................................412 Che Ibrahim Abdullah (University of Malaya) ...............................................................................421 SOSIAL SCIENCE .................................................................................................................................439 Aaron Bryan (De La SalleUniversity) ...............................................................................................440 Abdul Halim Syihab (Open University Malaysia).........................................................................453 Abdullah C. Andam (Mindano State University)...........................................................................471 iv Achmad Sunjayadi (Universitas Indonesia) ....................................................................................497 Adelia Savitri (Universitas Indonesia) ..............................................................................................509 Agus Sugiharto (Universitas Indonesia) ...........................................................................................520 Aisha N. Sevilleja (De La Salle University) ....................................................................................527 Aishatu Abubakar Kumo (International Islamic University Malaysia) ...................................539 Alicia B. Manlagnit (De La Salle University) ................................................................................548 Alin Fadhlina Hayati (Universitas Indonesia) .................................................................................560 Alo Bhattacharya (Chakdaha College) ..............................................................................................572 Anbar Jayadi (Universitas Indonesia)................................................................................................587 Agus Hananto (Universitas Indonesia) .............................................................................................594 Astri Yulia (Universitas Indonesia)....................................................................................................609 Ayu Rahma Haninda (Universitas Indonesia) .................................................................................618 Azmah Othman (University of Malaya) ...........................................................................................629 Beatriz J Aguila (University of the East) ..........................................................................................640 Chloe Nicole D (De La Salle University).........................................................................................650 Deniz A Apostol (Universitay of the East) ......................................................................................657 Dini Widinarsih (Universitas Indonesia) ..........................................................................................668 Dodik Siswantoro (Universitas Indonesia) ......................................................................................676 Dorine D Cubacub (University of the East).....................................................................................685 Eva Yugiana (Universitas Indonesia) ................................................................................................695 Felizia Novi (Universitas Indonesia) .................................................................................................707 Fitria Nur Diana (Universitas Indonesia) .........................................................................................716 Fuad Gani (Universitas Indonesia) .....................................................................................................727 Gema Ramadhan Bastari (Universitas Indonesia) .........................................................................738 Gita Ardi Lestari (Universitas Indonesia) ........................................................................................754 Hashima Mohaini Mohammad (Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman) .........................................762 Irish Lacap (University of the East) ...................................................................................................773 Irwan Suswandi (Universitas Indonesia) ..........................................................................................784 Jeff Clyde Corpuz (De La Salle University)....................................................................................794 v Jhuren Vicson Santander (De La Salle University) .......................................................................806 John Mark Villanueva (De La Salle University) ............................................................................814 Jonamae S. Fabale (University of the East) .....................................................................................826 Joshua Elijah James Macaspac (University of the East) ..............................................................841 Joyce Estelle S. Fungo (De La Salle University) ...........................................................................851 Julia Suleeman (Universitas Indonesia) ............................................................................................856 Jyoti Bania (Tata Institute of Social Sciences) ...............................................................................879 Kyrychenko Kateryna (Mykolas Romeris University) .................................................................886 Katherine Pia Cabatbat (De La Salle University) ..........................................................................895 Kok Shiong Pong (Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman) .................................................................905 Kritzaman G Caballero (Ateneo de Manila University) ..............................................................915 Kushsairy Kadir (Universiti Kuala Lumpur) ...................................................................................926 Lala Isna Hasni (Universitas Indonesia) ...........................................................................................935 Laras Wijayanti (Universitas Indonesia) ..........................................................................................944 Ma Susan J Lucero (De La Salle University) ..................................................................................952 Malik Shahzad Shabbir (University of Brunei Darussalam) ......................................................963 Margareta Aulia Rachman (Universitas Indonesia) ......................................................................976 Maria Elena Villanueva (Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University South La Union Campus) .....................................................................................................................................................988 Maria Maya Lestari (Universitas Indonesia) ................................................................................ 1001 Marie Julie V Balarbar (De La Salle University) ........................................................................ 1009 Md Daud Ismail (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia) .................................................................. 1015 Melda Kamil Ariadno (Universitas Indonesia) ............................................................................ 1024 Mina Elfira (Universitas Indonesia) ................................................................................................ 1041 Mohd Istajib Mokhtar (University of Malaya) ............................................................................ 1048 Mohd Nasir Selamat (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia) .......................................................... 1062 Mohd Yusof bin Zulkefli (Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman) ................................................ 1073 M Beni Kurniawan (Universitas Indonesia) ................................................................................. 1081 Muthia Pramesti (Universitas Indonesia) ...................................................................................... 1096 Nani Mulyati (Universitas Indonesia) ............................................................................................ 1111 vi Nur Annizah Ishak (University of Malaya) .................................................................................. 1122 Nurulwahidah Fauzi (Universitas Sains Islam Malaysia)......................................................... 1137 Omega Diadem T (De La Salle University) ................................................................................. 1154 Pijar Suciati (Universitas Indonesia) .............................................................................................. 1163 Pujangga Putra Kartono (Universitas Indonesia) ........................................................................ 1183 Quennie Ann J P (De La Salle University) ................................................................................... 1193 Rabiatul Addawiyah (University of Malaya) ............................................................................... 1202 Rahmad Ramadhan (Universitas Indonesia) ................................................................................ 1213 Raihanah Azahari (University of Malaya) .................................................................................... 1224 Ramon Guillermo (University of the Philippines) ...................................................................... 1235 Ratih Dyah Kusumastuti (Universitas Indonesia) ....................................................................... 1252 Ratih Ika Wijayanti (Universitas Indonesia) ................................................................................ 1260 Rayan Dui (De La Salle University) ............................................................................................... 1271 Raymund Fantonalgo (De La Salle University) .......................................................................... 1278 Reuel Rito (De La Salle University) ............................................................................................... 1295 Rianti Setiadi (Universitas Indonesia) ............................................................................................ 1304 Romualdo A (Lyceum of the Philippines University) ............................................................... 1310 Satriono Priyo Utomo (Universitas Indonesia) ............................................................................ 1325 Ong Sheau-Wen (Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman) ................................................................. 1336 Simin Gharifekr (University of Malaya) ....................................................................................... 1347 Simplexius Asa (Universitas Indonesia) ........................................................................................ 1366 Siti Hatikasari (Universitas Indonesia) .......................................................................................... 1382 Siti Zubaidah Ismail (University of Malaya) ................................................................................ 1391 Foong Soon Seng (Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman) .............................................................. 1401 Sri Rahayu (Universitas Indonesia)................................................................................................. 1412 Ssemambo Hussein Kakembo (Universiti Brunei Darussalam) ............................................. 1421 Stephen Oppenheimer (Oxford University) .................................................................................. 1432 Suprasith J (Ramkhamhaeng University) ...................................................................................... 1441 Syafiq Munir Ismail (University of Malaya) ................................................................................ 1450 vii Tara Ferakanita (Universitas Indonesia) ........................................................................................ 1471 Tengku Ezni Balqiah (Universitas Indonesia) ............................................................................. 1479 Thanthawi Jauhari (Hiroshima University)................................................................................... 1491 Thesa Adi Purwanto (Universitas Indonesia) ............................................................................... 1502 Timothy O’Loughlin (Carneige Mellon University of Australia) .......................................... 1513 Pham Van Hong (Vietnam National University) ........................................................................ 1527 Vina Ardha Sukma (Universitas Indonesia) ................................................................................. 1540 Vita Priantina Dewi (Universitas Indonesia) ................................................................................ 1548 Wustari L Mangunwidjaya (Universitas Indonesia)................................................................... 1555 Yingyot Kanchina (Mahidol University) ....................................................................................... 1564 viii ENVIRONMENTAL SURVEY AND PHOTOGRAPHIC DOCUMENTATION OF A FOREST EDGE HAMLET SITUATED IN THE EASTERN HIMALAYAS, INDIA Sayan Bhattacharya1*, Arkajyoti Shome2, Abhishek Dutta3 1 2 School of Ecology and Environment Studies, Nalanda University, Rajgir, India. Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry University, India. 3 Department of Environmental Studies, Visva Bharati University, India. *Corresponding author. Email: sbhattacharya@nalandauniv.edu.in ABSTRACT The Eastern Himalayas have major contributions in maintaining climatic and ecological balance in the Indian Subcontinent with their forests areas and watersheds. Many scattered hamlets are found in this zone and some of them are proximate to the forests enriched with endemic biodiversity. Charkhole (27o06ꞌ16ꞌꞌN, 88o30ꞌ54ꞌꞌE) is a small village situated in Kalimpong district, West Bengal, India and proximate to Neora Valley National park. The survey work was done in December, 2016 by visiting Charkhole village in Kalimpong, West Bengal. The survey work integrates the perspectives of human and social ecology, ecosystem services and sustainable development. Primary data were gathered through field survey and direct contact with common people and authorized centres of the region. Structured questionnaires and semi-structured interviews supplemented by field notes were arranged to collect data from the village areas in upper and lower Charkhole. Focuses were given on demography, agriculture, livestock management, traditional water management, education, culture, health, waste management, disaster management, transport, biodiversity, joint forest management, ecosystem services and human animal conflict. Photographs were taken, analysed and interpreted in light of the survey data collected from the study area. Some of the feasible management strategies have been suggested for maintaining the socio-ecological and economic structures of the hamlet. The present survey work could be implemented in other ecologically important forest edge hamlets of Eastern Himalayas for biodiversity and traditional ecological knowledge conservation. Keywords: Biodiversity; Environment; Forest; Survey; Sustainable development. 1. INTRODUCTION The Eastern Himalayas are considered as the meeting grounds for the Indo-Malayan, Palaearctic, and Sino-Japanese bio-geographical realms with diverse ecological and altitudinal gradients and an associated diversity of flora and fauna (ICIMOD, 2010). The welfare of millions of people downstream is linked with the natural resources of the Eastern Himalayas. The major challenge to the local inhabitants of Eastern Himalayas is to use natural resources in a sustainable manner. People are an integral part of the landscape, as they derive various ecosystem services such as provisioning (eg food, fodder); cultural (aesthetic, religious); supporting (soil formation and water cycle); and regulatory (erosion, climate) services (Chettri et al., 2007). Charkhole (27o06ꞌ16ꞌꞌN, 88o30ꞌ54ꞌꞌE) is a small village near Neora Valley Forest (Fig. 1) under Kalimpong sub division 1 (Samalbong village panchayat) in Darjeeling district. It is just 221 26 Km from Kalimpong town and 15 km from Lolegaon in West Bengal, India. Charkhole is situated at an altitude of 5000 feet in a green valley with magnificent views of Mt. Kanchenjungha (Fig. 2). It is one of the newest tourist destinations in the Eastern Himalayas. Situated in the deep, moist woods of towering pine, cypress, oak and rhododendrons, Charkhole hamlet is also a major attraction for the bird watchers. Charkhole is divided into the upper and lower parts. Previously, the upper Charkhole was used for cattle grazing and bathing. The area was called “Charkhole Aal” (aal in local language means the bathing pond of cattle). Gradually the area developed as a village and tourism business has been flourished in Charkhole in the last 7 years. 2. METHODS The survey work was done in December, 2016 by visiting Charkhole village in Kalimpong, West Bengal. The present study focuses on an interdisciplinary understanding on the physical and cultural environment of the forest and mountain areas. The survey work integrates the perspectives of human and social ecology, ecosystem services and sustainable development. Primary data were gathered through field survey and direct contact with common people and authorized centres of the region. Structured questionnaires and semi-structured interviews supplemented by field notes were arranged to collect data from the village areas in upper and lower Charkhole. The length of each interview was about 40–50 minutes and was supplemented by field notes. The interviews were conducted in the local dialect (which comprised of mixture of Bengali and Hindi). In these villages, families have traditionally delegated decision making rights to the head of the household regarding social and economic issues. Considering this fact, data was collected from the household heads of the families. Structured questionnaires were used to identify socio-economic status of the households. Semi-structured interviews supplemented by field notes were used to study the dependence of villagers on ecosystem services. Focus were given on demography, agriculture, livestock management, water management, education, culture, health, waste management, disaster management, transport, biodiversity, joint forest management activities, Non-timber forest product usage and human animal conflict. Demographic information was collected from the village area and from the local Panchayat. Health and education information was collected from the local schools and local sub health centers. Information regarding the transportation was collected from the local transport syndicate. Biodiversity of the region was documented by visiting the adjacent forest areas, accessing the database of West Bengal Forest Department Office and visiting the nature interpretation centre situated at Neora Valley National Park. Photographic documentation was done in every phase of the survey work (Bhattacharya and Ghosh, 2014; Bhattacharya et al., 2016). 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1. Population There are 87 families in upper Charkhole and 110 families in lower Charkhole with total population of 423. Approximately 90% of the people are Buddhist and the rest are Hindus. The Buddhist community comprises of ethnic groups of Gurung and Tamang, while the Hindu community has ethnic groups of Rai, Thapa and Chetri. Agriculture, tourism and business are the main occupations of the inhabitants. 222 3.2. Agriculture and Livestock management The Eastern Himalayan region is known as the ‘centre of origin of cultivated plants’ as original locations of over 50 important tropical and sub-tropical fruits, cereals, and rice are in this region (Hore, 2005). Out of approximately 800 species used for food in India, about 300 species are found in North East India (Rao and Murti, 1990). In the hill areas of Charkhole, terrace cultivation or step cultivation is practiced. It is method of growing crops on sides of hills or mountains by planting on graduated terraces built into the slope. This labour-intensive method has been employed effectively to maximize arable land area in variable terrains and to reduce soil erosion and water loss (Bhattacharya and Ghosh, 2014). Local green houses are made for cultivation in some places in the village. The common cultivable edible plants at Charkhole are potato, sweet potato, maize, garlic, ginger, squash, green peas (Fig. 3), spinach, round chilli (Fig. 4), Aloe vera (Fig. 5), raysak (Fig. 6), large cardamom etc. The inhabitants of Charkhole usually practiced organic farming, cowdung is used as manure. Rainfed Irrigation system is generally practiced in the agricultural fields. Occasionally spring water is used for irrigation during the period of water crisis. Large cardamom (Fig. 7) and broom grass (Fig. 8) are the commercial plants cultivated at Charkhole. Broom grass (Thysanolaena maxima) is considered to be one of the important non timber forest produce species in North-East India which has good potential for generating local employment and can enhance rural income. It is a cash crop for its inflorescences that are used in making brooms. The stems of these plants are also used for wall building material. The woody stems are used for fuel and fencing purposes. The fibrous root system of broom grass is useful for checking soil erosion in the steep slopes. Broom grasses are abundant at Charkhole, where they grow by natural regeneration. Large cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb) is one of the oldest spices known to mankind. The cultivated cardamom has about 12 local varieties and seven species of wild relatives readapted to different agro-climatic conditions of the Eastern Himalayan region. The crop was first domesticated by the indigenous Lepcha tribe and then by other communities Bhutias and Nepalis of Sikkim and was later passed on to the neighbouring Darjeeling district of India, parts of Bhutan and eastern Nepal (Sharma et al., 2000). Recently degeneration of cardamom is observed mainly due to the viral diseases such as chirkey and phurke. In Sikkim the cardamom yield has substantially reduced (Sharma, 2006). Disease control measures in the form of uprooting and drying of the infected plants and/or either burning or burying of infected plants are commonly practiced (Srinivasa, 2006). At Charkhole, the farmers reported that the production of large cardamom has gone down in the recent years due to shortage of water and climate change. This crop is widely used as a spice, flavoring agent, confectionaries, making perfumes, and medicines. Large cardamom cultivation is practiced at Charkhole village by using organic manures like cow dung, poultry wastes and goat dung. Compost is prepared in almost every household by using the daily household organic waste materials. Most of the houses at Charkhole have cultivable lands adjacent to the houses and farming is done there. Agricultural production is one of the main economic sources of the people of this area. They use to sell the foods in the markets after production. Large Cardamom and the broom grasses are harvested and sold in the local markets of Kalimpong and Siliguri. The common livestock at Charkhole are local breeds of cows, goats and pigs (Fig. 9 and 10). Almost every household has small poultry farm with cow and goat shelters in their own backyard. Meat, eggs and milk are the main livestock products which are among the important economic sources. The waste generated by the livestocks are turned into organic manure and used in the agricultural fields. 223 3.3. Water management The main water source of Charkhole is the water coming from the hills through natural water channels like “jhoras” (local springs). The springs flow below the ground and natural filtration of water happens while passing through the soil layers. Network of pipelines distribute the water from the cisterns to the houses. Each house has its own water collecting and storing unit from which they get the supply (Fig. 11). In lower Charkhole, adequate water supply is available for the villagers. There are several “jhoras” or local springs present within close proximity of lower Charkhole. In upper Charkhole, there is problem regarding water supply as there is only one “jhora” located 11 km. away from the hamlet, from where the water is being supplied by the means of pipelines. The survey revealed that in the last few years the local stream water flow has decreased during summers and has negatively impacted water availability for domestic and irrigation use. March to May is the period of water crisis in upper Charkhole, when people used to bring water from the local “jhoras”. Even the resorts and home stays developed recently for tourism purpose suffer from water shortage during the period. Rainwater harvesting is not a common practice among the inhabitants, however, they have developed a “water society” for proper management of water resource. Caretakers are being appointed by the local villagers for maintenance of the water distribution systems and pipelines. Every family use to pay a fixed amount of money for management of water distribution system. For sanitation and hygiene requirements, pit toilets were constructed by each household. However, these pit toilets do not follow the guidelines provided by the World Health Organisation (WHO, 2013) and can pose serious threat to nearby water streams and groundwater source. 3.4. Waste Management At upper and lower Charkhole, the common waste materials generated are solid wastes, including plastic packets, paper boxes, plastic bottles, glass bottles, vegetable wastes etc. Vegetable wastes are used as cattle feed and for preparation of organic manure. Solid wastes are usually collected in bins. Every house used to burn all the solid wastes once in a week. The unburned materials are buried in the ground. Burial of bottles and plastic packets may have serious effects on the local ecosystems and biodiversity, however, there is no waste management system developed for carrying, segregating, transporting and processing of the waste materials. Sometimes plastic and glass bottles are recycled by selling in the local markets after use. Local villagers are concerned about the increase in waste generation because of recent development in tourism at Upper Charkhole. The inhabitants of Charkhole used to bring the fuel wood from the forest area. Usually the rotten and low quality woods are used for burning purpose. They used to store the wood in the storehouses after bringing them from the forests (Fig. 12). 3.5. Economy Agriculture and tourism are the main economic sources of the inhabitants of Charkhole. The people used to sell the agricultural and livestock products in the local markets. One of the major economic backbones of Charkhole is the production of Large Cardamom (Amomum subulatum), which are regularly produced and supplied to different places. The major portion of household income comes from selling the cardamom which is a high value crop compared to other farm produces. It is a less labour intensive and non-nutrient exhaustive systems compared to other cultivations. However, the post harvest methods and storage are still traditional in Darjeeling and Kalimpong hills, resulting in poor quality products with low market price 224 (Sharma et al., 2009). Sometimes the farmers store their products of one or more years for one time income when the market rate raises high. Large cardamom plantation area is declining in several places of Eastern Himalayas due to natural calamities such as draught, hailstorm, snowfall in plantations at higher agroecological zones, widespread occurrence of fungal diseases and viral diseases. The prime reason of cardamom plantation and agronomic yield decline is due to the infestation by viral diseases viz. Chirkey and Phurkey (Sharma et al., 2009). This is one of the reasons for production decrease sharply by about 30% in during 20052007. The above mentioned constraints and problems of diseases are seen in almost all cardamom growing areas of Sikkim and Darjeeling hills of West Bengal. The villagers of Charkhole experienced decrease in rainfall, unpredictable monsoons and disease outbreaks in large cardamom cultivation resulting in significant drop in production during 2005-2007. In recent times, the production has increased again in the region. The tourism business has been flourished in Charkhole in the last 7 years. The spectacular view of the Himalayan ranges, forest and biodiversity are attracting tourists from different parts of India and abroad. Charkhole is attracting large number of tourists in recent times and the villagers have started developing home stays for the tourists. At present, there are 6 resorts and home stays in Charkhole. Local people are in support of tourism initiatives and considering it as an attractive option of earning money. Number of tourist remain maximum from October to December, followed by an above average tourist inflow during March-April and lowest inflow in the rainy season (June-September). The sources of information about Charkhole for the tourists are mainly website of the village, role of touring agencies and operators, daily newspapers and travel magazines. The web-based promotion of this less known destination along with the positive vibe in print media had been quite useful for attracting tourists and making direct contacts between tourists and community based service providers. At the community level, socially cohesive bonds have been observed among the inhabitants of Charkhole, which could be a strong regulating factor in community based ecotourism development. Moreover, the occupational structure of the villagers is changing because of increase in tourism opportunities. 3.6. Transportation There are 7 private cars in Charkhole which connects the area with Lolegaon, Lava and Kalimpong town. The cars are generally available in the morning on sharing basis for going to Kalimpong and Siliguri. With the growth of tourism in Charkhole, cars are available for going to different parts of North Bengal and Sikkim. There is a transport syndicate situated in Lower Charkhole, from where the vehicles can be booked in advance. No bus is available in Charkhole; Car is the only mode of transport. Bus service can be available from Lolegaon and Lava towns, which are 15 km. and 28 km. from Charkhole, respectively. 3.7. Education, culture and health There is a primary school upto 4th standard in Charkhole with 4 teachers and approximately 55 students. There is also a high school upto 12th Standard at Sukrabari area, which is situated around 4 km. from Charkhole. The higher education in colleges and universities, the inhabitants of Charkhole usually visit Kalimpong (15 km.) and Siliguri (80 km.) areas. There is no hospital facility at Charkhole. However, there is a primary health centre situated nearby, where one doctor and 3 nurses are available for minor treatment. No operation facility is available in that health centre. For major treatments and operations, the inhabitants of 225 Charkhole visit the hospitals in Kalimpong town and Siliguri city. Basic medicines can be found in the local grocery shops of Charkhole, however, there is no medicine shop in the area. In Charkhole, local food products are completely based on agricultural products and livestock products. Gundruk is considered to be the most popular local food in Charkhole. Gundruk is fermented leafy green vegetable and one of the national dishes in Nepal (Swain et al., 2014). It is served as a side dish with the main meal and is also used as an appetizer. Gundruk is an important source of minerals particularly during the off-season when the diet consists of mostly starchy tubers and maize which tend to be low in minerals. Sinki is a preserved vegetable, similar to Gundruk, is prepared from radish tap roots. To make this generations-old indigenous dish, aged radish slivers are pressed into a hole lined with bamboo and straw, then coffined by a cover of vegetation, rocks, wood and, finally, mud. After a month of bacterial curing, the resulting preserved vegetable is dried in the sun and stored to last a few years or more. Sinki is generally consumed in the forms of soup and pickle by the local inhabitants of Charkhole. In Charkhole, the Buddhists celebrate festivals like Buddha Purnima, Domong Puja and Losar. Losar is the Buddhist festival (“Losar” in Tibetan language means New Year), which is celebrated for 15 days, however, the main celebration occurs in the first three days (29 th-31st December). The Hindus celebrate the Durga Puja and Saraswati Puja for worshipping the goddesses. 3.8. Ecosystem services In India, there is a strong relation between the people and the forests because the people living in and around the forests are considerably dependent on the forest resources for subsistence, commercial and cultural purposes. NTFPs collection is another important source of income for the villagers of Charkhole. They use small timber for house construction and firewood as household fuel. The villagers also collect local bamboo species and use them in roof construction. Sometimes they collect edible roots and tubers, mushrooms, leaf litter and leaves, flowers and fruits as substitute of staple foods especially during lean seasons (Das, 2005). Most of the villagers cultivate medicinal plants in the farmlands adjacent to their houses. Aloe vera is widely cultivated in Charkhole. Other local medicinal plants for cultivation include Banmara (Eupatorium cannabinum), Tite pati (Artemisia vulgaris), Okhar (Juglans regia), Lali gurans (Rhododendron arboretum), Chirauto (Swertia chirata) etc. The villagers cultivate the medicinal plants for personal uses. Honey production is also an important source of earning. The inhabitants used to make artificial wooden structures in which bees take shelter and store honey. They periodically collect the honey and supply it to market. Analysis of semi-structured interviews in the study area indicated the dependence of people on forest ecosystems through the provision of ecosystem services. 3.9. Disasters Kalimpong is under rapid habitat destruction due to several anthropogenic pressures and developmental activities like hydro-electrical projects, development of roads, establishment of tea gardens, mining and quarrying, landslides, forest fire etc. These factors jointly have increased the fragility of the mountains, leading to an increase in the incidence of landslides in the region (Bhattacharya, 2016). In Charkhole, road side small landslides are very common. The inhabitants also reported about the thunderstorm hazards in Charkhole, resulting in human deaths every year. Besides, the area is also earthquake prone; small earthquake incidences are experienced in Charkhole. Both the upper and lower Charkhole were affected during the disastrous earthquake in Nepal in 2015. Approximately 70% of the houses were mildly to severely damaged during the earthquake. The houses made of concrete experienced more 226 damage than the wooden houses. In some places, the cracks were formed in the roads, which affected the transportation system. The villagers had very limited means to cope with natural disasters due to remote location and hilly terrain. 3.10. Biodiversity Charkhole is situated around 28 km. away from Neora Valley National Park (NVNP), which is located in the Eastern Himalayas as a global ‘biodiversity hotspot’. This area is included in one of the 25 Global Hotspots (Myers et al., 2000), the Global 200 forest ecoregions (Olson and Dinnerstein, 1998), two endemic bird areas (Stattersfield et al. 1998) and several centres for plant diversity (Davies et al., 1995). NVNP has wide range of environment gradients and climatic conditions, supporting a unique and ecologically important undisturbed patch of late succession forest. The park has a wide altitudinal variation (183–3,170 meters) and climatic conditions (tropical/sub-tropical in its lower range and temperate in its higher range). The climatic condition varies between tropical/subtropical in its lower range to temperate in its upper range (Mallick, 2010). In spite of being located in the Oriental Region, this park has some floral and faunal similarities with the Palaearctic Region of the adjacent zoogeographic zone. NVNP has been placed in the biogeographic zone 2 (Mallick, 2010). Moreover, it has characteristics of all the three sub-regions: Himalayan Montane System, Indian Peninsular subregion and Malayan sub-region. The forest has total area of 88 km2; located between latitudes 26°52’03"N-27°7’35"N and longitudes 88°45’E-88°50’E. NVNP along with its adjoining forests of Kalimpong Forest Division is also an important ecological corridor in Eastern Himalayas for movement of long-ranging animals to and from other contiguous protected areas in North Bengal (Mallick, 2010). The forest has rich variety of habitats, as the area comprises the catchment and watershed of the Neora River. Four habitat types are recognized in NVNP: i) Subtropical Mixed Broadleaf Forest; ii) Lower Temperate Evergreen Forest; iii) Upper Temperate Mixed Broadleaf Forest; and iv) Rhododendron Forest (Mallick, 2010). It was notified as a protected area in April 1986 and was gazetted in December 1992. The forest contains approximately 680 species of angiosperms, 23 species of pteridophytes, 276 species of insects, 38 species of other invertebrates, 308 species of birds and 33 species of mammals (Mallick, 2010). Approximately 20 % of the total species found in Neora Valley are extremely rare and many of those face the threats of extinction. Human settlements of late around this protected area have altered the biodiversity by means of habitat degradation. A. Floral diversity: The lower altitudinal zone or foothills (500 to 1,700m) of Neora Valley display characteristic subtropical vegetation. The dominant tall tree species (10-30m) include Duabanga grandiflora, Michelia champaca, Terminalia alata, Schima wallichii, Castonopsis indica, Ficus subincisa etc. The undergrowth vegetation includes Pandanus nepalensis, Maesa indica, Garuga pinnata and Holmskioldia sanguinea. The common herbs found in NVNP are Ageratum conyzoides, Oxalis corniculata, Urnea lobata, Eranthemum pulchellum etc. Above this zone, a small sub temperate zone is situated (1,700-1,900m) which is characterised by species like Ostodes paniculata, Ficus oligodon, Syzygium claviflorum, Ehretia serrata, Morinda angustifolia etc. The ecological zones situated between 1,900 and 3,150 meters receives comparatively high rainfall and has higher humidity than the tropical area, hence have rich vegetation with wide ranging biodiversity. The 15-25 meters high trees form a dense, closed canopy with plants like Michelia dolorosa, Magnolia campbellii, Alnus nepalensis, Rhododendron arboreum, Acer thomsonii, Juniperus pseudosabina, Abies densa, Pinus roxburghii, Cryptomeria japonica etc (Fig. 13). The common climbers are Thunbergia lutea, 227 Clematis nepalensis, Lonicera macrantha, etc. The rich undergrowth is comprised of species like Rubus paniculata, Viburnum erubescens, Astilbe rivularis, Strobilanthus thomsonii, Hedychium coccinium etc. Herbaceous flora are represented by Primula listeri, Swertia dulata, Rumex nepalensis, Polygonum orientale etc. Except in the very high altitude areas (above 3000 meters) the trees and shrubs are festooned with thick growths of epiphytic flora such as bryophytes, pteridophytes, and angiosperms. Heterophytic angiosperms like Viscum, Loranthus, Balanophora, Aeginetia indica, and many others are also abundant. The bryophyte diversity includes Funaria sp., Hookeria sp., Asterella sp. etc. High diversity of orchids are found among which species of Acampe, Aerides, Bulbophyllum, Calanthe, Dendrobium, Eria,Thunia etc. are noticeable (Das, 2010; Mallick, 2010). Neora Valley is enriched with Rhododendron diversity. Several species of Rhododendron like Rhododendron arboreum, R. falconeri, R. barbatum, R. dalhousiae, R. grande, R. triflorum etc. are found in the forest area. Wild flowers available in the forest are Touch Me Not (Mimosa putica), Railway Glory (Ipomoea cairica), English Primrose (Primula vulgaris), Wild Musk Melon (Cucumismelo) etc (Das, 2010). Among the medicinal plants found in the Neora Valley forest, Chinese Pepper (Litsea Citrata) is used as Antidepressant, antiseptic, Insecticide, helpful in heart diseases and bronchitis; Manjistha (Rubia cordifolia) is used to detoxify blood and to dissolve obstructions in blood flow; Herbaceous Woodlander (Smilacina oleracea) root extract is used for curing fractures; Chirayata (Swertia chirata) is used as drug for intermittent fevers, skin diseases and bronchial asthma; Indian snakeroot/Sarpagandha (Rouwolfia serpentine) is used as drug for high blood pressure and schizophrenia; Ground pines/creeping cedar (Lycopodium sp.) is used for treatment of disorders of the locomotor system, skin, liver and bile, kidneys and urinary tract infections; Himalayan ginseng (Panax pseudoginseng) has antibacterial, antiinflammatory, antiseptic and hypoglycaemic properties; Shilapushpa (Didymocarpus pedicellata) prevents the formation of urinary stones and has antimicrobial property. Jaributi valley of Upper Neora is famous for producing the most important medicinal plants (Mallick, 2010). B. Faunal diversity: There are 276 species of insects and 38 species of other invertebrates (molluscs, arthropods and annelids), including 6 species of leeches are found in NVNP (Singhal, 1999; Singhal and Mukhopadhyay, 1998). The Neora Valley is richly blessed with a medley of beautiful butterflies like Knight (Labadea Martha), Redbeast (Papilo alcmenor), Common Grass Yellow (Eurema hecabe), Blue Mormon (Papilio polymnestor), Pale Grass Blue (Pseudozizeeria maha), Himalayan Five ring (Ypthima sakra), Common Lascar (Pantoporia hordonia), Tailed Red Forester (Lethe sinorix), Yellow Orange Tip (Ixias pyrene), Indian Tortoise Shell (Aglais cashmirensis), Painted Lady (Cynthia cardui), Golden Sapphire (Heliophorus brahma), Bath White (Pontia daplidice), Tiger Brown (Orinoma damaris), Punchinello (Zemeros flegyas) (Fig. 14) etc. The Neora River runs for about 57.6 km. from north to south and is drained by 9 major streams and 16 subsidiary streams. This part of the Eastern Himalaya has a greater diversity of coldwater fishes than the other parts of the Himalayas. The fish species found in the Neora River are Balsohani (Nangra punctata), Goni (Labeo gonius), Hara (Hara jordoni), Lohari (Garra annandalei), Bumble bee (Laguvia shawi) etc (Das, 2010). Amphibians found in NVNP are Common Tree Frog (Polypedates teraiensis), Himalayan Frog (Bufo himalayanus), Himalayan Bull Frog (Paa leibigii), Twin Spotted Tree Frog (Rhacophorus bipunctatus) etc (Das, 2010). Twelve species of lizards and 47 species of snakes have been identified in this park. Reptiles like Flat-backed Mountain Lizard (Japalura planidorsata), Indian Garden Lizard (Calotes versicolor), Asian Glass Lizard (Ophisaurus gracilis), Flat Tailed Gecko 228 (Hemidactylus garnoti), Spectacled Cobra (Naja naja), Common Wolf Snake (Lycodon aulicus), King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah), Indian Rat Snake (Ptyas mucosa) etc. are found in the NVNP (Das, 2010). The semi-evergreen forests between 1,600 m. and 2,700 m. of Neora Valley are home to several rare species of birds and are considered as one of the most attractive places of ornithological study. Among approximately 300 bird species found in Neora Valley, 7 are globally threatened and 2 are near threatened, 12 species belong to the Red Data Book list (Mallick 2010). The Red Data Book enlisted species are Greater Spotted Eagle (Aquila clanga), Blue Fronted Robin (Cinclidum frontale), Broad-billed Warbler (Tickellia hodgsoni), Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni) etc. Other major species of birds include Black Eagle (Ictinaetus malayensis), White Tailed Robin (Myiomela leucura), Great Tit (Parus major), Greenbacked Tit (Parus monticolous) (Fig. 15), Eurasian Tree Sparrow (Passer montanus) (Fig. 16), Ashy Wood Pigeon (Columba pulchricollis), Brown Parrotbill (Paradoxornis unicolor), Chestnut Thrush (Turdus rubrocanus), Black-throated Sunbird (Aethopyga saturata), Hill Myna (Gracula religiosa), Goldcrest (Regulus regulus) etc (Das, 2010; Mallick, 2010). Neora Valley provides shelter and protection to various species of mammals included in Red Data Book of IUCN and appendices of CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild flora and fauna). Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens), Gaur (Bos gaurus), Asiatic Black Bear (Ursus thibetanus), wild boar (Sus scrofa cristatus), Tiger (Panthera tigris), Leopard (Panthera paardus), Clouded Leopard (Neofelis nebulosa macrosceloides), Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes), Barking Deer (Muntiacus muntjak), Himalayan Palm Civet (Paguma larvata), Marbled Cat (Pardofelis marmorata), Leopard Cat (Prionailurus bengalensis horsfieldi), Asiatic Wild Dog (Cuon alpines), Malayan giant squirrel (Ratufa bicolor), Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata), Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla aurita), Malayan giant squirrel (Ratufa bicolour), Hodgson’s flying squirrel (Petaurista magnificus), are significant mammals of Neora Valley. Discovery of tiger Panthera tigris tigris in 1998 prompted the forest department to include NVNP as a sensitive wildlife zone. The population of long-ranging mammals in NVNP like tigers, elephants and Indian bisons or gaurs, fluctuates seasonally due to migration through the identified corridors, particularly along the riverbeds (Das, 2010; Mallick, 2010). . 3.11. Human Animal Conflicts Human-Wildlife Conflict (HWC) occurs when wildlife requirements overlap with those of human populations, creating costs both to residents and wild animals (WPC, 2003). Direct contact with wildlife occurs in both urban and rural areas, but it is generally more common inside and around Protected Areas. With increasing population and pressure on forest areas, human-wildlife interaction and resultant conflict is also increasing (Zubri and Switzer, 2001). Sikkim and Darjeeling, being a part of a global biodiversity hotspot (Myers et al., 2000), has diverse fauna which live in close proximity to human beings. In many instances, these communities are highly marginalized and live in difficult circumstances. Periodical wildlife attacks in the forest edge hamlets of the Eastern Himalayas affect the socio-economic structures of the local settlements. In Charkhole, the man animal conflict is mainly centred on the attacks of porcupines, rabbits, deer and wild boars in the agricultural fields. Raysak cultivation is affected because of rabbit attacks. Leopards rarely attack the livestocks. Fences are used in the agricultural field for protecting the plants from wildlife attacks. Snake bites are common in the village area; few people die every year because of snake bites. 229 4. SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT PROPOSALS Charkhole has become the emerging tourist spot of West Bengal for pleasure trips, biological and geographical excursions and medical research works. In spite of getting so much attention in the recent time, the areas are not adequately developed. There is an urgent need for implementing sustainable management systems in the areas for the betterment of the socioenvironmental structures. Some of the implementable management systems are as follows: Water resource Management: For water crisis mitigation in Charkhole, focus should be on undertaking rain water harvesting along the hill slopes. Actions would also include identification of natural aquifers in the region. Micro scale rainwater harvesting structures should be constructed in the village houses. Household filter systems should be provided to the local inhabitants for using the collected rainwater for drinking purpose. Water storage and micro-irrigation equipment business can be developed by this group for the use of local villagers. However, the recognition of the group by financial services providers such as banks, local government, and establishment of proper training facilities remain major challenges in this context (Sandhu and Sandhu, 2014). Food security and agricultural development: Enhancing the ecosystem services can lead to improvement of food and nutrition security. This can be achieved by deploying cost effective protocols such as crop rotation with legumes to fix atmospheric nitrogen in soil instead of nitrogenous fertilizers, enhancing functional agriculture biodiversity for managing insect pests instead of pesticides (Wratten et al., 2013). Organic farming is one of the several approaches found to meet the objectives of sustainable agriculture. Organic farming is a production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystem and the people. Encouraging and supporting the farmers towards Organic farming in Charkhole village can stabilize the ecology and economy together. Creation of community seed banks and preservation of germplasm of the indigenous varieties would ensure availability of the food resources in the future. However, impact of climate change on these varieties must be identified to develop measures to fortify them against adverse impacts when they are growing. Integrated pest management (IPM) systems could be implemented by scientists from the Agricultural, Horticulture, and Plant Pathologists (Sandhu and Sandhu, 2014). Health and Sanitation management: Adequate health services should be provided to the local inhabitants of Charkhole. Local Sub Health centres with doctors, nurses and basic medical facilities should be established in these areas. Telemedicine facilities can be established in the hill villages like Charkhole. This is especially important for enabling people in remote areas to consult specialists and then seek right suggestion for treatment. The specialists in the private hospitals and retired specialists from government hospitals can be engaged for this service. Pit toilets should be re-designed by using appropriate technology under the specifications provided by the WHO, which consequently could reduce the extent of groundwater and stream water pollution (WHO, 2013). Local youth can be trained in technical skills required for constructing and managing pit toilets and understanding how right technology can minimize impacts on surrounding ecosystems. However, the key challenges are training of local entrepreneurs in the technology and the financial assistance to learn technical skills and start small scale business (Sandhu and Sandhu, 2014). Energy management: For cooking purpose, use of energy efficient and smokeless cook stoves can be promoted to increase efficient fuel usage and reduction in cooking time, lowering pollution from using fuel wood (Barnes et al., 1993; Pandey et al., 1990). Pellet fuel required for these cook stoves can be made from the biomass waste from agricultural activities. It can prevent unsustainable harvest of wood and fuelwood from the forest. Implementation of biogas 230 plant in Charkhole area can also reduce the pressure on fuel wood. Large scale installation of solar panels in these areas would be beneficial for having sustainable use of energy. Biodiversity conservation: There is lack of gross knowledge among villagers on the advantages of afforestation in the hill areas. Specific training and awareness efforts from the Forest Department have to be undertaken to educate people on the drawbacks of deforestation and the long term effects it has on the climatic conditions. Ecological restoration should be done by restoring the damaged, degraded and areas destructed by landslides. Focus should be given on areas critically important to floral and faunal habitat, water catchments and areas important with social and cultural values. Community-based forest management systems can also help to increase carbon stock. Like any other protected area in India, the forest areas of Charkhole, mainly the Neora Valley National Park suffer from illegal cattle grazing, firewood collection, encroachment on the fringes and poaching. However, due to inaccessibility and difficult terrain, the biotic pressures are still not very acute. More intense survey works and management practices should be done for mitigating the anthropogenic threats. The factors responsible for the depletion of medicinal plant diversity are: a. Increasing demand of herbal products. b. Shrinking of natural habitat of medicinal plants due to population pressure and other developmental activities. c. Indiscriminate and over exploitation from natural sources. d. Less efforts for commercial scale cultivation. e. Forest fire. f. Illegal trading of banned high value medicinal plants, especially in Neora Valley. g. Overgrazing of livestock. h. Cutting of medicinal trees for fuel, timber, etc., and lopping of leaves for fodder and cattle bedding. i. Change in climate and weather pattern. Sustainable management planning of medicinal plant conservation could be implemented after considering the factors responsible for the depletion of medicinal plant resources. Biopiracy is a major problem in Eastern Himalayas which can considerably affect the endemic plant diversity in the areas. Neora valley national park is considered to be one of the richest medicinal plant diversity zones of India. Initiatives should be taken in Charkhole for promoting medicinal resources and giving economic support to build up private nurseries where several varieties of important plant species can be preserved. Local training centres should be established for teaching the local people about the importance of natural resources of Charkhole. The initiatives of the local people can effectively protect the natural assets of those areas. In the silviculture units, the plant varieties should be increased and more modern methods of conversation should be implemented associated with gene banks and extensive databases. During the survey work, the local people reported that the number of birds at Charkhole has been reduced in recent times. Some of them pointed out that previously the birds could have shelters in the traditionally made rooftop of the village houses. Because of the increase in use of asbestos rooftops in many houses of Charkhole, the birds are not getting the shelters at the rooftops. Moreover, the birds are repelled when sunlight reflects on the shiny surface of the asbestos rooftop. Sustainable use of eco-friendly materials and local grass species can be promoted in Charkhole for rooftop construction, which can eventually increase the bird diversity in the area. Disaster Management: Due to many anthropogenic activities, the land of Darjeeling is prone to landslide every year. Vegetative control measure of soil conservations should be adopted to protect further damage of land at and around the Charkhole forest areas. Promotion and implementation of vermicomposting techniques in this area can maintain the soil structure, agricultural productivity and waste reduction (WWF, 2009). Technology supported by finance to develop low cost earthquake proof and energy saving housing would be beneficial. 231 The effects of climate change are more severe in the Himalayas compared to the other regions (IPCC, 2007). The annual and seasonal temperature trends in the Kanchenjunga landscape indicate an increase at the rate 0.01 – 0.015oC/year, with higher altitudes experiencing greater warming (Singh et al., 2011). The Himalayan region, including the Tibetan Plateau, has shown consistent warming trends during the past 100 years (Yao et al., 2006). Likewise, among the administrative units, Darjeeling was the most vulnerable compared to Sikkim, eastern Nepal and western Bhutan. The major crops grown in Darjeeling district such as rice, wheat, pulses, and oil seeds are likely to experience decrease in production due to rise in temperature (Bhattacharya and Ghosh, 2014). Extensive studies on the effects of climate change on Charkhole should be done. Monitoring the climate change by establishing stations to meet long-term climatic data from Eastern Himalaya is the need of the hour. Pollution and waste management: The vehicles used in the areas should be monitored regularly for mitigating the vehicular pollution in the forest areas. Installation of the modern devices in the vehicles for pollution control should be done and routine checking system should be implemented. Separate waste collection and disposal system should be operated by the government for safeguarding the sensitive ecosystems of the areas. Effective management design should be done for plastic wastes generated in these mountain hamlets. Proper management of solid wastes through the methods of collection, storage, transportation, recycling and disposal should be implemented in the Eastern Himalayan hamlets. Economic development: There remains the need for clearer understanding of resource flows to and from mountain areas. This will lead to increased income to mountain communities and a fairer distribution of earnings from natural resources exploitation and services provided. A number of innovative mechanisms, allowing a greater share of the proceeds from mountainbased economic activities to reach mountain people have to be continuously thought of and evolved. Creation of markets for channelizing the local products and establishment of distribution systems with strong communication could uplift the local economy of the village area. Tourism management: West Bengal has constantly produced thoughts, ideas and events which have brought forth freshness and rejuvenation in the society both in India and the world. The specific components of cultural tourism can be implemented in these areas including Fairs and Festivals Tourism, Arts and Crafts Tourism and Village Tourism. Portfolio of tourism products should be developed by utilizing its unique ecological assets. As these areas are the attraction for tourists, development of handicrafts made from the forest bioresources could be beneficial for the socio-economic development of the local communities. Tourism carrying capacity is defined as the maximum number of people that may visit the tourist destination without causing destruction of the physical, economic and socio cultural environment and an unacceptable decrease in the quality of visitors’ satisfaction. The carrying capacity assessment and sustainability of tourism in the circuits identified is an important component of the ecotourism study as it will form the basis for resource allocation and future development (Karmakar, 2011). The carrying capacity assessment should be done for Charkhole, based on the inflow of tourists and their activities. Research initiatives: More mountain-specific investment programs and greater mobilization of financial resources for mountain development and conservation programs will be required. In some cases this may mean formulating and financing programs which are focused exclusively 232 on mountain areas. There are signs of greater willingness on the part of government to increase investment levels in mountain areas, which historically have been neglected. National and International cooperation and grants should be enhanced for the conservation of Neora Valley National Park and its village communities. Research grants should be raised for exploring the social and biological status of the area. Training programmes, seminars and workshops should be organized for highlighting the conditions of Neora Valley National Park in international platforms. 5. CONCLUSION The Eastern Himalayas, with a wide spectrum of ecological zones, is shared by Nepal, Bhutan, India, China and Myanmar. Many critical eco-regions and critical transboundary conservation complexes are of global importance. The area surrounding Mount Kangchenjunga is one of the richest landscapes of the ‘biodiversity hotspots’ and one of the world’s most critical centers of biodiversity (ICIMOD, 2010; Sharma and Chettri, 2005). Due to its strategic location between Nepal, India, Bhutan and China, it is an important area for biodiversity conservation and needs transboundary cooperation to make conservation efforts effective (Sharma & Chettri, 2005). The present work is the first ever socio-environmental study done at Charkhole village till date. Extensive investigations at other hill areas of Eastern Himalayas should be done so that the places could be highlighted for conservation in future. Integrating the scientific and social approaches together can lead to a holistic and sustainable management perspective. This survey work and sustainable proposals can be followed in other ecologically sensitive forest edge hamlets of Eastern Himalayas for biodiversity and traditional ecological knowledge conservation. The major challenge for the ecologists and environmental scientists in the Eastern Himalayas is to ensure the modernization of the native cultural values by a careful, step-by step transformation. The aim should be to provide lasting, synergistic benefits for the local people, their economy and culture in rural and semi-urban landscapes. The people of the Eastern Himalayan hamlets like Charkhole are gradually realizing the value of protected areas and their role in management and are willing to engage in major decision making. Bringing local communities into protected area management will have significantly positive impact on longterm biodiversity conservation in the transboundary Himalayan landscapes. 6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors acknowledge the villagers of Charkhole village and the workers in the local forest department offices for their cooperation and support. All the photographic documentation is done by the corresponding author (Dr. Sayan Bhattacharya). Nikon D7000 Digital SLR with Nikkor 18-105 mm. VR lens were used for composing the images. All rights reserved. 233 Fig. 1: Neora Valley national park. Fig. 2: Kanchenjungha in the Eastern Himalayas. Fig. 3: Green pea cultivation at Charkhole. Fig. 4: Round chilli cultivation at Charkhole. Fig. 5: Aloe vera cultivation at Charkhole. 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