Review
pubs.acs.org/CR
Multimetallic Catalysis Based on Heterometallic Complexes and
Clusters
Paulin Buchwalter,* Jacky Rosé,* and Pierre Braunstein*
Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination (UMR 7177 CNRS), Institut Le Bel - Université de Strasbourg, 4, rue Blaise Pascal F-67081,
Strasbourg, France
2.3.3. Cr−W
2.3.4. Mo−Rh
2.4. Hydrocarbon Skeletal Rearrangements
2.4.1. Cr−Pd
2.4.2. Mo−Ir
2.4.3. W−Ir
2.4.4. W−Pd
2.4.5. Re−Os
2.4.6. Re−Ir
2.4.7. Re−Pt
2.4.8. Fe−Ru
2.4.9. Fe−Rh
2.4.10. Fe−Pt
2.4.11. Ru−Ni
2.4.12. Ru−Pt
2.4.13. Co−Rh
2.4.14. Co−Pt
2.4.15. Rh−Ir
2.4.16. Ir−Pt
2.4.17. Pt−Cu
2.4.18. Pt−Au
2.5. Hydrogenation Reactions
2.5.1. Hydrogenation of Carbon−Carbon Multiple Bonds
2.5.2. Hydrogenation of CO and CO2
2.5.3. Hydrogenation of Aldehydes and Ketones
2.5.4. Hydrogenation of Oxygen
2.6. Dehydrogenation of Alkanes (to Alkenes)
and Alcohols (to Aldehydes)
2.6.1. Mo−Pt
2.6.2. Re−Pt
2.6.3. Fe−Ru
2.6.4. Ru−Ni, Os−Ni, Os−Ni−Cu
2.6.5. Pt−Au
2.7. Dehydration of Alcohols
2.7.1. Mo−Pd
2.7.2. Os−Ni
2.7.3. Pd−Zn
2.8. Water Gas Shift Reaction
2.8.1. Fe−Ru
2.8.2. Fe−Ir
2.8.3. Ru−Co
2.8.4. Ru−Rh
2.8.5. Co−Rh
2.8.6. Co−Ir
CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. Reactions in the Presence of Heterometallic
Catalysts
2.1. Isotopic Exchanges
2.1.1. Zr−Ir
2.1.2. Hf−Ir
2.1.3. Pt−Au
2.2. Isomerization of Alkenes and Alkynes
2.2.1. Ta−Rh
2.2.2. Ta−Ir
2.2.3. Cr−Fe
2.2.4. Cr−Pd
2.2.5. Mo−Fe
2.2.6. Mo−Ru−Co
2.2.7. Mo−Pd
2.2.8. W−Fe
2.2.9. W−Ru−Co
2.2.10. W−Pd
2.2.11. Mn−Fe
2.2.12. Fe−Ru
2.2.13. Fe−Co
2.2.14. Fe−Rh
2.2.15. Fe−Pd
2.2.16. Ru−Os
2.2.17. Ru−Co
2.2.18. Ru−Ni
2.2.19. Ru−Cu
2.2.20. Ru−Au
2.2.21. Os−Rh
2.2.22. Os−Ni
2.2.23. Os−Au
2.2.24. Co−Rh
2.2.25. Co−Pt
2.3. Olefin Metathesis
2.3.1. Ti−Ru
2.3.2. Cr−Mo
© 2014 American Chemical Society
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Received: April 14, 2014
Published: December 29, 2014
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2.9. Oxidation Reactions
2.9.1. Oxidation of Alkanes and Alkenes
2.9.2. Oxidation of Alcohols
2.9.3. Oxidation of CO
2.9.4. Oxidation of THF
2.9.5. Oxidation of Phosphines
2.10. Carbon−Carbon Bond Formation
2.10.1. Homologation Reactions
2.10.2. Carbonylation Reactions
2.10.3. Hydroformylation Reactions
2.10.4. Intramolecular Hydroacylation Reactions
2.10.5. Cyclopropanation of Styrene
2.10.6. Pauson−Khand Reactions
2.10.7. Transformations of Ethylene
2.10.8. Transformations of Other Linear Olefins
2.10.9. Transformations of Norbornadiene
2.10.10. Trimerization of Alkynes
2.10.11. Coupling Reactions
2.10.12. Other Carbon−Carbon Bond Formation Reactions
2.11. Carbon−Nitrogen Bond Formation
2.11.1. Carbonylation of Organic Nitro Derivatives
2.11.2. Other Carbon−Nitrogen Bond Formation Reactions
2.12. Carbon−Oxygen Bond Formation
2.12.1. Addition of Alcohols to Alkynes
2.12.2. Addition of Carboxylic Acids to Alkynes
2.12.3. Cycloaddition of CO2 and Alkynes
2.12.4. Transesterification
2.13. Metal−Carbon Bond Formation
2.13.1. Mo−Pd, W−Pd
2.14. Silylation Reactions
2.14.1. Hydrosilylation of Olefins and Alkynes
2.14.2. Hydrosilylation of Ketones
2.14.3. Silylformylation Reactions
2.15. Reduction of Nitrogenated Compounds
2.15.1. Reduction of NO
2.15.2. Reduction of Nitrates and Nitrites
2.15.3. Reduction of Nitrobenzene to Aniline
2.15.4. Reduction of Hydrazines to Amines
2.15.5. Hydrogenation of N2
2.16. Hydrodesulfurization and Hydrodenitrogenation
2.16.1. Mo−W−Fe, Mo−W−Co, Mo−W−Ni
2.16.2. Mo−Fe
2.16.3. Mo−Fe−Co
2.16.4. Mo−Ru
2.16.5. Mo−Co
2.16.6. Mo−Rh, Mo−Ir
2.16.7. Mo−Ni
2.16.8. Mo−Pd, Mo−Pt
2.16.9. W−Fe, W−Co
2.16.10. W−Rh
2.16.11. W−Ni
2.16.12. Ru−Co
2.17. Dehydrogenation of Amine-boranes
2.17.1. Zr−Fe
2.17.2. Zr−Ru
2.17.3. Hf−Ru
Review
2.18. Miscellaneous
2.18.1. Ti−Zn
2.18.2. Mo−Co
2.18.3. Mn−Zn
2.18.4. Re−Pt
2.18.5. Fe−Pd
2.18.6. Fe−Pt
2.18.7. Co−Rh
3. Synthesis of Specific Chemical Functions in the
Presence of Heterometallic Catalysts
3.1. Synthesis of Alkanes
3.2. Synthesis of Alkenes
3.3. Synthesis of Alcohols
3.4. Synthesis of Ethers
3.5. Synthesis of Aldehydes
3.6. Synthesis of Ketones
3.7. Synthesis of Carboxylic Acids
3.8. Synthesis of Esters
3.9. Synthesis of Lactones
3.10. Synthesis of Acetals
3.11. Synthesis of Ketals (by Addition of Alcohols
to Alkynes)
3.12. Synthesis of Isocyanates and Carbamates
(by Carbonylation of Organic Nitro Derivatives)
3.13. Synthesis of Ammonia
3.14. Miscellaneous
4. Conclusion
Author Information
Corresponding Authors
Notes
Biographies
Acknowledgments
Abbreviations
References
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1. INTRODUCTION
Multimetallic catalysis is based on the combined action of
different metals in a chemical transformation. It has witnessed
rapidly increasing developments during the past decades in
numerous areas of chemistry. A close proximity between the
metal centers thus appears to provide favorable conditions for
the occurrence of enhanced catalytic properties, and this
proximity can result from the existence of direct metal−metal
interactions. It was in 1963−64 that F. A. Cotton first defined
metal atom clusters as “compounds containing a finite group of
metal atoms which are held together entirely, mainly, or at least
to a significant extent, by bonds directly between the metal
atoms even though some non-metal atoms may be associated
intimately with the cluster”, and it is also ca. 50 years ago that
he reported the ground-breaking discovery of metal−metal
quadruple bonding.1 Almost inevitably, the exact nature of a
catalytically (very) active species remains usually unknown due
to its elusiveness, whether in homogeneous or in heterogeneous
phases. When heterometallic clusters are used as precatalysts, it
remains to be demonstrated whether they retain their integrity
during the catalytic cycle, and one cannot claim without strong
evidence that they are the actual catalysts. However,
(reversible) cluster fragmentation may well occur to generate
coordinatively unsaturated species otherwise not accessible, the
cluster acting as a “reservoir” of highly reactive species.
Notwithstanding these considerations, we shall refer in the
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addition of a second metal may be viewed as “diluting” the
first, leading to smaller ensembles. The strength of the metal−
support interactions is also known to considerably influence the
catalytic properties. In addition, the structure and composition
of a surface will also strongly depend on the interacting
substrates, and reconstructions and selective metal migration
from the core to the surface, or vice versa, are well-known
phenomena. It is striking to see the developments of
heterogeneous bimetallic catalysts containing gold, a noble
metal known for its lack of reactivity in the bulk state.4
Supported gold-containing bi- and trimetallic nanoparticles
often display unique catalytic properties,5 but such systems will
not be discussed here when they are not obtained from
molecular, mixed-metal clusters. The often unique properties of
transition metal-based heterometallic systems have long been
recognized by nature, which uses them as enzymes cofactors to
perform diverse chemical reactions. This is the case in, for
example, Fe−Mo and V−Fe nitrogenases, Ni−Fe hydrogenases, and Ni-[3Fe-4S] CO dehydrogenases where the
association of a mid- and late-first row transition metal
promotes the heterolytic activation of small molecules. In
class lc ribonucleotide reductases, Fe and Mn are responsible
for the tuning of the redox properties of the cofactor.6
Motivated by the development of the H2 economy, very
efficient mimic complexes of NiFe hydrogenases have been
discovered in the past decades, some containing the same metal
centers, Fe and Ni, as in the natural active site, other bearing
ruthenium and nickel centers.7
An example of industrial application of heterometallic
systems in homogeneous catalysis is the Cativa process
developed by BP Chemicals for the production of acetic acid
by carbonylation of methanol.8 It involves the use of an iridium
iodo-complex as catalyst, [IrI2(CO)2]−, promoted by a
ruthenium iodo-complex, and this combination leads to a
catalyst that is superior to the rhodium-based systems
developed by Monsanto. Although the (pre)catalyst is not
heterometallic, intermediates have been suggested on the basis
of 13C NMR spectroscopy that contain both metals in the same
molecule.9 Similarly, the combined positive effect of iridium
and platinum in the carbonylation of methanol to acetic acid
has been evidenced.10 Heterogeneous bimetallic catalysts based
on the couples Mo−Ni and Mo−Co,11 or Re−Pt−S,12 are
commonly used in industry for hydrodesulfurization and
naphtha reforming, respectively.
Synthetic inorganic chemists have shown great skills at
creating new metal−metal bonds and building and characterizing novel and fascinating architectures in the field of
heterometallic transition metal clusters.13 In these complex
molecules, the presence of direct metal−metal interactions
offers the unique advantage of bringing metal centers of a
different nature in close proximity, thus favoring multisite
interactions with substrates leading to a molecular activation
that mononuclear complexes (or even homomultinuclear
clusters) are not able to achieve. It is of course clear that
ions of the same metal, even in the same oxidation state, but
placed in different coordination environments generated by a
multitopic ligand, will acquire different chemical properties and
may confer to such di- or polynuclear complexes properties
superior to those of the corresponding mononuclear complexes.14 Such homometallic systems will however not be
discussed within the scope of this Review. As specified above,
the metals contained in the molecular precursors to the
catalysts investigated will be of a chemically different nature,
following to the clusters discussed as “catalysts” for commodity.
Diverse communities of chemists may employ different
definitions, and it is probably appropriate at the onset of this
Review to clarify terms that will be used in the folllowing. Some
authors apply the term “bimetallic” to hetero- as well as
homodinuclear systems, whether metal−metal bonding is
present or not; others specify “heterobimetallic” but include
heterodi- or polynuclear complexes. In this Review, bimetallic
will be used in the sense of heterometallic (metals of a different
chemical nature), and the number of metal atoms forming the
core of the molecular precursor defines its nuclearity.
Particularly attractive features in bi- or multimetallic (more
than two chemically different metals) are the possible
cooperativity and synergistic effects that can arise from the
simultaneous or consecutive action of different metal centers in
a homogeneous or heterogeneous medium or in ion−molecule
reactions.2 Positive cooperativity occurs when the affinity for
binding of a substrate with multiple binding sites to a metal is
increased upon fixation to another metal. Synergism applied to
heterometallic reactivity and catalysis can be considered to
occur when the interaction of a substrate with a heterometallic
system produces a combined effect greater than the sum of
separate effects observed with the corresponding homometallic
components of similar nuclearity (mono- or polynuclear). Each
metal center may be specifically responsible for elementary
steps/transformations contributing to the overall transformation under investigation. Furthermore, a heterometallic metal−
metal bond possesses an intrinsic polarity that offers unique
reaction pathways. One may thus envisage that the sharing of
electrons between the metals forming the bi- or multimetallic
system will be at the origin of the specific reactivity observed.
This electronic explanation may apply to molecular systems
(i.e., homogeneous catalysts) and to surfaces or nanoparticles
(i.e., heterogeneous catalysts). However, a metal center may
(also) play the role of a ligand toward its neighbors so that
considering the overall stereoelectronic consequences of
transforming a homometallic into a heterometallic system
may be a more relevant approach to discuss bimetallic effects.
Substrate binding to M1 is expected to affect the interaction of
this metal with M2, and, conversely, metal M2 can be viewed as
a “ligand” for M1 and modify its stereoelectronic interactions
with the substrate when compared to a mononuclear complex.
Obviously, when the substrate occupies a bridging position
between two or more metal centers, it will be most sensitive to
their nature (Scheme 1). The relative weight of electronic
versus ligand effects remains very difficult to assess and has to
be discussed on a case-by-case basis.
Furthermore, in heterogeneous systems, concepts based on
the size of the ensemble formed by the active metal have often
supplanted the electronic theory.3 Here, the progressive
Scheme 1. Influence of a Second Metal, Chemically
Different, on the Binding of a Substrate to a Metal Centera
a
Synergism may arise from such interactions.
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and we will be dealing here mostly with heterometallic systems
displaying metal−metal interactions. In selected cases, we will
mention examples of non metal−metal bonded heterometallic
systems when relevant synergistic effects have been evidenced.
Assembling ligands, such as the popular class of short-bite
diphosphines of the dppm- or dppa-type, can be used to favor
the direct interaction between different metal centers and thus
promote bimetallic reactivity. More generally, ligand design has
become an integral part of homogeneous catalysis and allows
for tunability of the metal(s) coordination sphere, including the
stabilization in the ground state of “masked” coordination sites
that may become available in solution for substrate binding
during the catalytic cycle, as found in hemilabile systems.15
With the emergence and rapidly increasing number of large
nuclearity, low oxidation state homo- and heterometallic
clusters, from a dozen to a few hundreds of metal atoms, it
became clear that the manner in which the ligands, often
carbon monoxide, were arranged around the metal centers was
clearly reminiscent of the way in which they interact with metal
surfaces. Furthermore, when the nuclearity of the cluster
increases, the structure adopted by its metal core becomes
strikingly similar to that of the same metal in the bulk state.16
These observations on the bonding modes of small molecules,
like CO or arenes, in molecular clusters led to the development
of “cluster-surface” structural analogy17 and to the idea of using
heterometallic molecular clusters as precursors to mixed-metal
nanoparticles.18 The possibility emerged to access alloy
nanoparticles from mixed-metal clusters after removal of the
ligand shell under mild conditions. This approach is particularly
appealing for metals that are not miscible in the bulk because it
can lead to new, metastable phases endowed with unique
chemical properties.19 For example, Ru and Au do not form
alloys, although molecular clusters containing these metals are
well-known.20
Mixed-metal clusters have become unique molecular
precursors to heterogeneous catalysts that offer the potential
of fine-tuning their intermetallic ratio and retaining it in the
resulting bimetallic particles. This application extends and
complements their use in homogeneous or supported catalysis,
where they may behave as intact molecular entities or as
reservoirs of reactive moieties upon reversible fragmentation.
Examples where bimetallic activation and catalysis have been
noted with bimetallic precursors that are outside the scope
defined above because of a clear lack of metal−metal
interaction will still be mentioned when the corresponding
bimetallic couple is otherwise not represented. Other examples
are briefly mentioned below to provide the reader with relevant
references.
Substituted ferrocenyls constitute a large family of ligands
that find applications in homogeneous catalysis, and generally
lead to non metal−metal bonded heterometallic complexes (a
few exceptions include Zr−Fe or Ti−Fe interactions and the
applications of such complexes in olefin polymerization
catalysis21) when coordinated to metals,22 such as palladium
or, to some extent, nickel and platinum. In particular,
asymmetric and highly enantioselective reactions can be carried
out with such catalysts, and complexes of Josiphos (Scheme 2)
are probably the best-known examples. Almost any type of
functional group can be introduced on the ferrocenyl skeleton.
Other metallacycles can be formed with non-Fe metals, and
they are active in asymmetric and enantioselective catalysis as
well.23 Because the literature in this field is very rich and many
Scheme 2. Ferrocenyl-type Ligand Josiphos
aspects have been reviewed recently,22 we shall not deal with
those ferrocenyl metallacycles in this Review.
Heterodinuclear complexes in which the metal centers are
not directly bonded to each other but connected via bridging
ligand(s) have been successfully used as catalysts for a variety of
organic transformations and exhibited cooperative effects.14,24
Similarly, heterometallic complexes bearing bridging Nheterocyclic carbene ligands have proved to be excellent
catalysts in tandem processes.25 Other significant examples of
homogeneous catalysis by heterometallic complexes bearing no
metal−metal bond have been discussed recently,14 and will not
be included in this Review.
Heterometallic clusters containing group 14 and 15 elements
(Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi) have been used in homogeneous and
heterogeneous catalysis, because they often improve the activity
and the lifetime of the catalysts. In this regard, tin is of
particular interest,26 as it appears to greatly enhance the activity
of known catalysts, especially heterogenized Pt-based catalysts.27 Tin has also been associated with Ir28 and Ru.29 Thomas
et al. have made major contributions in this field.30 They
prepared bi- and trimetallic RuxSny and RuxPtSny nanoparticles
(NPs) with various stoichiometries from organometallic
precursors for applications in the hydrogenation of polyenes.
Lead has also been used in bimetallic couples with transition
metals, but to a lesser extent. For instance, a complex analyzed
as [PdPb(OAc)4] was used in the acyloxylation of benzene
derivatives.31 Heterogeneous catalysts of compositions Re2Sb,
Re2Sb2, and Re2Bi2, derived from molecular clusters, have been
used in the synthesis of vitamin B3.32 A carbon-supported PdBi
catalyst for the oxidation of D-glucose was obtained from the
cluster [Bi2Pd2(O2CCF3)10(HO2CCF3)2].33 Also, [Ir3Bi] and
[Ir5Bi3] NPs, obtained by thermal activation of the clusters
[Ir3(CO)9(μ3-Bi)] and [Ir5(CO)10(μ3-Bi)2(μ4-Bi)], respectively, were used as catalysts for the oxidation of 3-picoline to
niacin.34
Heterogeneous supported catalysts have been prepared from
double salt metal complexes where no heterometallic bond is
present and afforded CoPt and CoRh catalysts for preferential
CO oxidation in the presence of H2,35 and steam reforming,
respectively.
The applications of polyoxometallates in catalysis have been
reviewed;36 therefore, we shall not deal with those compounds
in this Review. Metal−organic frameworks (MOFs) find
increasing applications in catalysis as new support materials,
because of their high surface areas, tunable compositions,
possible substrate size selectivity, and potential enantioselectivity.37 However, much research remains to be developed in
this field. Some MOFs can be built from two or more different
metals, but very few have actually been used as catalysts. In
most cases, one type of metal atoms is meant to be the active
site, while the other is only present for structural reasons.
Postsynthetic functionalization is also possible for such
materials.
In the course of gas-phase studies performed in an ion
cyclotron resonance mass spectrometer of “naked” reactants for
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Table 1. List of Metal Couples in Molecular Mixed-Metal Clusters Used as Precursors to Homogeneous, Immobilized, and
Heterogeneous Catalysts
catalyzed reaction
isotopic exchanges
isomerization of alkenes and alkynes
olefin metathesis
hydrocarbon skeletal rearrangements
hydrogenation of C−C multiple
bonds
hydrogenation of CO and CO2
hydrogenation of aldehydes and
ketones
hydrogenation of oxygen
dehydrogenation of alkanes and
alcohols
dehydration of alcohols
water gas shift reaction
oxidation of alkanes and alkenes
oxidation of alcohols
oxidation of CO
oxidation of THF
oxidation of phosphines
homologation reactions
carbonylation of alcohols
hydrocarbonylation reactions
carbonylation of olefins
other carbonylation reactions
hydroformylation of olefins
immobilized
catalysts
homogeneous catalysts
heterogeneous catalysts
Zr−Ir, Hf−Ir, Pt−Au
Ta−Rh, Ta−Ir
Cr−Fe, Cr−Pd
Mo−Fe, Mo−Ru−Co, Mo−Pd
W−Fe, W−Ru−Co, W−Pd
Mn−Fe, Fe−Ru, Fe−Co, Fe−Rh, Fe−Pd
Ru−Co, Ru−Ni, Ru−Cu, Ru−Au
Os−Rh, Os−Ni, Co−Pt
Ti−Ru
Pt−Au
Ru−Os
Os−Rh, Os−Au
Pt−Au
Fe−Pd, Ru−Os, Co−Rh
Cr−Mo, Cr−W
V−Fe, Ta−Rh, Ta−Ir, Cr−Pd
Mo−Pd
Mo−Rh
Cr−Pd, Mo−Ir, W−Ir, W−Pd
Re−Os, Re−Ir, Re−Pt
Fe−Ru, Fe−Rh, Fe−Pt, Ru−Ni, Ru−Pt
Co−Rh, Co−Pt, Rh−Ir, Ir−Pt, Pt−Cu, Pt−Au
Ta−Rh, Ta−Ir
Mo−Fe, Mo−Fe−Co, Mo−Ru−Co
Mo−Co, Mo−Co−Ni, Mo−Rh, Mo−Ir
Mo−Pd, Mo−Pt
W−Fe−Co, W−Os, W−Rh, W−Ir
W−Ni, W−Pd, W−Pt
Mn−Fe, Mn−Ru
Re−Rh, Re−Pt
Fe−Ru, Fe−Ru−Co, Fe−Rh, Fe−Pd
Ru−Co, Ru−Rh, Ru−Ir, Ru−Ni, Ru−Pt
Os−Ni
Co−Rh, Co−Pt, Rh−Au, Ir−Pt
Ti−Rh, Mo−Ru, W−Ru
Mn−Rh, Mn−Pd, Re−Rh
Fe−Co
Ru−Co, Ru−Rh, Ru−Cu, Ru−Ag, Ru−Au
Co−Rh
Rh−Ir, Rh−Pt, Rh−Cu, Rh−Ag, Rh−Au, Rh−Zn
Fe−Ru, Fe−Pt
Ru−Os, Ru−Pt
Os−Rh, Os−Au
Co−Pt, Rh−Pt
Co−Rh
Cr−Ru, Mo−Ru, W−Ru
Fe−Ru, Ru−Rh, Ru−Ir
Mo−Pd
Fe−Ru, Fe−Co, Fe−Ir, Ru−Co, Ru−Rh
Co−Rh, Co−Ir
Fe−Co, Fe−Co−Cu
Co−Cu, Co−Cu−Zn, Pd−Cu
Cr−Ru, Cr−Os, Ru−Ni, Ru−Pd, Ru−Pt
V−Co, V−Rh
Fe−Cu
Pt−Au
Mo−Ru
Cr−Os, Ru−Pd
Mn−Pd, Fe−Co
Ru−Co, Ru−Co−Cu, Ru−Co−Au, Ru−Rh
Os−Co, Co−Rh, Co−Pd, Co−Pt
Mo−Fe, Fe−Rh, Fe−Ni, Fe−Cu, Fe−Hg, Os−Ir,
Ir−Pt
Co−Rh
Zr−Rh, Fe−Pd
Co−Pd, Co−Pt
Ti−Rh, Zr−Rh, Cr−Ru, Cr−Pd
Mo−Fe−Co, Mo−Ru, Mo−Co, Mo−Co−Ni
W−Ru, W−Rh, W−Pd, Mn−Rh
32
Mo−W−Fe, Mo−W−Co, Mo−W−Ni
Mo−Fe, Mo−Fe−Co, Mo−Ru
Mo−Co, Mo−Rh, Mo−Ir
Mo−Ni, Mo−Pd, Mo−Pt
W−Fe, W−Co, W−Ni, W−Pt
Fe−Ru, Fe−Co
Ru−Os, Ru−Co, Ru−Ni, Ru−Pd, Ru−Pt
Ru−Cu, Ru−Ag
Os−Ni, Os−Ni−Cu
Co−Rh, Rh−Pt
Pt−Cu, Pt−Au
Cr−Ru, Cr−Co, Cr−Pt
Mo−Fe, Mo−Ru, Mo−Os
Mo−Co, Mo−Rh, Mo−Ni
W−Os, W−Rh, W−Ir, W−Pt
Mn−Fe, Mn−Ru, Mn−Co, Re−Os
Fe−Ru, Fe−Os
Fe−Co, Fe−Rh, Fe−Ir, Fe−Pd, Fe−Pt
Ru−Os, Ru−Co, Ru−Rh, Ru−Ni
Os−Rh, Os−Ni, Co−Rh, Co−Cu
Mo−Co, Mo−Rh, Ru−Pt
Os−Ni, Co−Cu, Co−Zn
Pt−Au
Mo−Pt, Re−Pt, Ru−Ni, Os−Ni, Os−Ni−Cu,
Pt−Au
Os−Ni, Pd−Zn
Cr−Mn, Cr−Co, Mn−Co, Fe−Au, Pt−Au
Ta−Re, Fe−Au, Ru−Pt, Co−Ni
Fe−Pt, Fe−Au, Pt−Au
Ru−Co, Co−Pd
Ru−Co
Co−Rh
Co−Pd
Co−Rh
Mo−Rh, Fe−Rh, Fe−Ir, Fe−Pd, Fe−Pt
Ru−Co, Co−Rh, Co−Cu
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Table 1. continued
catalyzed reaction
other hydroformylation reactions
intramolecular hydroacylation
reactions
cyclopropanation of styrene
Pauson−Khand reactions
transformations of ethylene
transformations of other linear olefins
transformations of NBD
trimerization of alkynes
coupling reactions
other C−C bond formation reactions
carbonylation of organic nitro
derivatives
other C−N bond formation reactions
addition of alcohols to alkynes
addition of carboxylic acids to alkynes
cycloaddition of CO2 and alkynes
transesterification
metal−C bond formation reactions
hydrosilylation of olefins and alkynes
hydrosilylation of ketones
silylformylation reactions
reduction of NO
reduction of nitrates and nitrites
reduction of nitrobenzene to aniline
reduction of hydrazines to amines
hydrogenation of N2
HDS and HDN
dehydrogenation of amine-boranes
immobilized
catalysts
homogeneous catalysts
heterogeneous catalysts
Fe−Ru, Fe−Co, Fe−Rh, Ru−Co, Ru−Rh
Co−Rh, Co−Ni, Co−Pt, Rh−Zn, Ir−Cu
Co−Rh
Ti−Rh
Ti−Ru, Ta−Ru, Mo−Cu, Fe−Cu
Fe−Co, Ru−Co, Co−Pt
Ti−Zr, Ti−Cr, Ti−W, Ti−Pd, Ti−Pt
Zr−Hf, Zr−Cr, Zr−Mo, Zr−Fe, Zr−Co, Zr−Rh
Zr−Ni, Zr−Pd, Hf−Rh, Fe−Co
Ti−Zr, Ti−W, Zr−Hf, Zr−Cr, Zr−Mo, Zr−Fe
Zr−Co, Zr−Rh, Zr−Ni, Hf−Rh, Mo−Pd, W−Pd
Co−Pt
Mo−Pt, W−Pt, Fe−Co, Fe−Pt, Co−Pt
Co−Zn, Co−Cd, Co−Hg
Cr−Rh, Mo−Ru
Ti−Pd, Zr−Co, Zr−Pd, Hf−Co, Cr−Ni, Mo−Pd
W−Pd, Fe−Pd, Ru−Pd, Co−Pd, Pd−Pt
Fe−Cu, Co−Zn, Cu−Zn
Fe−Rh, Ru−Rh, Os−Rh, Os−Au
Mo−Pd, Co−Pd, Pd−Ag
Ir−Pd, Ir−Pt
Ti−Ru, Mo−Ni, Mo−Pd, Re−Ru
Co−Rh
V−Cr, Cr−Mo, Fe−Ru
Cr−Mo
Fe−Co
Mo−Pd, Fe−Pd
Co−Rh
Fe−Rh
Co−Zn, Co−Cd, Zn−Cd
Mo−Pd, W−Pd
Ti−Rh, Nb−Rh, Ta−Rh, Ta−Ir
Mo−Fe−Co, Mo−Co, Mo−Co−Ni
Mo−Pd, Mo−Pt, W−Co, W−Pd, W−Pt
Fe−Co, Fe−Rh, Fe−Pt, Ru−Pt, Os−Pt
Co−Ni, Ir−Pt
Zr−Co
Co−Rh
Co−Rh
Mo−Pd, Mn−Fe, Fe−Co, Fe−Ni, Pt−Au
Mo−Fe
Ru−Pt, Co−Rh
V−Fe, Mo−Fe, Mo−Ru, Mo−Rh, Mo−Ir
Ru−Ni, Os−Ni
Mo−W−Fe, Mo−W−Co, Mo−W−Ni
Mo−Fe, Mo−Fe−Co, Mo−Ru
Mo−Co, Mo−Rh, Mo−Ir
Mo−Ni, Mo−Pd, Mo−Pt
W−Fe, W−Co, W−Ni, Ru−Co
Mo−Co, W−Rh, W−Ni
Zr−Fe, Zr−Ru, Hf−Ru
heterometallic complexes in which the metals are far apart from
each other (see above). In the latter cases, a consecutive rather
than a concerted action of the metals occurs. We realize that
this distinction may be somewhat arbitrary because metal−
metal interactions can span a large range of distances, in
particular in the presence of flexible bridging ligands, and this
applies to the molecular precursors as well as to the active
species for which there is generally no structural information
available.
Sections 2 and 3 provide complementary information, since
the former presents, for each catalytic reaction considered, an
exhaustive list of the catalysts ranked by metal couple, whereas
the latter introduces the metal couples that were successfully
used in a given catalytic reaction, thus providing general trends
the thermal activation of methane, a comparison was made
between [VNbO5]•+ and [V2O5]•+, which emphasized the
crucial role of oxygen-centered radicals. Under similar
conditions, catalytic redox reactions involving CO and N2O
were carried out in the presence of the couple AlVO3+/
AlVO4+.2m,38 Incorporation of V and Ti ions in the framework
of aluminophosphate molecular sieves has been used to study
catalytic synergism in selective aerobic oxidation reactions.39 In
this Review, we wish to highlight the diversity of catalytic
reactions based on the use of heterometallic complexes and
clusters in homogeneous, supported, or heterogeneous systems.
Heterodinuclear complexes will be included when there is
metal−metal bonding and/or close proximity between the
metal centers, although bimetallic effects have been observed in
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on results and performances of these catalysts. In the following,
the metal couples are listed in order of earliest group, and
within each group, the earliest metal is given first (e.g., Cr−M
will appear before Mo−M and W−M for M in group ≥7). This
classification will generally be followed throughout, and, as
mentioned earlier, only transition metals are considered.
Compounds with a 4f valence shell will not be discussed in
this Review, although recent examples show that here too
intermetallic cooperation plays an important role, for example,
in intramolecular C−H activation processes, where the
reactivity of the methyl C−H bonds was found to decrease in
the sequence μ3-C(H2)−H > μ2-C(H2)−H > C(H2)−H.40 For
each bimetallic couple, we will generally discuss the catalytic
properties in the sequence homogeneous, supported, and
heterogeneous.
In solution, the cluster [HPt(AuPPh3)9](NO3)2 was found to
exhibit slower rates in H2−D2 equilibration reactions than 4, as
a result of slower PPh3 dissociation rate to afford an open Au
site.44
Upon adsorption on Al2O3 or silica, clusters 3−5 were found
to remain intact and to be good heterogenized catalysts for
H2−D2 equilibration. Adsorbed clusters 3 and 5 gave turnover
rates ranging from 10 to 20 s−1 when treated at 408 K under
vacuum, but these values could be raised up to 85−200 s−1 by
treating the samples at 383 K under H2 atmosphere instead.45
The adsorbed cluster 4, however, did not need any thermal
treatment to exhibit turnover rates of ca. 170 s−1.45 These high
activities are believed to result from support-promoted partial
PPh3 dissociation that will favor oxidative-addition of the
diatomic molecules.45 A work performed by another research
group confirmed those trends and showed that the silicaadsorbed cluster 3 displayed ca. 30 s−1 turnover rates.46
Homoexchange of 16O−18O was performed with the
[Pt2Au4] catalysts derived from the silica-supported cluster
[Pt2Au4(CC-t-Bu)8] (7). This system was however less
active than catalysts prepared by coimpregnation of monometallic salts.47
2. REACTIONS IN THE PRESENCE OF
HETEROMETALLIC CATALYSTS
A summary of the various bimetallic couples that have been
used for a given chemical transformation in either homogeneous, supported, or heterogeneous catalysis is presented in
Table 1. A complete listing of the mixed-metal clusters that
have been used as catalyst precursors is given in Table 4 where
the metal couples are also listed in order of earliest transition
metals they contain.
2.1. Isotopic Exchanges
2.1.1. Zr−Ir. H−D exchange reactions were performed with
the substrates 1,4-dimethoxybenzene and 2-methoxynaphthalene in the presence of the dinuclear complex [Cp*(Me3SiCH2)2Zr(μ-H)3IrCp*] (1) at 373−393 K in C6D6. In
both cases, the methoxy groups and the aromatic C−H bonds
were all effectively deuterated. This heterobimetallic complex
was much more active than its Hf−Ir analogue 2.41
2.1.2. Hf−Ir. The heterobimetallic complex [Cp*(Me3SiCH2)2Hf(μ-H)3IrCp*] (2) was also used in the H−D
exchange reaction between C6D6 and the substrates 1,4dimethoxybenzene and 2-methoxynaphthalene, but it was
found to be much less active than the aforementioned Zr−Ir
complex 1.41
2.1.3. Pt−Au. The clusters [Pt(AuPPh3)3(PPh3)2](NO3)
and [Pt(AuPPh3)4(PPh3)2](NO3)2 homogeneously catalyzed
H2−D2 equilibration with turnover rates in the range (3−5) ×
10−2 s−1. Their microcrystalline powders gave even better
results (no details available).42
Similarly, many platinum−gold cluster compounds in the
form of solid microcrystals showed fast and clean H2 activation
as evidenced by H2−D2 equilibration. Indeed, the clusters
[Pt(AuPPh3)6(PPh3)](NO3)2 (3), [HPt(AuPPh3)7(PPh3)](NO3)2 (4), and [Pt(AuPPh3)8](NO3)2 (5) display rates of
H2−D2 equilibration significantly higher (turnover rates ca. 2−
5 s−1) than under homogeneous conditions (turnover rates ca.
2−8 × 10−2 s−1), mainly due to the low solubility of H2 in
organic solvents. It was suggested that H2 activation occurs at
the Pt−Au sites and leads to the formation of bridging
hydrides.42,43
2.2. Isomerization of Alkenes and Alkynes
With the exception of one example of alkyne isomerization with
a Ru−Ni cluster, all of the reactions described in this paragraph
apply to alkenes.
2.2.1. Ta−Rh. The bridged dinuclear complex [Cp2Ta(μCH2)2Rh(CO)(PPh3)] (8a) homogeneously catalyzed the
isomerization of 1-butene to a 1:1 mixture of cis- and trans-2pentenes, in the absence of H2. This catalytic system was more
active than its Ir-based analogue (see section 2.2.2).48
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2.2.2. Ta−Ir. On the contrary, the complex [Cp2Ta(μCH2)2Ir(CO)2] (9b) catalyzed the isomerization of alkenes
heavier than ethylene (substituted or linear) only in the
presence of H2. The involvement of tantalum in the process
remains unclear.49
2.2.3. Cr−Fe. Allylbenzene and 1-hexene could be
isomerized into internal olefins in the presence of the complex
[PPN][HCrFe(CO)9] and light (fluorescent light or mercury
vapor lamp; λ > 366 nm). In particular, allylbenzene was
converted into cis- and trans-propenylbenzene (Scheme 3). The
Scheme 4
[Mo2Pd2Cp2(CO)6(PEt3)2] (11a) and
[Mo2Pd2Cp2(CO)6(PPh3)2] (11b) were used in hydrogenation
of 1,5-COD (see section 2.5.1.15). When 11a was used, COE
(ca. 70%) was obtained as the main hydrogenation product, but
isomerization products were found in significant proportions:
1,3-COD (ca. 24%), 1,4-COD (ca. 3%), and unreacted 1,5COD (ca. 3%). On the other hand, 11b favored isomerization
over hydrogenation at lower conversion, since the reacted
mixture contained ca. 51% 1,3-COD, 13% 1,4-COD, 13%
unreacted 1,5-COD, and only ca. 22% of COE and 1% of COA.
Thus, it appears that the PEt3 ligand is favorable for the
hydrogenation route.51
2.2.8. W−Fe. Isomerization of 1-hexene and of allylbenzene
into internal olefins in the presence of light was catalyzed by the
complex [PPN][HWFe(CO)9]. This system was less active
than the Cr−Fe and Mo−Fe analogous complexes described
above.50
2.2.9. W−Ru−Co. The conversion of some fumaric esters
to the corresponding maleic esters was achieved with high
turnover numbers using the cluster [HWRuCo(μ3-CMe)Cp(CO)8] at 303 K. The reaction was faster than when the
common acid catalyst HI was used.53
2.2.10. W−Pd. The planar clusters
[W2Pd2Cp2(CO)6(PEt3)2] (12a) and
[W2Pd2Cp2(CO)6(PPh3)2] (12b) were used in hydrogenation
of olefins (see section 2.5.1), and it appeared that isomerization
of 1,5-COD to afford 1,3-COD and 1,4-COD competed
strongly. Indeed, the proportions of 1,4-COD were ca. 61% and
79% for 12a and 12b, respectively, while the mixture contained
7−8% of 1,3-COD and 7−8% of unreacted 1,5-COD in both
cases. The hydrogenation products were COE (ca. 25% and 4%
for 12a and 12b, respectively) and COA (traces). Overall, with
the exception of 11a, all of the catalysts favored isomerization
over hydrogenation under the reaction conditions (see sections
2.2.4 and 2.2.7).51
Scheme 3
authors suggested the formation of two fragments: HFe(CO)4−
and [Cr(CO)5], the former being able to lose a CO ligand to
bind the substrate under the reaction conditions. The same
applies to the Mo−Fe and W−Fe analogues described below.50
2.2.4. Cr−Pd. Isomerization of 1,5-COD was observed
when using the planar cluster [Cr2Pd2Cp2(CO)6(PEt3)2] (10)
as a homogeneous catalyst in hydrogenation reactions (see
section 2.5.1.4). At full conversion, the main product of the
isomerization was 1,3-COD (ca. 84%). Traces of 1,4-COD
were also observed. The hydrogenation products were COE
(ca. 15%) and traces of COA. Comparison with the
isostructural Mo−Pd and W−Pd clusters (see sections 2.2.7
and 2.2.10) showed that the [Cr2Pd2] catalyst was the most
selective for 1,3-COD.51
2.2.5. Mo−Fe. Isomerization of 1-hexene and allylbenzene
to yield internal olefins was achieved when the complex
[PPN][HMoFe(CO)9] was used as a homogeneous catalyst
precursor in the presence of light. In particular, allylbenzene
was converted into cis- and trans-propenylbenzene. This system
was overall more active than the corresponding Cr−Fe and W−
Fe complexes.50
The arsenido-bridged complex [Cp(OC)2Mo(μ-AsMe2)Fe(CO)4] is an active homogeneous catalyst for 1-octene
isomerization to cis- and trans-2-octene under H2 pressure.
Indeed, trans-2-octene is the most favored product (ca. 60% of
the product mixture). Octane was also observed as a result of
hydrogenation of the CC double bond. This complex was
less active than its Mn−Fe and Fe−Co analogues.52
2.2.6. Mo−Ru−Co. The trimetallic cluster [HMoRuCo(μ3CMe)Cp(CO)8] catalyzed the conversion of various fumaric
esters to the corresponding maleic esters with high turnover
numbers at 303 K (Scheme 4). The reaction was 3 times faster
than that with the often used catalyst HI. The analogous W−
Ru−Co cluster had similar catalytic performances.53
2.2.7. Mo−Pd. Isomerization of carbon−carbon double
bonds occurred when the planar clusters
2.2.11. Mn−Fe. Isomerization of 1-octene to a mixture of
cis- and trans-2-octene happened to compete strongly with
hydrogenation in the presence of the arsenido-bridged complex
[(OC)4Mn(μ-AsMe2)Fe(CO)4]. The main product was trans2-octene (more than 50% of the product mixture), while octane
and cis-2-octene accounted for ca. 25% each. This system was
more active than the corresponding Mo−Fe analogue, but less
active than the Fe−Co one.52
2.2.12. Fe−Ru. The three clusters [FeRu2(CO)12], [Fe2Ru(CO)12], and [H2FeRu3(CO)13] were found to be active in
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isomerization of cis-stilbene.54 Moreover, isomerization of 1hexene to give a mixture of cis- and trans-2-hexenes with a
turnover number of approximately 4500 mol of hexene/(mol
cluster·h) was readily catalyzed by the tetrahedral cluster
[H2FeRu3(CO)13].55
Homogeneous hydrogenation/isomerization of 1,3- and 1,4cyclohexadiene was catalyzed by [Fe 2 Ru(CO) 12 ] and
[H2FeRu3(CO)13] (see also section 2.5.1.29), but there was
evidence for catalysis by metal species rather than by intact
clusters. These catalysts showed poor activity in isomerization.56
2.2.13. Fe−Co. The arsenido-bridged complex [(OC)3Co(μ-AsMe2)Fe(CO)4] was used in the isomerization/hydrogenation of 1-octene. The main product was trans-2-octene,
while octane and cis-2-octene were detected in small amounts.
This system was more active than the corresponding Mo−Fe
and Mn−Fe analogues.52
The cluster [Fe2CoCp(CO)9] was reported in a patent to
catalyze the isomerization of 1-pentene in the presence of
light.57
2.2.14. Fe−Rh. Isomerization of 1-heptene to cis- and trans2-heptene was achieved with [HFe3Rh(CO)11(μ4-η2-C
CHPh)] (13) at 10 atm of dihydrogen at room temperature.
Partial hydrogenation also occurred (see section 2.5.1.32). A
fragmentation of the cluster is responsible for the subsequent
isomerization of 2-heptene into 3-heptene at a lower rate.58
The cluster [Ph 4 P][Fe 3 Rh 2 (μ 4 -η 3 -MeCCCH 2 )(μCO)3(CO)10] (14) however was far less active toward the
isomerization of alkenes. In particular, under the same reaction
conditions (10 atm of H2), it appeared necessary to heat to 333
K to observe some catalytic activity: 1-octene could be
converted to 25% octane and 75% of a mixture of octenes.59
These are two examples of mixed iron−rhodium systems in
which the known hydrogenation ability of rhodium is lowered
by iron, thus favoring isomerization over hydrogenation
reactions.
2.2.16. Ru−Os. Isomerization of 1-butene to cis- and trans2-butene (no other detectable product) was achieved in the
presence of the hydride cluster [Al]+[HRuOs3(CO)13]−,
obtained after adsorption of [H2RuOs3(CO)13] and deprotonation on the surface of alumina. After catalysis,
[Al]+[H3RuOs3(CO)12]− was the only detectable metal
carbonyl species.62
When attached to a polymeric support of the type (polymNR3)+, the cluster [Ph4As][H3RuOs3(CO)12] was used for 1hexene hydroformylation. Under the reaction conditions, it
appeared that isomerization to 2-hexene competed weakly.63
2.2.17. Ru−Co. The clusters [RuCo2(μ3-S)(CO)9] and
[RuCo2(μ3-Se)(CO)9] catalyzed isomerization of 1-hexene.64
2.2.18. Ru−Ni. Isomerization of 1-pentene was catalyzed by
the tetrahedral cluster [Ru3Ni(μ-H)3Cp(CO)9] in the absence
of H2. This cluster was also fairly active for the isomerization of
1,4-pentadiene to cis-1,3-pentadiene.65 Introducing a phosphine
ligand in this tetrahedral cluster to give [Ru3Ni(μ-H)3Cp(CO) 8 (PR 3 )] (R = Ph, Cy) or [Ru 3 Ni(μ-H) 3 Cp(CO)7(PPh3)2] generally led to increased activity for the
homogeneous isomerization of dienes rather than their
hydrogenation.66 Analogous behavior was observed for the C6
molecules cis-1,4-hexadiene, 2,4-hexadiene, 1,5-hexadiene, and
trans-3-hexene. However, this system was found to be overall
less active than its Os−Ni analogue (see section 2.2.22).
2.2.19. Ru−Cu. The cluster complexes [H3Ru4{Cu(PPh3)}(CO)12] and [H2Ru4{Cu(PPh3)}2(CO)12] were used in the
isomerization of 1-pentene, but were less active than the
monometallic precursor [H4Ru4(CO)12].67
2.2.20. Ru−Au. On the contrary, the clusters [H3Ru4{Au(PPh3)}(CO)12] and [H2Ru4{Au(PPh3)}2(CO)12] clearly
exhibit higher activity than the parent [H4Ru4(CO)12] in the
isomerization of 1-pentene. Indeed, while the Ru4Au2 cluster
afforded a mixture of cis-2-pentene (ca. 15%) and trans-2pentene (ca. 33%) at ca. 50% conversion, the Ru4Au cluster was
more efficient: conversion reached 71%, and cis-2-pentene and
trans-2-pentene accounted for ca. 18% and 51% of the product
mixture, respectively. Noteworthy is that only ca. 1% pentane
was observed in both cases.67
Preliminary results indicate that the isomerization of 1hexene to cis- and trans-2-hexene can be achieved in the
presence of the dinuclear complex [(OC)(Ph3P)3Ru(μ-H)2Au(PPh3)](PF6) (16), and the activity was better than with the
parent complex [H2Ru(CO)(PPh3)3]. Moreover, the latter
appears to be more selective for the cis isomer, while the Ru−
Au complex is more selective for the trans isomer.68
2.2.15. Fe−Pd. Selective isomerization of 1-octene to 2octene was evaluated in the presence of the phosphanidobridged complex [(OC)4Fe(μ-PPh2)Pd(μ-Cl)]2 (15).60 When
entrapped in a SiO2 sol−gel matrix, this complex was found to
lose all of its carbonyl ligands. The resulting catalyst was active
in the isomerization of 1-octene with almost 50% selectivity for
trans-2-octene. The activity decreased for the second run, but
sonication and treatment with hot water reactivated the catalyst
for several more cycles without loss of activity.61
2.2.21. Os−Rh. Preliminary experiments showed that in the
presence of the hydrido-bridged cluster [Os3Rh(μ-H)3(CO)12]
(17), isomerization of 1-octene to all isomers was observed at
333 and 373 K, but not at room temperature. The reaction
conditions were not optimized.69
The immobilized species [H2Os3Rh(acac)(CO)10(Ph2P∼polym)] was obtained by anchoring the
coordinatively unsaturated cluster [H2Os3Rh(acac)(CO)10]
on poly(styrene-divinylbenzene). Although the cluster was
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Scheme 5
initially anchored intact on the support, it fragmented during
tests performed for the isomerization of 1-butene to give
catalytically active species. In particular, the authors suggest that
the activity in isomerization is due to the formation of
triosmium carbonyl species. Conversion was less than 2% after
4 h at 383 K. The same system was also used for ethylene
hydrogenation (see section 2.5.1.44).70
2.2.22. Os−Ni. The cluster [Os3Ni(μ-H)3Cp(CO)9] was
used in the isomerization of alkenes, alkynes, and dienes,
including 1-pentene, trans-3-hexene, 1-pentyne, 3-hexyne, cis-,
trans-1,3-pentadiene, cis-1,4-hexadiene, cis- and trans-2,4-hexadiene, 1,5-hexadiene, and 3-methylbut-3-en-1-yne.65,71 In
particular, nonconjugated dienes were first isomerized, and
then hydrogenation of terminal CC bonds occurred. The
same applies to its phosphine derivatives [Os3Ni(μ-H)3Cp(CO)8L] (L = PPh2H or P(C6H4Me-o)3).71 For instance, in
isomerization/hydrogenation of cis-1,3-pentadiene, depending
on the cluster, the reaction mixture contained 0.5−2.5% of
pentane, 10−25% of 1-pentene, and 45−49% of cis- + trans-2pentene, for activities in the range of 60−75%. Under those
conditions, [Os3Ni(μ-H)3Cp(CO)8(PPh2H)] was the most
active catalyst with the highest selectivity for 2-pentenes.
2.2.23. Os−Au. The immobilized bimetallic [Os3Au]
catalysts [HOs 3 Au(CO) 10 (Ph 2 P∼SIL)] and [ClOs 3 Au(CO)10(Ph2P∼SIL)], prepared by anchoring the PPh3 clusters
onto phosphine-functionalized silica, were not active in 1butene isomerization below 383 K.72 If the former system was
slightly active at 383 K, the corresponding homonuclear system
[HOs3(CO)9(Ph2P∼SIL)] was still ca. 10 times more
efficient.73
2.2.24. Co−Rh. When entrapped in a silica sol−gel matrix,
the cluster [Co2Rh2(CO)12] was inactive in the isomerization
of allylbenzene. However, it became an efficient and reusable
catalyst when an alumina sol−gel matrix was used instead.
When the reaction was performed at 373 K, a mixture of cis(17.5%) and trans-1-phenyl-1-propene (81%) was obtained,
along with 1.5% of unreacted species.74
2 . 2. 2 5 . C o −P t . T h e c o b a l t − p l a t i n u m c l u s t e r
[Co2Pt2(CO)8(PPh3)2] catalyzes the isomerization of 1,3butadiene.75
catalyst (Cr∼SIL) with a Fischer-type molybdenum carbene or
carbyne complex, such as [(OC)5MoCPh(OMe)]. The
resulting active species was described as [(OC)4Mo−CPh(OMe)Cr∼SIL].77
2.3.3. Cr−W. Similarly to the Cr−Mo complexes described
above, reduced Phillips catalyst were reacted with Fischer-type
tungsten carbene complexes such as [(OC)5WCR1R2] (R1 =
Ph, Tol, Me; R2 = Ph, OMe),77,78 or carbyne complexes like
[X(OC)nWCPh] (X = Cl, Br, I, n = 4; X = Cp, n = 2)79 to
yield very active heterogeneous catalysts [(OC) 4 W−
CR1R2Cr∼SIL] and [X(OC)nWCPhCr∼SIL] for olefin
metathesis (Scheme 6). It should be noted that the olefin
polymerization activity of the reduced Phillips catalyst is lost in
this new bimetallic catalyst.78
Scheme 6
2.3.4. Mo−Rh. Thermal treatment and CO photoreduction
on the silica-supported cubane-type clusters
[(Cp*Rh)2Mo3O9(OMe)4] and [(Cp*Rh)4Mo4O16] yielded
very active [Mo3Rh2] and [Mo4Rh4] catalysts, respectively, for
propene metathesis. More precisely, the [Mo3Rh2] catalyst was
3 times more active than [Mo4Rh4], and its selectivity for trans2-pentene was higher (trans/cis ratio of 1.7 vs 1.3 for
[Mo4Rh4]).80
2.4. Hydrocarbon Skeletal Rearrangements
2.3. Olefin Metathesis
2.4.1. Cr−Pd. The heterogenized [Cr2Pd2] catalyst derived
from the planar cluster [Cr2Pd2Cp2(CO)6(PMe3)2], analogus
to 10, supported on alumina was used for the isomerization of
2-methylpentane to methylcyclopentane. The contribution of
the C5-cyclic mechanism (see Scheme 7)81 to this transformation was the same as a conventional Cr−Pd catalyst
containing 6.6% Pd.82
2.4.2. Mo−Ir. The alumina-supported [MoIr3] and [Mo2Ir2]
heterogeneous catalyts, prepared from [MoIr3Cp(CO)11]
(19a) and [Mo2Ir2Cp2(CO)10] (20a), respectively, were used
in n-butane hydrogenolysis, a structure-sensitive reaction. It was
deduced from comparisons with catalysts derived from
homometallic clusters or their mixtures that the properties of
the MMCD catalysts originated from bimetallic interactions
that were retained in the activated materials. The selectivity
2.3.1. Ti−Ru. Although it does not contain a metal−metal
b o n d , t h e d i n u c l e a r c o m p l e x [ C p C l 2 T i ( μ -η 5 : η 1 C5H4(CH2)2PCy2)RuCl2(p-cymene)] reacts under UV irradiation and in the presence of AgOTf and HCC−CPh2OH, to
afford the allenylidene complex [CpCl 2 Ti(μ-η 5 :η 1 C5H4(CH2)2PCy2)Ru(CCCPh2)Cl(p-cymene)][OTf]
(18). It is assumed to be responsible for the excellent activity
(complete conversion after 1 h) in the ring-closing metathesis
reaction of N,N-diallyltosylamide to give 3-tosylamide cyclopentene in toluene at 353 K (Scheme 5). The same complex
also catalyzed the cyclization of dimethyl diallylmalonate by
ring-closing metathesis with 63% yield.76
2.3.2. Cr−Mo. Very active heterogeneous catalysts for olefin
metathesis could be obtained by combining a reduced Phillips
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for this reaction was over 100 times higher than when a mixture
of monometallic complexes was used, most likely because of a
direct contact between the Re and Pt atoms on the surface.88
2.4.8. Fe−Ru. The [Fe2Ru] catalyst obtained from [Fe2Ru(CO)12] showed more than 1 order of magnitude greater
activity in ethane hydrogenolysis than the [FeRu2] catalyst
prepared from [FeRu2(CO)12]. Noteworthy is that these
mixed-metal clusters were more active than the corresponding
monometallic species [Fe3(CO)12] and [Ru3(CO)12]. Also,
such results emphasize the benefits resulting from the
possibility of changing the intermetallic ratio within a series
of analogous clusters.89
2.4.9. Fe−Rh. Catalysts of the type [Fe2Rh4(CO)16]2−/NaY
zeolite were also investigated for ethane and n-butane
hydrogenolysis. In particular, hydrogenolysis of the latter
showed selectivity for terminal C−C bond scission, thus
yielding a mixture of C1 and C3 products.90
2.4.10. Fe−Pt. The MMCD catalyst [Fe2Pt] derived from
the chain complex trans-[Pt{Fe(CO)3NO}2{CN(t-Bu)}2] is
active in the demethylation of methylcyclopentane. Its
properties when lightly loaded with platinum (e.g., 0.3% Pt)
are similar to those of highly dispersed Pt catalysts (0.2% Pt/
Al2O3).85,91
2.4.11. Ru−Ni. The transformation of toluene to cyclohexane via demethylation of the intermediate methylcyclohexane, previously hydrogenated (see section 2.5.1.39), could be
achieved in the presence of the cluster [Ru3Ni(μ-H)3Cp(CO)9]. Cracking of methylcyclohexane to n-hexane was also
observed to a limited extent.65
2.4.12. Ru−Pt. A supported complex formulated as
[Ru3Pt(CO)12py3] was impregnated onto inorganic oxides
and found to be poorly selective for toluene in n-heptane
dehydrocyclization reactions, unlike Ir−Pt clusters (see
below).92
The cluster [Ru6Pt3(μ3-H)(μ-H)3(CO)21] (22) was adsorbed onto alumina and magnesia, and then decarbonylated
at 573 K under helium. This system was used in the catalytic
hydrogenolysis of n-butane. With alumina, the selectivity for
ethane was superior to 60% (<40% for methane), while
magnesia gave selectivities toward methane and ethane in the
range 40−60%, depending on the temperature (473−533 K
range). Using magnesia resulted in 5 times greater activity than
with alumina.93
Scheme 7. C6 Products Resulting from the Hydrogenolysis
of Methylcyclopentane
toward ethane was about 70−75% for all samples, but the
[MoIr3] catalyst was 5−10 times more active.83
2.4.3. W−Ir. The clusters [WIr3Cp(CO)11] (19b) and
[W2Ir2Cp2(CO)10] (20b), analogous to the Mo−Ir clusters
described above were examined for n-butane hydrogenolysis.
The [WIr3] MMCD catalyst showed a selectivity toward ethane
production of 70% or more, against less than 50% for the
[W2Ir2] catalyst.84
2.4.4. W−Pd. The heterogeneous [W2Pd2] catalyst,
prepared from [W2Pd2Cp2(CO)6(PPh3)2], exhibited completely different properties for the isomerization of 2methylpentane in methylcyclopentane as compared to the
corresponding [Cr2Pd2] cluster-derived catalyst: it selectively
afforded 3-methylpentane.85
2.4.5. Re−Os. Alumina-supported [ReOs3] MMCD catalysts prepared from [H3ReOs3(CO)13] were found to be active
for n-butane hydrogenolysis and resistant to deactivation. In
particular, the authors demonstrated that the oxidation state of
the rhenium atoms depended on the nature of the pretreatment, under He or H2 atmosphere, respectively, followed by a
treatment under H2. Low oxidation state (+II/+III) Recontaining systems (i.e., pretreated under H2 and then activated
under H2) were twice as active as higher oxidation state (+VII)
Re catalysts (i.e., pretreated under He and then activated under
H2).86
2.4.6. Re−Ir. The isomeric clusters 1,4-[Re6C(CO)18{μ3Re(CO)3}{μ3-Ir(CO)2}]2− (21a) and 1,3-[Re5IrC(CO)17{μ3Re(CO)3}2]2− (21b) with different counterions, Et4N+ or
PPN+, were supported on Al2O3 and used to prepare MMCD
catalysts. The Et4N-containing precursors yielded larger
nanoparticles than the corresponding PPN-containing precursors. The rate of ethane hydrogenolysis increased with the
average cluster size.87
2.4.13. Co−Rh. An alumina-supported [Co2Rh2(CO)12]derived catalyst was active in hydrogenolysis of methylcyclopentane (Scheme 7), and led to a remarkable specificity for the
hydrogenolysis of the methyl-substituted five-membered ring to
noncyclic C6 isomers.94
2.4.7. Re−Pt. Hydrogenolysis of cyclopentane to yield
methane was performed with an alumina-supported [Re2Pt]
catalyst derived from [Re2Pt(CO)12]. The turnover frequency
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An alumina-supported [Co2Rh2(CO)12]-derived catalyst was
active for hydrocarbon skeletal rearrangement.95
2.4.14. Co−Pt. Three Co−Pt complexes, the linear complex
trans-[Pt{Co(CO)4}2(CNCy)2], the butterfly
[Co2Pt2(CO)8(PPh3)2], and the trigonal bipyramidal clusters
[Co2Pt3(CO)9(PEt3)3] (23), characterized by Co/Pt ratios of
2:1, 2:2, and 2:3, respectively, were adsorbed on alumina and
afforded bimetallic heterogeneous catalysts for the hydrogenolysis of methylcyclopentane. The [Co2Pt2] and [Co2Pt3]
catalysts showed a higher selectivity for demethylation of
methylcyclopentane (C6 → C5 + C1) than the [Co2Pt] catalyst.
These effects were tentatively attributed to the different nature
of the ligands bound to the molecular precursors (phosphines
vs isonitriles) rather than to the change in the Co:Pt ratio.
Thus, these ligands might have been difficult to completely
eliminate during the thermal activation steps of the catalysts,
and this could lead to modifications in the composition and/or
structure of the final catalyst.81,96
2.4.17. Pt−Cu. The silica-supported cluster [Pt2Cu4(CCt-Bu)8] (6) afforded a [Pt2Cu4] heterogeneous catalyst for
hexane conversion. It was found to be selective for the cracking
products (C1−C5), with a majority of C3 (almost 50% at 10%
conversion). Unlike its Pt−Au counterpart (see section 2.4.18),
this catalyst was not more resistant to deactivation than the
usual Pt catalysts.98
2.4.18. Pt−Au. The silica-supported cluster [Pt2Au4(CCt-Bu)8] (7) afforded a deactivation-resistant [Pt2Au4] heterogeneous catalyst for hexane conversion. Highly dispersed Pt−
Au NPs with diameters around 3.5 nm were obtained. The
distribution of light carbon species obtained was very similar to
that found for the corresponding [Pt2Cu4] catalyst (see section
2.4.17).98,99
2.5. Hydrogenation Reactions
Heterometallic complexes and clusters are good candidates for
hydrogen activation, which represents a key step in hydrogenation catalysis, as reviewed recently.13k,100
2.5.1. Hydrogenation of Carbon−Carbon Multiple
Bonds. 2.5.1.1. V−Fe. Cubane clusters containing a VFe3S4
core, such as [NEt4][VFe3S4Cl3(DMF)3], were examined in the
homogenous catalytic reduction of acetylene to ethylene.101
2.5.1.2. Ta−Rh. The methylene-bridged complex [Cp2Ta(μCH2)2Rh(CO)(PPh3)] (8a) homogeneously catalyzed the
hydrogenation of alkenes (ethylene, propylene, 1-butene, and
cis-2-butene). In contrast, the phosphine-free analogue [Cp2Ta(μ-CH2)2Rh(CO)2] (8b) formed a colloidal suspension, which
was assumed to constitute the active species.48 These bimetallic
Ta−Rh complexes were better hydrogenation catalysts than the
corresponding Ta−Ir complexes (see section 2.5.1.3).
2.5.1.3. Ta−Ir. The complexes [Cp2Ta(μ-CH2)2Ir(CO)(PPh3)] (9a) and [Cp2Ta(μ-CH2)2Ir(CO)2] (9b) are active
in alkene hydrogenation (ethylene, propylene, 1-butene, and
cis-2-butene), but at slower rates than their Ta−Rh analogues
(see section 2.5.1.2).48 Reductive elimination of one of the
bridging methylene groups seems to take place during the
reactions.
If the presence of tantalum appears necessary for the catalytic
activity of 9b in ethylene hydrogenation,49 the reasons remain
unclear. The corresponding hydride complex [Cp2Ta(μCH2)2IrHCp*] partially decomposed under the reaction
conditions to give a very active heterogeneous ethylene
hydrogenation catalyst.102
2.5.1.4. Cr−Pd. Selective hydrogenation of 1,5-COD to COE
was performed with the planar cluster
[Cr2Pd2Cp2(CO)6(PEt3)2] (10) as a homogeneous catalyst,
although isomerization was the main reaction. At full
conversion, the product mixture contained ca. 15% of COE
with traces of COA, the remaining being isomerization
products (see section 2.2.4 for more details on the product
distribution).51
2.5.1.5. Mo−W−Fe, Mo−W−Co, Mo−W−Ni. The three
cage-type clusters K8[P2Mo2W18M2(H2O)O68]·MoO6·15H2O
(M = Fe, Co, Ni) were used as precursors for aluminasupported catalysts in cyclohexene hydrogenation reactions.103
2.5.1.6. Mo−Fe. Acetylene reduction to ethylene was
achieved with various multinuclear Mo−Fe cluster complexes.
The anionic complexes [MoFeS4(SCN)2(OMe)2]2− and
[Mo2FeS8O(OMe)2]3− were found to have a higher activity
when the percentage of Fe in the complex increased.104
A study revealed that the clusters [Et4N]3[Mo2Fe6S8(OMe)3(L1)3(L2)3] (L1 = L2 = SPh or Cl; L1 = SPh, L2 = Cl) catalyze
2.4.15. Rh−Ir. Catalysts of the type [Rh6−xIrx(CO)16]/NaY
(x = 1−4) were tested in ethane and butane hydrogenolysis.
Increasing the Ir content suppressed the catalytic activity. The
selectivity toward the central C−C bond scission in butane
hydrogenolysis was superior to 75%. The cluster-derived
catalysts consisted of bimetallic particles of less than 10 Å in
diameter, which were uniformly distributed inside the NaY
zeolites and had a metal composition similar to that of their
molecular precursors.90,97
2.4.16. Ir−Pt. Impregnation of the complexes formulated as
[Ir2Pt(CO)7py2] and [Ir6Pt(CO)15py2] onto inorganic oxides
led to very active and selective catalysts for hydrocarbon
conversion. The cluster-derived [Ir6Pt] heterogeneous catalyst
was significantly more active in dehydrocyclization of n-heptane
than the standard catalysts prepared from [H2MCl6] (M = Ir or
Pt) acid solutions. It led to a range of products, from methane
to xylenes. The most desirable products are benzene, toluene,
and the isomeric xylenes because of their high research octane
number (RON). The [Ir6Pt] catalyst was found to be 5−7%
more selective toward toluene than the [Ir2Pt] catalyst. The
30% lower coking rate displayed by the [Ir6Pt] as compared to
a conventional catalyst was found to be another advantage of
the MMCD catalyst. The [Ir2Pt] and [Ir6Pt] catalysts have been
found to be, at least 1.6 and 2.4 times, respectively, more active
for naphtha reforming than conventional catalysts, and the
[Ir6Pt] catalyst was 1.8 times more active than the [Ir2Pt]
catalyst. It was suggested that unique heterometallic sites on the
cluster-derived catalysts were more efficient in carrying out
aromatization reactions than those present on conventional Ir−
Pt catalysts.92
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the reduction of acetylene by KBH4, with a lower activity than
[Et4N]3[Mo2Fe4Co2S8(SPh)6(OMe)3]·MeCN.105 The cubane
cluster [Et4N]2[MoFe3S4Cl3(Cl4-cat)(MeCN)] (Cl4-cat =
tetrachlorocatecholate) is also active in the reduction of
acetylene to ethylene in the presence of a proton source
(lutidine hydrochloride) and an electron source (cobaltocene).
Small amounts of ethane were also obtained.101b,d,106
Hydrogenation of 1-octene to octane could be achieved with
the arsenido-bridged complex [Cp(OC)2Mo(μ-AsMe2)Fe(CO)4] as a homogeneous catalyst, although isomerization to
cis- and trans-2-octene was the most favored reaction.52
When adsorbed on alumina, the linear complex
[Et 4 N] 2 [Mo 2 FeS 4 O 4 ] and the cubane-type cluster
[Et4N]3[Mo2Fe6S8(SPh)6(OMe)3] were used for the hydrogenation of cyclohexene.103
2.5.1.7. Mo−Fe−Co. The heterotrimetallic cluster
[HMoFeCo(μ3-CMe)Cp(CO)8] (24) catalyzed the homogeneous hydrogenation of styrene to ethylbenzene, but the yield
was low (ca. 10%) and only 10% of the catalyst could be
recovered.107
2.5.1.9. Mo−Ru−Co. Hydrogenation of styrene to ethylbenzene was catalyzed by the tetrahedral cluster [MoRuCo(μ3S)Cp(CO)8] with very low yields (ca. 5%). The complex could
be recovered almost completely.107
2.5.1.10. Mo−Co. Cyclohexene hydrogenation was catalyzed
by the trinuclear linear complex [Et4N]2[Mo2CoS4O 4]
supported on alumina.103
2.5.1.11. Mo−Co−Ni. The cluster [MoCoNi(μ3-CMe)Cp2(CO)5] (26) catalyzes the homogeneous hydrogenation
of styrene to ethylbenzene with very low yields (ca. 4%).
However, the catalyst could not be recovered after the
reaction.107
2.5.1.12. Mo−Rh. Preliminary studies show that hydrogenation of cyclohexene to cyclohexane can be achieved with
the complex [MoRhCp(μ-CO)2(CO)(PPh3)2] in toluene at
ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure of dihydrogen,
but at a much slower rate than the mononuclear complex
[RhCl(PPh3)3].110
The dinuclear complex [Cp2Mo(μ-SH)2Rh(PPh3)2][PF6]
(27a) was evaluated in the hydrogenation of 1-octyne and tBu-propiolate at room temperature and under 1 atm of H2, to
yield 1-octene and t-Bu-acrylate, respectively. It was more active
than its Mo−Ir, W−Rh, and W−Ir analogues, but less active
than the mononuclear complex [H2Rh(Me2CO)(EtOH)(PPh3)2][PF6]. More precisely, it quantitatively converted 1octyne to a mixture of 1-octene (32% yield) and 2-octenes
(50% combined yield) within 15 h, while the other
heterobimetallic systems required 2−4 days. It also hydrogenated t-Bu-propiolate with 100% conversion after 5 h,
affording t-Bu-acrylate in 99% yield. In the latter case, although
the mononuclear complex [H2Rh(Me2CO)(EtOH)(PPh3)2][PF6] hydrogenates faster, it also hydrogenates too far and
yields t-Bu-propiolate, thus decreasing the yield of acrylate.111
The heterotrimetallic cluster [Et4N]3[Mo2Fe4Co2S8(SPh)6(OMe)3]·MeCN was found to be more efficient for the
homogeneously catalyzed reduction of acetylene than clusters
containing only Fe or Mo.105
Hydrogenation of cyclohexene was performed in the
presence of the two alumina-supported cubane-type clusters
[Et4N]3[Mo2Fe5CoS8(SPh)6(OMe)3] and [Et4N]3[Mo2Fe4Co2S8(SPh)6(OMe)3].103
2.5.1.8. Mo−Ru. Hydrogenation of naphthalene to tetralin
(Scheme 8) was performed simultaneously to the HDS of
Scheme 8
dibenzothiophene and the HDN of indole (see section 2.16.4)
in the presence of the alumina-supported [Mo3S4Ru] catalyst,
obtained from the cubane-type cluster [Mo3Ru(μ3-S)4Cp′3(CO)2][pts] (25a) sulfided in situ at 623 K by a 2.5% solution
of dimethyldisulfide in n-heptane. This catalyst was compared
to its Mo−M (M = Rh, Ir, Pd, Pt) analogues, and it appeared
that the activities were in the order Mo3Pd < Mo3Pt < Mo3Ru <
Mo3Rh < Mo3Ir.108
Hydrogenation of naphthalene was achieved, simultaneously
to the HDS of dibenzothiophene and the HDN of indole (see
section 2.16.6), in the presence of the alumina-supported
heterogeneous catalyst prepared from the sulfidation at 623 K
with a 2.5% dimethyldisulfide solution of the cubane-type
cluster [Mo3Rh(μ3-S)4Cp′3(COD)][pts]2 (25b). The main
product was tetralin. This system was more active than the Ru-,
Pd-, and Pt-containing analogues and almost as active as the Ircontaining one. It was suggested that the better activity of Rhand Ir-containing systems may be ascribed to the better
distribution of Rh and Ir nanoparticles on the MoS2 phase
formed on alumina during the sulfidation treatment.108
2.5.1.13. Mo−Ir. Similarly to the aforementioned Mo−Rh
catalyst, the hydrosulfido-bridged complex [Cp 2 Mo(μSH)2IrH2(PPh3)2][PF6] (27b) exhibited activity in hydro40
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cations, was tested in toluene hydrogenation at 1 atm and 333
K. It was observed that coimpregnation of the monometallic
complexes [PtCl2(PhCN)2] and [Mo(CO)6] afforded a better
catalytic system, thus exhibiting 1 order magnitude better
activity, probably due to the formation of bigger segregated Pt
clusters (ca. 2.4 Å). The monometallic catalyst obtained from
the complex [PtCl2(PhCN)2] gave similar results, thus
confirming the need in this case to have segregated Pt particles,
and ruling out any possible cooperative effect.114
The alumina-supported cluster-derived [Mo3Pt] catalyst,
obtained by sulfidation of [Mo3Pt(μ3-S)4Cp′3(NBE)][pts]
(25e), showed poor activity in the simultaneous HDS of
dibenzothiophene, HDN of indole (see section 2.16.8), and
hydrogenation of naphthalene to yield tetralin. The presence of
Pt centers close to Mo centers seems to inhibit the Mo activity,
because a coimpregnated Mo3 + Pt system was found to be
more active.108
2.5.1.17. W−Fe. After deposition onto an alumina matrix,
the trinuclear complex [Et4N]2[W2FeS4O4] was tested for the
hydrogenation of cyclohexene.103
2.5.1.18. W−Fe−Co. Hydrogenation of styrene to ethylbenzene did not proceed in the presence of the cluster
[WFeCo(μ3-PMe)Cp(CO)8].107
2.5.1.19. W−Os. The cluster [PPN][HWOs3(CO)14] was
used in the hydrogenation of some dienes, cycloalkenes, and in
particular of styrene to ethylbenzene. The activity of the
catalyst was enhanced when the solvent used was an ionic
liquid, instead of a common organic solvent. This was explained
by the absence of deactivation of the catalysts in ionic
liquids.115
2.5.1.20. W−Co. The hydrogenation of cyclohexene was
carried out in the presence of the alumina-supported linear
complex [Et4N]2[W2CoS4O4].103
2.5.1.21. W−Rh, W−Ir. Hydrogenation of alkynes such as 1octyne and t-Bu-propiolate was performed with the complexes
[Cp 2 W(μ-S) 2 Rh(PPh 3 ) 2 ][PF 6 ] (29a) and [Cp 2 W(μSH)2IrH2(PPh3)2][PF6] (29b) at room temperature and
under 1 atm of H2. They were found to be less active than
the Mo−Rh analogue (see section 2.5.1.12). Indeed, t-Bupropiolate was quantitatively hydrogenated to t-Bu-acrylate
with 85% yield after 2 days in the presence of 29a. The same
substrate afforded t-Bu-acrylate with 30% yield after 7 days at
59% conversion only, in the presence of 29b. For comparison,
the Mo−Rh analogue 27a required only 5 h and showed higher
selectivity.111
genation of carbon−carbon triple bonds of 1-octyne and t-Bupropiolate. It was found to be a much slower and much less
active catalyst than the Mo−Rh system described above.
Indeed, hydrogenation of t-Bu-propiolate affords t-Bu-acrylate
with 39% yield after 7 days of reaction, and at 68% conversion
only.111
The alumina-supported cubane cluster [Mo3Ir(μ3-S)4Cp′3Cl(COE)][pts] (25c) afforded a [Mo 3 Ir] catalyst upon
sulfidation at 623 K with a 2.5% dimethyldisulfide solution.
This system was active in the simultaneous HDS of
dibenzothiophene, HDN of indole (see section 2.16.6), and
hydrogenation of naphthalene to tetralin. It was more active
than other Mo−M (M = Ru, Pd, Pt, Rh) systems, probably due
to the better distribution of Ir nanoparticles on the surface of
the MoS2/alumina surface.108
2.5.1.14. Mo−Ni. The alumina-supported linear complex
[Et4N]2[Mo2NiS4O4] was tested for the hydrogenation of
cyclohexene.103
2.5.1.15. Mo−Pd. The complex [Cl(OC)2Mo(μ-CO)(μPh2Ppy)2PdCl] (28) was used either as homogeneous or as
resin-immobilized catalyst for the hydrogenation of 1,5,9cyclododecatriene. The free complex yielded 93.2% of cyclododecene and 6.8% of cyclododecane with 92.5% conversion,
while the supported catalyst afforded 84.2% cyclododecene and
15.8% cyclododecane at 89.4% conversion.112
Hydrogenation, in competition with double-bond isomerization, of 1,5-cyclooctadiene was performed with the planar
clusters [Mo2Pd2Cp2(CO)6(PEt3)2] (11a) and
[Mo2Pd2Cp2(CO)6(PPh3)2] (11b) with moderate activities.
These clusters also catalyzed the hydrogenation of phenylacetylene to a mixture of styrene and ethylbenzene. Styrene was
the major product, suggesting that these clusters might lead to
efficient and selective catalysts for alkyne reduction to alkene.51
Hydrogenation of naphthalene to tetralin was tested, along
with the simultaneous HDS of dibenzothiophene and the HDN
of indole (see section 2.16.8), in the presence of the [Mo3Pd]
catalyst obtained by impregnation of the cubane cluster
[Mo3Pd(μ3-S)4Cp′3(PPh3)][pts] (25d) on alumina, and
subsequent sulfidation at 623 K. The presence of poorly
dispersed Pd aggregates on a MoS2 phase probably accounts for
the poor activity. Comparison with the related catalysts Mo−M
(M = Ru, Rh, Ir, Pt) afforded the following trend of activities:
Mo3Pd < Mo3Pt < Mo3Ru < Mo3Rh < Mo3Ir.108
2.5.1.16. Mo−Pt. The linear chain complex trans-[Pt{MoCp(CO)3}2(CNCy)2] was found to catalyze the mono- and
dihydrogenation of terminal alkynes. Indeed, phenylacetylene
was converted to ca. 63% styrene and 33% ethylbenzene.113
Hydrogenation reactions were achieved with the planar
clusters [Mo2Pt2Cp2(CO)6(PR3)2] (R = Et, Ph) as homogeneous catalysts.51 Thus, hydrogenation of 1,5-cyclooctadiene
and hydrogenation of phenylacetylene to a mixture of styrene
(main product) and ethylbenzene were catalyzed by these
compounds.
The MMCD catalyst derived from the chain complex trans[Pt{MoCp(CO)3}2(CNPh)2] supported on MgO, consisting of
aggregates that contain ca. 20 Pt-atoms stabilized by Mo
2.5.1.22. W−Ni. The heterogenized linear complex
[Et4N]2[W2NiS4O4], supported on alumina, was found to be
very active for the hydrogenation of cyclohexene.103
2.5.1.23. W−Pd. Homogeneous hydrogenation of 1,5cyclooctadiene, in competition with isomerization, was
catalyzed by the planar clusters [W2Pd2Cp2(CO)6(PEt3)2]
(12a) and [W2Pd2Cp2(CO)6(PPh3)2] (12b). The main
products of the hydrogenation were cyclooctene and cyclooctane. They were also active in the hydrogenation of
phenylacetylene to a mixture of styrene (major) and ethylbenzene.51
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were readily hydrogenated to the corresponding alkanes.
However, such results are typical of phosphine rhodium
hydride complexes, thus ruling out in this case any synergism
between the two metals.118
2.5.1.28. Re−Pt. The heterobimetallic complex [HCp(OC)2RePtH(PPh3)2] was shown to catalyze the hydrogenation of ethylene to ethane in benzene, at room temperature
and 0.6 atm of H2. After 2 days, 2.4 equiv of ethane was formed.
The mechanism seems to involve the formation of the
mononuclear complexes [H2ReCp(CO)2] and [Pt(C2H2)(PPh3)2] due to the binding of ethylene to the Pt center.119
2.5.1.29. Fe−Ru. Several Fe−Ru clusters with various Fe/Ru
ratios ([FeRu2(CO)12], [Fe2Ru(CO)12], and
[H2FeRu3(CO)13]) were tested in the homogeneous hydrogenation of 1,3-cis- and 1,3-trans-pentadiene, 1- and 2-pentyne,
or diphenylacetylene. The adsorption of these clusters onto
alumina led to a decrease in activity for pentyne hydrogenation
but to increased activity for pentadiene hydrogenation. The
absence of reactivity in toluene hydrogenation suggested that
the adsorbed species were not metallic nanoparticles but rather
clusters or cluster fragments.54
When supported on glc Chromosorb, the cluster
[H2FeRu3(CO)13] led to a catalyst for the hydrogenation of
several mono- (cyclohexene) and dienes (1,3- and 1,4cyclohexadiene), of aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene, toluene),
as well as alkynes (3-hexyne), with very high activities and
excellent selectivities (>99% in almost all cases) for the fully
hydrogenated products at 333 K. The supported cluster
[HRuCo3(CO)12] was even more selective (100% in all
cases), probably due to the lower hydrogenation ability of
iron as compared to cobalt (see section 2.5.1.36).120
The cluster [H2FeRu3(CO)13] was deposited on pyrex
borosilicate glass and used as catalyst without further activation
for the solid−gas hydrogenation of 3-hexyne and 1,4-cyclohexadiene. A selectivity of 90% for trans-3-hexene was reached
for the former reaction, with a conversion of 75%, while the
latter gave 90% selectivity for cyclohexene with a conversion of
98%.121
2.5.1.30. Fe−Ru−Co. The trimetallic cluster [HFeRuCo(μ3PMe)(CO)9] (32) was used to catalyze the hydrogenation of
styrene to ethylbenzene with quantitative yields. However,
hydrogenation of α-methylstyrene to cumene did not
proceed.107
2.5.1.24. W−Pt. Just like the W−Pd clusters described
previously, the planar clusters [W2Pt2Cp2(CO)6(PEt3)2] and
[W2Pt2Cp2(CO)6(PPh3)2] were used in the homogeneous
hydrogenation of 1,5-cyclooctadiene and of phenylacetylene to
styrene and ethylbenzene.51
Toluene hydrogenation at 1 atm and 333 K was carried out
in the presence of a heterogeneous [W2Pt] catalyst prepared
from trans-[Pt{WCp(CO)3}2(NCPh)2] (30) supported on
MgO. Strong W−Pt interactions appear to lower the catalytic
activity relative to catalysts containing the same metals but
lacking bimetallic interactions (see also section 2.5.1.16).114a
The [W2Pt] and [W2Pt2] catalysts obtained by thermal
treatment of the alumina-supported chain complex 30 and
planar cluster [Pt2W2Cp2(CO)6(PPh3)2] showed poor activity
for toluene hydrogenation. The [Pt] and [W+Pt] catalysts
prepared from the monometallic precursors [PtCl2(PhCN)2]
and [W(CO)6] were 15 times more active. The lower activity
of the heterometallic species was attributed to W−Pt
interactions in the homogeneous dispersion of the Pt−W
particles, as opposed to the larger and more segregated Pt
aggregates obtained from monometallic complexes.116
In the hydrogenation of crotonaldehyde, these [W2Pt] and
[W2Pt2] catalysts yielded mainly butyraldehyde, as a result of
the hydrogenation of the CC bond of crotonaldehyde
(Scheme 9). Yet they were more selective for crotyl alcohol,
although it was less than 10%, than the [Pt] and [W+Pt]
catalysts.116
Scheme 9
2.5.1.25. Mn−Fe. The arsenido-bridged complex
[(OC)4Mn(μ-AsMe2)Fe(CO)4] was found to be a homogeneous catalyst for the hydrogenation of 1-octene to octane,
although isomerization to cis- and trans-2-octene occurred to a
larger extent.52
2.5.1.26. Mn−Ru. Hydrogenation of styrene to ethylbenzene
was catalyzed in the presence of the complex [MnRu(CO)6{μη2:η4-(PhCCH−CHN-i-Pr)}] (31). The reversible hapticity change of the Mn-coordinated azadienyl cycle was
proposed to be the key to the binding of the styrene
substrate.117
2.5.1.31. Fe−Co. The arsenido-bridged complex [(OC)3Co(μ-AsMe2)Fe(CO)4] was more active in the homogeneous
isomerization/hydrogenation of 1-octene to octane and cis- and
trans-2-octene than the corresponding Mo−Fe and Mn−Fe
complexes (see sections 2.5.1.6 and 2.5.1.25, respectively).52
Hydrogenation of dienes, aromatic hydrocarbons, and
alkynes was performed in the presence of highly dispersed
metal particles on glc Chromosorb obtained from the cluster
[HFeCo3(CO)12]. Almost only fully hydrogenated products
were obtained.122
2.5.1.32. Fe−Rh. When the cluster [HFe3Rh(CO)11(μ4-η2CCHPh)] (13) was used for the isomerization of 1-heptene
2.5.1.27. Re−Rh. In the presence of 1 mol % of the
homogeneous catalyst precursor [H 5 (HCy 2 P)Re(μPCy2)2RhH(PCy2H)] at 298 K under 1 atm of H2, the
substrates allylbenzene, 2,3-dimethylbutadiene, and 2-butyne
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to cis- and trans-2-heptene (see section 2.2.14), the formation
of 14% heptane was also observed. This is a rare example of a
mixed iron−rhodium system in which the known hydrogenation ability of rhodium is inhibited by iron, thus favoring
isomerization over hydrogenation reactions. A similar observation was made above when this cluster was used in the
isomerization of alkenes (see section 2.2.14).58
2.5.1.33. Fe−Pd. Hydrogenation of 1-hexyne in the presence
of 1-hexene was selectively catalyzed by the complex
[(OC)4Fe(μ-PPh2)Pd(μ-Cl)]2 (15). At 448 K, under 100
atm of H2, 93% of a sample of 1-hexyne in benzene was
reduced to hexene and only 3% to hexane. This was unexpected
because palladium is usually an excellent catalyst for the
hydrogenation of olefins.60
2.5.1.34. Fe−Pt. The cluster [Fe2Pt(CO)9(PPh3)] was
immobilized on a phosphine-functionalized poly(styrenedivinylbenzene) support to yield the species [Fe 2 Pt(CO)8(Ph2P∼polym)2]. This material was found to catalyze
ethylene hydrogenation under mild conditions. Similar results
were obtained with the Ru−Pt analogous system (see section
2.5.1.41), thus suggesting that the reaction goes through a
similar mechanism in both cases.73
2.5.1.35. Ru−Os. During ethylene hydrogenation at 340 K,
the cluster [Al]+[HRuOs3(CO)13]−, obtained from the
adsorption of [H2RuOs3(CO)13] on alumina, decomposed to
give catalytically active metal particles.62
2.5.1.36. Ru−Co. Hydrogenation of 2-pentene, styrene, and
α-substituted styrenes was achieved with the clusters
[RuCo2(μ3-S)(CO)9], [RuCo2(μ3-PR)(CO)9] (R = Me, Ph),
and [HRu2Co(μ3-PMe)(CO)9] as catalysts. In particular, these
clusters proved to be very efficient in styrene hydrogenation.
With the exception of [RuCo2(μ3-S)(CO)9], all of them
afforded ethylbenzene with yields in the range 98−100%. The
cluster [RuCo2(μ3-S)(CO)9], however, afforded ethylbenzene
in 25% only, the main product being polystyrene (95%
conversion).107 The hydrogenation of 1-hexene was also
catalyzed by [RuCo2 (μ3 -S)(CO)9 ] and [RuCo2 (μ3 -Se)(CO)9].64
Highly dispersed metal particles on glc Chromosorb were
prepared from the cluster [HRuCo3(CO)12] and found to be
catalytically active for the full hydrogenation of monoenes,
dienes, aromatic hydrocarbons, and alkynes. The selectivity for
the fully hydrogenated compounds was quantitative in all cases.
The use of higher surface area supports, such as aerosil,
afforded even more active catalysts.120,122
2.5.1.37. Ru−Rh. Electronic communication between the
metal centers, through the bridging ligand, is believed to
account for the higher catalytic activity in hydrogenation of
cyclohexene of the complex [H(OC)(PPh3)2Ru(μ-bim)Rh(COD)] (bim = 2,2′-bi-imidazolato) (33a) (see section
2.5.1.38 below for more details).123 This system was also
found to be more active in hydrogen transfer from propan-2-ol
to styrene than the corresponding Ru and Rh mononuclear
complexes.123,124
Hydrogenation of the CC double bond of 2-cyclohexenone was selectively catalyzed by [H2Ru2Rh2(CO)12]
with high activity (68% conversion), to afford cyclohexanone
(99% of the product mixture). A solution of the homometallic
complexes [H4Ru4(CO)12] and [Rh4(CO)12] afforded a less
active system (ca. 48% conversion), which exhibited 86%
selectivity for cyclohexanone. The other observed products
were 2-cyclohexenol and cyclohexanol.125
2.5.1.38. Ru−Ir. Likewise, the bimetallic complex [H(OC)(PPh3)2Ru(μ-bim)Ir(COD)] (33b) is active in hydrogenation
of cyclohexene and styrene, and the electronic communication
through the bi-imidazolato ligand was considered the most
likely explanation for its higher catalytic activity as compared to
the corresponding mononuclear complexes. More precisely, the
electron density on the ruthenium atom is significantly
decreased by the replacement of the acid proton of the
[Hbim]− ligand in [RuH(Hbim)(CO)(PPh3)2] by the “Ir(COD)” fragment, as evidenced by a displacement of the νco
absorption toward higher frequencies. This effect is even
amplified by the binding of hydrogen on the iridium center (see
Scheme 10). Thus, the authors suggested a catalytic cycle for
Scheme 10. Proposed Catalytic Cylce for Cyclohexene
Hydrogenation by 33b124
cyclohexene hydrogenation in the presence of 33b, involving
PPh3 dissociation from the ruthenium atom to bind the
substrate. This complex was slightly more active than the Ru−
Rh analogue described above.123,124
The clusters [IrRu3(μ-H)(CO)11(μ3-η2-RCCR)] (R = Ph,
Me) (35) and [IrRu3(CO)10(μ4-η2-RCCR)(μ-η2-RC
CHR)] (R = Ph, Me) (36) were compared to [HIrRu3(CO)13]
(34) in the hydrogenation of diphenylacetylene to stilbene
(Scheme 11). Even if these alkyne-coordinated clusters were
active, the latter cluster was by far the best catalyst, with up to
98% selectivity toward trans-stilbene, in the absence of CO. It
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was considered to be the active species. The analogous Fe−Pt
system gave similar results, suggesting a similar mechanistic
pathway in both cases.73
Hydrogenation of phenylacetylene was performed with the
carbido cluster [Ru5C(CO)15{Pt(P-t-Bu3)}] (38). According to
the nature of the species isolated during the catalytic reactions,
the platinum atom seems to play an important role in activating
either hydrogen or the alkyne. This was strongly suggested to
be due to its mobility, as illustrated with the equilibrium
between the closo (38a) and more open, nido (38b)
structures.131
Scheme 11. Synthetic Routes to Clusters 35 and 36 Starting
from 34126
was also found that [H3IrRu3(CO)12] is formed from 34 under
H2 pressure, but its activity was lower than that of the
monohydride precursor.126
2.5.1.39. Ru−Ni. The tetrahedral cluster [Ru3Ni(μ-H)3Cp(CO)9] is a selective hydrogenation catalyst for linear dienes
such as cis-1,3-pentadiene. The conjugated cyclic diene 1,3cyclohexadiene is selectively hydrogenated to cyclohexene.
However, its ability to hydrogenate is limited by the fast
decomposition of the cluster (extensive decomposition
observed after 40 min only), unlike its Os−Ni analogue.65,127
The Chromosorb P-supported [Ru3Ni] catalyst derived from
this Ru−Ni cluster was found to be more active in the
hydrogenation of benzene or toluene, to cyclohexane or
methylcyclohexane, respectively, than the [Os3Ni] catalyst
prepared from the isostructural cluster [Os3Ni(μ-H)3Cp(CO)9].65 It is also active for the hydrogenation of dienes.128
2.5.1.40. Ru−Pd. Heterogeneous [RuPd] catalysts with a
Pd/Ru ratio of 1:1 were prepared by gentle decarbonylation of
the single-source precursor [Et4N][Ru6Pd6(CO)24] (37)
supported in MCM-41 mesoporous silica. This system was
efficient for the hydrogenation of 1-hexene (68% selectivity for
n-hexane at 99% conversion) and 1-dodecene (63% of ndodecane for 88% conversion) under 20 bar of H2, without
solvent. It was also active for the hydrogenation of naphthalene,
mainly to cis-decalin,129 of benzoic acid to cyclohexane
carboxylic acid, of dimethyl terephtalate (DMT) to 1,4cyclohexanedimethanol (CHDM) (see section 3.14),129e and
of muconic acid to adipic acid.130
The cluster [Ru5PtC(μ3-PhCCH)(CO)13(P-t-Bu3)] was
used as a precursor for the catalytic hydrogenation of PhC
CH to styrene and ethylbenzene. It was observed that the
cluster fragments during the reactions, and that one of the
species formed, the mononuclear complex [Pt(η2-PhC
CH)(CO)(P-t-Bu3)], is responsible for such a high activity.132
Several silica-supported decarbonylated heterometallic clusters, obtained from the clusters [Ph4P]2[Ru5PtC(CO)15],
[PPN]2[Ru10Pt2(C)2(CO)28],129e [Ru5PtC(μ-SnPh2)(CO)15],
[Ru5PtC(μ-GePh2)(CO)15], and [Ru5PtC(CO)16],133 were
tested in the conversion of dimethyl terephtalate to 1,4cyclohexanedimethanol (see section 3.14). The first step
consists of the hydrogenation of the CC bonds of the
benzene ring. The carbonyl group of the ester function then is
reduced to alcohol (see section 2.5.3.6). The presence of tin
seems to greatly enhance the activity and the selectivity for the
desired product.
The silica-supported [Ru5Pt] and [Ru10Pt2] catalysts, derived
from the clusters [Ph4P]2[Ru5PtC(CO)15] and
[PPN]2[Ru10Pt2(C)2(CO)28], were also good catalysts for the
hydrogenation of naphthalene mostly to cis-decalin, of benzoic
acid to cyclohexane carboxylic acid,129e and of muconic acid to
adipic acid.130
The clusters [Ph4P]2[Ru5PtC(CO)15] and
[PPN]2[Ru10Pt2(C)2(CO)28] were anchored inside MCM-41
channels and subjected to thermal treatment to afford NPs with
compositions close to that of the precursor cluster. These
catalysts showed slightly lower activities in the hydrogenation
of cis,cis- and trans,trans-muconic acid to adipic acid (Scheme
12) (ca. 90% conversion) than the commercially available Pt/
SiO2 and Rh/Al2O3 systems (95−99% conversion), but
[Ru10Pt2] is more selective for the formation of adipic acid
Scheme 12
2.5.1.41. Ru−Pt. Ethylene hydrogenation was achieved
under mild conditions in the presence of the
[RuPt2(CO)5(PPh3)3] cluster anchored to a phosphinefunctionalized poly(styrene-divinylbenzene) support. The
resulting polymer-bound cluster [RuPt2(CO)5(Ph2P∼polym)3]
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Scheme 13. Proposed Catalytic Cycle for the Hydrogenation of Diphenylacetylene to cis-Stilbene with the Cluster 39137
with higher conversion than using conventionnally prepared
Ru−Pt−Sn catalysts. It appeared that the aldehyde functions
were reduced first, thus leading to geraniol and nerol (see
section 2.5.3.6). Alkene bonds were subsequently partially
hydrogenated to give 3,7-dimethyloctanol. At 50% conversion,
up to 56% selectivity to unsaturated alcohols (geraniol/nerol =
0.88) was observed when the silica-supported catalyst was used,
and only 19% for the aldehyde citronellal.135
(ca. 95%) as compared to the homometallic systems (ca. 85−
90%). Furthermore, [Ru5Pt] shows almost 80% selectivity
toward succinic and glutaric acids, as a result of simultaneous
hydrogenation and hydrogenolysis, but only 25% selectivity for
adipic acid was observed.130
Hydrogenation of citral was performed, in the presence of
magnesia-134 or mesoporous silica-supported135 catalysts
derived from the trimetallic cluster [Ru5PtC(μ-SnPh2)(CO)15],
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Hydrogenation of ethylene was performed in the presence of
[Ru6Pt3] catalysts prepared from the cluster [Ru6Pt3(μ3-H)(μH)3(CO)21] (22) adsorbed onto alumina and magnesia, and
then decarbonylated at 573 K under He.93
Hydrogenation of PhCCPh to cis-stilbene at 1 atm and
323 K was catalyzed in the presence of the bioctahedral cluster
[Ru6Pt3(μ3-H)(μ-H)(μ3-PhCCPh)(CO)20] (39). It was
reported to exhibit a high catalytic activity and 100% selectivity.
These results were significantly better than when either pure
platinum or pure ruthenium clusters were used, suggesting the
existence of cooperativity effects.136 This cluster contains
discrete triangular layers of pure platinum and pure ruthenium,
which may synergistically interact. A proposed mechanism is
given in Scheme 13.
The reaction of 39 with SMe2 yielded the compound
[Ru6Pt3(μ3-H)(μ-H)(μ3-PhCCPh)(SMe2)(CO)19], which
was found to be much more active for the hydrogenation of
PhCCPh to (Z)-stilbene than its precursor. However, its
activity rapidly decreased over time to reach that of its
precursor 39, which tends to form during the catalytic
reaction.137
2.5.1.42. Ru−Cu. The carbido cluster
[PPN]2[Ru12Cu4(C)2(μ-Cl)2(CO)32] (40) was used as a
precursor for the synthesis of supported RuCu NPs in the
channels of mesoporous silica MCM-41.
2.5.1.43. Ru−Ag. Hydrogenation of 1-hexene to hexane was
performed in the presence of supported nanoparticles obtained
by thermal activation of the adsorbed cluster
[Ph4As]2[Ru10Ag3(C)2(μ-Cl)(CO)28] (41) onto the inner
walls of mesoporous silica MCM-41. Preliminary results
indicate a TOF of at least 6300 mol hexane per mol
[Ru10Ag3] per hour, which is significantly higher than
previously reported homogeneous Ru monometallic complexes
under similar conditions.139
2.5.1.44. Os−Rh. Anchoring of the coordinatively unsaturated cluster [H2Os3Rh(acac)(CO)10] on poly(styrene-divinylbenzene) led to [H2Os3Rh(acac)(CO)10(Ph2P∼polym)],
which is active for the hydrogenation of ethylene. Fragmentation of the cluster was found to occur upon anchoring to give
catalytically active species, exhibiting conversion lower than 1%.
The authors suggested the formation of rhodium aggregates
smaller than 1 nm, which were responsible for the activity. The
same system was also used for the isomerization of 1-butene.70
2.5.1.45. Os−Ni. Hydrogenation of mono- and dienes has
been investigated in the presence of [Os3Ni(μ-H)3Cp(CO)9].65,71 Selective homogeneous hydrogenation of linear
dienes such as 1,3-cis-pentadiene is more effective than with the
ruthenium analogue.127 The cluster displays low activity and
selectivity for the hydrogenation of t-butyl-alkynes or t-butylalkenes,140 but is more effective for the selective hydrogenation
of t-butyl-acetylene.71 Similarly, it catalyzes the hydrogenation
of 1-pentyne more readily than that of 1-pentene and affords 1pentene. During the hydrogenation reactions of t-butyl-alkynes
and of t-butyl-alkenes, the cluster [Os3Ni3Cp3(CO)9] decomposed to [Os3Ni(μ-H)3Cp(CO)9], which is less active, but
more stable. Indeed, it can be recovered after long reaction
times.140
The phosphine derivatives of this cluster, [Os3Ni(μ-H)3Cp(CO)8L] (L = PPh2H or P(C6H4Me-o)3), were also studied.
They were reported to be active for the hydrogenation of
dienes to monoenes, and selective for the hydrogenation of
triple and double C−C bonds.71
When supported on Chromosorb P, [Os3Ni(μ-H)3Cp(CO)9] catalyzed the hydrogenation of 1,3-cis- and 1,3-transpentadiene. A gas-chromatographic column was used as a
catalytic reactor.141 Furthermore, when this cluster was
supported on γ-Al2O3, the resulting heterogeneous catalyst
[Os3Ni] was shown to be very efficient for the hydrogenation
of acetylene to ethylene and ethane. Also, ethylene, propylene,
and benzene were converted to ethane, propane, and
cyclohexane, respectively, at room temperature.142
Hydrogenation of acetone to propane using the [Os3Ni]
heterogeneous catalyst derived from the Chromosorb Psupported cluster [Os3Ni(μ-H)3Cp(CO)9] was assumed to
involve a carbon−carbon bond hydrogenation step.143 Indeed,
hydrogenation of acetone to isopropanol (see section 2.5.3.7),
then dehydration to propene (see section 2.7.2), would be
followed by the hydrogenation of the CC bond to yield
propane.
Activation was achieved by gentle decarbonylation under
vacuum at 453 K for 2 h. The particles are located on the silica
surface (Figure 1). This material was an efficient catalyst for the
Figure 1. Proposed structure (based on EXAFS studies) of Ru−Cu
particles obtained from 40, deposited onto silica surface. Reproduced
with permission from ref 138. Copyright 1998 Wiley-VCH Verlag
GmbH.
hydrogenation of various alkenes (1-hexene), arenes (transstilbene, cis-cyclooctene, D-limonene), and alkynes (phenylacetylene and diphenylacetylene).129c,138 In particular, hydrogenation of phenylacetylene yielded quantitatively ethylbenzene
under 65 atm of H2, at 373 K.122,130
The same [Ru12Cu4]/MCM-41 catalytic system could
hydrogenate dimethyl terephtalate to 1,4-cyclohexanedimethanol (see section 3.14),129e naphthalene to cis-decalin, benzoic
acid to cyclohexane carboxylic acid,129e and muconic acid to
adipic acid.130
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turned to CoRh NPs via CO loss.61 Upon heating at 373 K for
16 h, the same silica-entrapped system afforded CoRh NPs,
which proved efficient enough to fully hydrogenate styrene to
ethylcyclohexane.147 A pretreatment with H2 greatly enhanced
the hydrogenation rates of the catalyst. A wide scope of
aromatic and unsaturated molecules such as biphenyl,
diphenylacetylene could be hydrogenated.
The same research group developed an interesting system by
entrapping lipase and [Co2Rh2(CO)12] in a silica sol−gel
matrix for applications in one-pot esterification and CC
hydrogenation.148 Similarly, when the Co−Rh cluster was
entrapped with acids such as MoO 3 −SiO 2 or Me 3 Si(CH2)3SO3H, it was able to fully hydrogenate 1,2-hydronaphthalene (Scheme 14).149
Both of the γ-Al2O3 supported clusters [Os3Ni(μ-H)3Cp(CO)9] and [Os3Ni3Cp3(CO)9] were used for the heterogeneous hydrogenation of benzene and acetylene. In particular,
the former proved to be 100% selective for the full
hydrogenation of benzene to cyclohexane despite a moderate
activity at 375 K (conversion of ca. 1.3 mol of benzene per
mole of catalyst). Increasing the temperature to 423 K
improved the activity, but lowered slightly the selectivity
(98%). The [Os3Ni3] catalyst was tested in the temperature
range 346−418 K, and exhibited activities similar to those of
[Os3Ni], but with lower selectivities for cyclohexane (76−
95%). In both cases, a selectivity up to 5% was observed for the
hydrogenolysis product n-hexane. For comparison, the catalyst
obtained from the alumina-supported cluster [H2Os3(CO)10]
was found to be almost 2 times more active than the mixedmetal systems, with selectivities ranging from 80% to 97% for
cyclohexane.144
2.5.1.46. Os−Ni−Cu. Hydrogenation of 1,3-cis- and 1,4-cispentadiene was achieved in the presence of Chromosorb Psupported heterogeneous catalysts derived from the trimetallic
cluster [Os3Ni(μ-CuPPh3)(μ-H)2Cp(CO)9] (42) with good
activities. In particular, at 100% conversion of 1,3-cispentadiene, the selectivity for pentane dropped from 84% to
58% when the temperature was raised from 353 to 503 K, while
that for 2-pentenes increased from 16% to 36%. Cracking
products and 1-pentene were detected in very small amounts. A
similar profile was observed for 1,4-cis-pentadiene hydrogenation.128a
Scheme 14
2.5.1.49. Co−Pt. The linear complex trans-[Pt{Co(CO)4} 2(CNCy) 2 ] and the triangular clusters [Co2 Pt(CO)7 (dppe)] and [Co 2Pt(CO) 7(dpae)] were used in
homogeneous hydrogenation of 1-hexyne. The main products
were 1-hexene (60−84% of product mixture) and 2-hexenes
(14−18% of the product mixture). Hexane was also obtained in
various amounts, ranging from 2% to 22%, depending on the
cluster.51
Hydrogenation of 1,3- and 1,5-octadiene was achieved in the
presence of the Co−Pt cluster [Co2Pt2(CO)8(PPh3)2] with
very low activity (<7% conversion) and selectivity.113 The
clusters [Co2Pt2(CO)8L2] (L = PPh3, AsPh3) were relatively
good homogeneous catalysts for the selective hydrogenation of
d i p h e n y l a c e t y le n e t o c i s - s t i l b en e . I n p a r t ic ul a r ,
[Co2Pt2(CO)8(PPh3)2] afforded cis-stilbene with ca. 23%
yield at 24% conversion. It also hydrogenated 1-octyne to 1octene (55%) and to octane (43%) at 98% conversion.
Hydrogenation of phenylacetylene was much less efficient,
affording oligomerization products and exhibiting low activity
(<40% conversion). Extensive transformation and rearrangement was found for this catalyst.113
The polymer-immobilized catalyst [Co2Pt2(CO)8(Ph2P∼
polym)2], obtained from the butterfly cluster [Co2Pt2(CO)8(PPh3)2], was found to be active in olefin hydrogenation.150 Its
slightly improved stability as compared to that of its molecular
precursor under homogeneous conditions is interesting to note
because in the latter case the mixed-metal cluster rapidly
transformed into the homonuclear cluster
[Pt5(CO)6(PPh3)4].113
2.5.1.50. Rh−Pt. Active catalysts prepared from [Et4N][Rh5Pt(CO)15] on an Amberlite anion exchange resin were
tested in the aromatic ring hydrogenation reactions of toluene,
phenol, and anisole, with less efficiency than when the
Amberlite-supported cluster [Pt15(CO)30]2− was used. The
former catalyst did not work for aniline or nitrobenzene.151
The [Rh5Pt(CO)15]− cluster was adsorbed on MgO and
activated under He or H2. Its activity for toluene hydrogenation
to give methylcyclohexane was compared to that of Rh/MgO
obtained from [Rh6(CO)16]. It appeared that Pt slightly
improved the activity, but both catalysts underwent deactivation after a few runs.152
2.5.1.47. Os−Au. No activity in ethylene hydrogenation was
detected below 383 K with the silica-immobilized catalysts
[HOs3Au(CO)10(Ph2P∼SIL)] and [ClOs3Au(CO) 10 (Ph 2 P∼SIL)], prepared by anchoring the PPh 3
derivatives onto phosphine-functionalized silica.72 The system
“ClOs3Au” was much less stable than the “HOs3Au” system.
However, when it was anchored onto a functionalized
poly(styrene-divinylbenzene) support to afford [ClOs3Au(CO)10(Ph2P∼polym)], it became much more stable than its
silica-supported counterpart, and it was found to be an active
catalyst for ethylene hydrogenation at 1 atm and temperatures
below 373 K.145
2.5.1.48. Co−Rh. Low pressure hydrogenation of styrene
was tested in the presence of Co−Rh complexes with different
Co/Rh ratios, which emphasized the influence of the
composition of the metal core. Typically, the initial hydrogenation rate with [Co2Rh2(CO)12] is roughly twice that of
[Co3Rh(CO)12], while [Co4(CO)12] alone is inactive. Addition
of trimethylphosphite resulted in enhanced rate of hydrogenation.146
The cluster [Co2Rh2(CO)12] was encapsulated in a silica
sol−gel matrix for applications in alkene hydrogenation. Thus,
styrene afforded ethylbenzene, and 1-chloronaphthalene
yielded mainly 5-chlorotetralin, cis-decaline, and trans-decaline
in the following respective amounts: first run 29%, 58%, and
8%; second run 11%, 72%, and 12%; third run 6%, 82%, and
12%. Under the reaction conditions, the entrapped clusters
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hydrogenation of CO. It exhibited not only higher activities
(56% conversion) than monometallic Rh complexes (<10%),
but also better selectivities toward oxygenates (56%), especially
to C2 oxygenates. The complexes [Cp*Ti(μ-η2:η1-sal)2Rh(CO)2] (44b) and [Cp*Ti(μ-η2:η1-O2Bn)Rh(COD)] (45)
(O2Bn = 2-(oxomethyl)phenolate) also showed good selectivity for the oxygenates, but were less active.158
2.5.1.51. Rh−Au. In the presence of the dinuclear complex
[RhAu{HC(PPh2)3}(COD)(PPh3)](BF4)2 (43), hydrogenation of diphenylacetylene and 1-hexene afforded cis-stilbene
and hexane, respectively, with rather good selectivity. The Ir−
Au analogue was inactive under the same reaction conditions.153
2.5.1.52. Ir−Pt. The hydrogenation of cyclohexene to
cyclohexane, 2-methylcyclohexene to 2-methylcyclohexane, 2cyclohexenone to cyclohexanone, and crotonaldehyde to
butyraldehyde was performed in the presence of
[Ir2Pt2(CO)7(PPh3)3] as a homogeneous catalyst. Noteworthy
is that only the olefinic bond was hydrogenated in the latter two
compounds, although trace amounts of the corresponding
alcohols were detected.154
2.5.1.53. Pt−Cu. The silica-supported cluster [Pt2Cu4(C
C-t-Bu)8] (6) afforded a heterogeneous [Pt2Cu4] catalyst,
which exhibited poor activity for the hydrogenation of toluene
to methylcyclohexane.155
2.5.1.54. Pt−Au. The silica-supported [Pt2Au4] catalyst,
obtained from the cluster [Pt2Au4(CC-t-Bu)8] (7), although
more active than the Pt−Cu analogue described above, was
much less active in toluene hydrogenation to methylcyclohexane than the standard Pt/SiO2 catalysts.155 A complementary
study was carried out with the hydrogenation of propylene in
the presence of the titania-supported [Pt2Au4] catalyst derived
from cluster 7. While Pt catalysts are very active for this
reaction, it seems that the presence of Au had a “diluting effect”
on the Pt atoms, thus decreasing the overall activity.156
Hydrogenation of ethylene to ethane was slowly catalyzed by
the 16 electron cluster [Pt(AuPPh3)8](NO3)2 (5) in the form
of solid microcrystals. The intermediate formation of a hydrido
cluster was suggested to occur.43b,46b
The silica-supported cluster [Pt(AuPPh3)6(PPh3)](NO3)2
(3) was found to be a slow catalyst for the hydrogenation of
ethylene, exhibiting turnover frequencies of 8 × 10−4 and 5 ×
10−4 s−1 with or without preliminary thermal treatment at 473
K, respectively. For comparison, the turnover frequencies for
H2−D2 equilibration reactions in the presence of the same
catalytic system were much higher and found in the range 11−
29 s−1.46a
2.5.2. Hydrogenation of CO and CO2. A considerable
amount of work has been dedicated to the hydrogenation of
CO, mainly because of the interest in Fischer−Tropsch
synthesis. Efficient transformations of CO2 are also receiving
considerable attention, from both chemical and environmental
viewpoints. The direct incorporation of CO2 into organic
substrates is clearly an elegant route to functionalized
chemicals.157 So far, only monometallic catalysts have been
reported for such reactions. The hydrogenation of the carbon−
oxygen multiple bonds of both CO and CO2 will be examined
together, as partial reduction of CO2 is known to afford CO,
which can be further reduced.
2.5.2.1. Ti−Rh. The complex [Cp*Ti(μ-η2:η1-sal)2Rh(COD)] (salH2 = salicylic acid) (44a) was used in the
2.5.2.2. Cr−Ru. Hydrogenation of CO to hydrocarbons and
oxygenates was achieved with a heterogeneous silica-supported
catalyst derived from [PPN]2[Cr2Ru3C(CO)16]. It was much
less active and selective than [RuCo2], [RuCo3], and [Ru3Co3]
MMCD catalysts (see section 2.5.2.31), and the selectivity for
oxygenates was ca. 12%.159
2.5.2.3. Cr−Co. Although the separation between the metal
centers is clearly nonbonding, the complex [CrCo(PhCH2)(DH)(CO)3(py)] (DH− = monoanion of dimethylglyoxime)
(46) was reported to be a promising precursor for
heterogeneous catalytic CO hydrogenation with good catalyst
lifetime. Unfortunately, no details were provided concerning
possible synergistic effects.160
2.5.2.4. Cr−Pt. A [CrPt] heterogeneous catalyst prepared
from [HCrPt(μ-PPh2)(μ-CO)(CO)4(PPh3)] (47, proposed
structure) on SiO2 exhibited higher activity and methanol
selectivity (>50%) than conventional monometallic or bimetallic heterogeneous catalysts (12−15% selectivity) for CO2
hydrogenation at ca. 2.2% CO2 conversion. This system is
5.5−6.5 times more active than the monometallic system Pt/
SiO2, suggesting the occurrence of synergistic effects in the
bimetallic system. However, the corresponding W−Pt analogous system was much more selective, reaching more than 90%
methanol selectivity.161
2.5.2.5. Mo−Fe. The [Mo2Fe2] catalysts derived from the
sulfido cluster [Mo2Fe2S2Cp2(CO)8] and supported on MgO
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showed high selectivity for C2 products in CO hydrogenation.162 Infrared, EXAFS, and Mössbauer studies confirmed that no structural change took place upon initial
adsorption of the former cluster on the support, whereas
oxidation occurred upon heating.163 These observations were
consistent with the higher selectivities of the [Mo2Fe2] catalysts
when compared to those of Mo/Al2O3, MoS2, and Fe/Al2O3.164
When adsorbed on MgO, this [Mo2Fe2] catalyst displayed a
selectivity higher than 95 mol % C2H4 and C2H6 (ca. 1:2)
against more than 95 mol % CH4 when it was adsorbed or γAl2O3. In a similar fashion, the alumina-supported cluster
[Mo2Fe2S4Cp2(CO)6] catalyzed the hydrogenation of CO.164a
2.5.2.6. Mo−Ru. Similarly to [PPN]2[Cr2Ru3C(CO)16] (see
section 2.5.2.2), the cluster [Et4N]2[Mo2Ru3C(CO)16] was
used to prepare silica-supported heterogeneous catalysts for
CO hydrogenation to hydrocarbons and oxygenates. However,
even if the selectivities for oxygenates was 26%, the activity was
lower than those of [RuCo2], [RuCo3], and [Ru3Co3]
catalysts.159
In the course of studies of the possible interactions between
H2 and the heterobimetallic complexes [Cp(OC)2Mo(μdppm)Ru(CO)(C5R5)] (48a, R = H; 48b, R = Me), it was
found that such systems exhibited activity, albeit very low, in
the reversible hydrogenation of CO2 to formic acid. In
comparison, monometallic Ru analogues were inactive toward
CO2 hydrogenation, suggesting that both metals play a role in
the reaction. It was suggested that the low activity might be due
to the nonfacile reaction of the complexes with H2 to yield
dihydride species, and to the formation of a too stable Ru−H−
Mo intermediate.165
Similarly, the [Mo 2 Rh] catalyst prepared from
[Mo2RhCp3(CO)5] on SiO2 showed higher selectivity toward
alcohols than the conventional catalysts. The authors explained
the higher selectivity in CO hydrogenation toward alcohols
than conventional catalysts by Mo-promoted CO-insertion for
both [MoRh] and [Mo2Rh] catalysts.168 A comparison with the
related [W2Rh] catalyst revealed that the promotor effect of
molybdenum is more significant than that of tungsten (see
section 2.5.2.13). Indeed, for the [Mo2Rh] system, at 523 K,
the overall selectivity for oxygenates was superior to 54% (ca.
39% for methanol and 15% for ethanol), at conversions close to
10%.169
2.5.2.10. Mo−Ni. The alumina-supported [Mo2Ni2] heterogeneous catalysts derived from the sulfido clusters
[Mo2Ni2S4Cp4] and [Mo2Ni2S4Cp2(CO)2] have been patented
for CO methanation.164a
2.5.2.11. W−Ru. The reversible hydrogenation of CO2 to
formic acid was catalyzed in the presence of the heterobimetallic complexes [Cp(OC)2W(μ-dppm)Ru(CO)(C5R5)]
(49a, R = H; 49b, R = Me) (Scheme 15). The yields were
low, but tests with monometallic Ru analogues suggested the
need of both metal centers in the reaction (see also section
2.5.2.6).165
Scheme 15
2.5.2.12. W−Os. The activity in CO reduction of aluminasupported [WOs 3] catalysts, derived from the cluster
[HWOs3Cp(CO)12], has been compared to those of related
heterogeneous [MoOs3] catalysts (see section 2.5.2.7).166
2.5.2.13. W−Rh. A heterogeneous [W2Rh] catalyst prepared
from the cluster [W2RhCp3(CO)5] supported on SiO2 was
active in CO hydrogenation, showing rather good selectivities
to oxygenate products. At 523 K, the system was able to reach
almost 10% conversion and afforded gaseous hydrocarbons
(mainly methane, with ca. 66% selectivity) with oxygenates
such as methanol (ca. 18% selectivity) and ethanol (ca. 16%
selectivity). The Mo−Rh analogous system was a better catalyst
(see section 2.5.2.9), but the presence of W was necessary to
improve the selectivity toward oxygenates, as compared to
monometallic Rh-based catalysts.169
2.5.2.14. W−Ir. Upon temperature-programmed decomposition in flowing hydrogen of the alumina-supported clusters
[WIr3Cp(CO)11] (19b) and [W2Ir2Cp2(CO)10] (20b) and of
the corresponding homometallic complexes [Ir4(CO)12] and
[W2Cp2(CO)6], most of the CO released was converted to
CH4. This occurred to a lesser extent when the W/Ir ratio was
increased.84
2.5.2.15. W−Pt. The [WPt] catalysts prepared from
[HWPt(μ-PPh2)(μ-CO)(CO)4(PPh3)] (50, proposed structure) on SiO2 exhibited higher activity and methanol selectivity
in CO2 hydrogenation, as compared to conventional mono- or
bimetallic catalysts (see also section 2.5.2.4). The “promotion”
effect of platinum on tungsten in [WPt] resulted in a yield in
MeOH 313 times higher as compared to Pt alone, and was
more significant than in the case of the corresponding [CrPt]
catalyst where this factor was only 148. When CO2 conversions
were in the range 2.2−4%, methanol selectivities were greater
than 90%, and carbon monoxide was the only other product
detected (no methane or C2 hydrocarbons were observed).161
2.5.2.7. Mo−Os. The catalytic reduction of CO by aluminasupported catalysts derived from the tetrahedral cluster
[HMoOs3Cp(CO)12] was examined. Its activity was compared
to that of heterogeneous catalysts derived from [HWOs3Cp(CO)12] and [Os3(CO)12]. The fragmentation of the surfacebound clusters during thermal activation or a poisoning effect
from the group 6 metal atom by carbon originating from the
cyclopentadienyl ligands are thought to be responsible for the
similar activities observed for all catalysts.166
2.5.2.8. Mo−Co. The heterogeneous catalyst [Mo2Co2]
derived from the sulfido cluster [Mo2Co2(μ3-S)3Cp2(CO)4],
supported on various inorganic matrixes, has been studied in
CO methanation. It was considered that the clusters did not
undergo fragmention and reaggregation into larger crystallites.164
2.5.2.9. Mo−Rh. A [MoRh] catalyst derived from the
bimetallic complex [MoRhCp(μ-CO)2(CO)(PPh3)2] on alumina or silica catalyzed the selective hydrogenation of CO and
CO2 to oxygenates, methanol being the main product, with
higher selectivities than the catalysts prepared by mixing of the
homometallic precursors. The performance of this catalyst was
attributed to the greater dispersion of the Rh and Mo atoms.167
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performed with the complex [(OC)3Mn(μ-dppm)2PdBr] (51),
at a rate of 7 mol/mol catalyst/h.176
2.5.2.16. Mn−Fe. Addition of manganese to conventional
iron- or cobalt-based Fischer−Tropsch catalysts generally leads
to an increased formation of light olefins, whereas the catalyst
activity decreases.
When supported on Al2O3, SiO2, MgO, TiO2, and ZrO2, the
carbonyl cluster [Et4N][MnFe2(CO)12] was used as a
precursor to [MnFe2] MMCD catalysts. Mn−Fe interactions
still existed after thermal decomposition of the supported
cluster, as indicated by the decreased CO methanation and
increased yield of olefins and higher hydrocarbons when the
[MnFe2] catalyst was compared to conventional catalysts.170
The silica-supported potassium salt K[MnFe2(CO)12] was
studied for CO/H2 conversion. At moderate temperatures, the
reaction led to aliphatic olefins in the C1−C5 range (no
oxygenates were detected), while at elevated temperatures, the
reaction led to aromatics (mainly toluene and xylenes) with a
maximum of ca. 20% at 673 K.171
The [MnFe2] catalysts derived from K[MnFe2(CO)12] gave
variable selectivities in CO hydrogenation, depending on the
support (Al2O3, MgO, or ZrO2 + Al2O3). With magnesia and
alumina, the main products were light hydrocarbons (C1−C4).
When zirconia and alumina were used jointly, the selectivity for
oxygenates increased dramatically (dimethyl ether and
methanol being the main products, the latter undergoing
dehydration to the former at higher temperatures), and the
activity reached 20% at 473 K after 13 h and almost 60% at 553
K after 158 h.172
Carbon-supported Mn−Fe and K−Mn−Fe catalysts with
different Mn/Fe ratios were prepared from complexes
K[MnFe(CO)9], [Et4N][MnFe(CO)9], and the mixed-metal
clusters [Mn2Fe(CO)14] and [Et4N][MnFe2(CO)12]. They
were used in the selective synthesis of C2−C4 olefins from CO
and H2.173 Highly dispersed Mn−Fe catalysts were obtained,
which displayed selectivities to C2−C4 olefins as high as 85−90
wt %, with the balance being methane.173a
2.5.2.17. Mn−Ru. The silica-supported [MnRu3] MMCD
catalyst derived from [Et4N][MnRu3C(CO)13] was much less
active for the hydrogenation of CO to hydrocarbons and
oxygenates than [RuCo2], [RuCo3], and [Ru3Co3] catalysts.
The selectivity for oxygenates was ca. 20%, and methane was
the main product.159
2.5.2.18. Mn−Co. The performance for CO hydrogenation
of the alumina-supported [MnCo] MMCD catalyst prepared
from [MnCo(CO)9] was much higher than that of conventional catalysts and of catalysts prepared by successive or
simultaneous impregnation of [Mn2(CO)10] and [Co2(CO)8]
([Mn2+Co2]). All systems gave similar selectivities, the only
products being linear alkanes (especially n-hexane), but this
[MnCo] catalyst was much more active.174
2.5.2.19. Mn−Rh. The use of [Mn{Rh12(CO)30}] salt was
patented for the catalytic hydrogenation of CO to oxygenates
such as methanol, ethylene glycol, glycerine, or 1,2-propylene
glycol.175
2.5.2.20. Mn−Pd. Preliminary results show that the synthesis
of ethylformate from a CO2/H2 mixture (1:1, 12 atm) in the
presence of ethanol and triethylamine at 403 K can be
2.5.2.21. Re−Os. CO hydrogenation to hydrocarbons
(selectivity to methane >70%) was performed with a MgOsupported [ReOs3] catalyst prepared from [H3ReOs3(CO)13]
and compared to monometallic catalysts obtained from
[Os3(CO)12] and [H3Re3(CO)12]. Although all catalysts lost
activity during operation, the bimetallic particles were stable
enough under catalytic conditions to make the MMCD catalyst
live longer than the other. The presence of Re was found to
prevent formation of the otherwise observed cluster [Os10C(CO)24]2−.177
2.5.2.22. Re−Rh. A salt formulated as [Re2{Rh12(CO)30}3]
was reported in a patent to catalyze CO hydrogenation to
oxygenated products such as methanol, ethylene glycol,
glycerine, and 1,2-propylene glycol.178
2.5.2.23. Fe−Ru. When supported on ZrO2, the MMCD
catalysts obtained from [FeRu2(CO)12] (52) and [Fe2Ru(CO)12] (53) were much more active than monometallic or
conventional catalysts.179
The [Fe2Ru] catalyst derived from [Fe2Ru(CO)12] (53) on
γ-Al2O3 was ca. 50 times more active and ca. 6.2 times more
selective toward C2−C5 hydrocarbons (ca. 74%) in CO
hydrogenation than the [Fe 3 ] catalyst derived from
[Fe3(CO)12]. In comparison, conventional Fe−Ru catalysts,
prepared by impregnation of the corresponding monometallic
salts [Fe(NO3)3] and [RuCl3], produced predominantly CH4.89
When supported on Al2O3, Al2O3/KOH, or MgO, the
[FeRu3] catalysts derived from [H2FeRu3(CO)13] were active
for methanation and Fischer−Tropsch reactions involving CO
and CO2. Their catalytic activity and selectivity were found to
strongly depend on the nature of the bimetallic couple, the
activation temperature, and the nature of the support.122
The activity and selectivity in CO hydrogenation of highly
dispersed MMCD catalysts obtained from the silica-supported
clusters [Fe2Ru(CO)12] (53) and [H2FeRu3(CO)13] have been
compared to those of catalysts prepared from a mixture of the
homometallic clusters [Fe3(CO)12] and [Ru3(CO)12]. Whether
obtained from mono- or bimetallic precursors, the catalysts
with the highest Ru content were the most active.85
At 623 K under CO/H2 (1:2) pressure, [FeRu3] catalysts
derived from [H2FeRu3(CO)13] supported on alumina, silica,
or Na−Y zeolite afforded methane with yields in the range 40−
43%, depending on the support. The main byproduct observed
was CO2, as a result of the water gas shift reaction (H2O + CO
→ CO2 + H2) involving the water formed in situ (3H2 + CO →
CH4 + H2O).180
The use of amorphous carbon black as support for
[FeRu2(CO)12] (52), [Fe2Ru(CO)12] (53), or
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[H2FeRu3(CO)13] afforded highly dispersed Fe−Ru bimetallic
crystallites. It seems that the reduction of these clusters on
carbon is more facile and complete than on many oxide
supports. It was found that ruthenium is more active than iron
for CO hydrogenation but is less active than iron in forming
CO2. Thus, varying the Fe/Ru ratio allowed one to tune the
activity toward one substrate or another. In particular, methane
formation increased with the Ru content.181
A sequentially impregnated [Fe3+Ru3] catalyst produced a
higher olefin:paraffin ratio than any of the bimetallic Fe−Ru
clusters examined. This result is similar to the increased
selectivity of silica-supported Fe−Ru catalysts prepared by
sequential impregnation of Ru and Fe salts.182
The silica-supported [Fe 3Ru 3 ] catalyst derived from
[Fe3Ru3C(CO)13]2− was less active in CO hydrogenation
than [RuCo2], [RuCo3], and [Ru3Co3] catalysts (see section
2.5.2.31) but displayed significant selectivity for C1−C5
oxygenates (ca. 28%).159,183
2.5.2.24. Fe−Os. When physisorbed on silica, the cluster
[H2FeOs3(CO)13] yielded metallic particles (ca. 16 Å) under
argon at temperatures higher than 523 K, but cleavage of the
heteronuclear Fe−Os bonds occurred around 400 K. As a
consequence, their activity in Fischer−Tropsch catalysis was
found to be intermediate between those of the corresponding
[Fe3] and [Os3] homometallic systems.184
The MMCD [FeOs3] catalyst derived from the same cluster
[H2FeOs3(CO)13] on γ-Al2O3 was found to be 2 orders of
magnitude less active at 543 K in CO hydrogenation than the
[Os3Rh] catalyst obtained from [H2RhOs3(acac)(CO)10] (see
section 2.5.2.35), but showed a high selectivity for ether
formation (up to 36% after 55 h on stream), methane still being
the main product. It appears that under such catalytic
conditions, metal segregation occurred, which resulted in
small iron oxide particles and mononuclear osmium complexes.185
2.5.2.25. Fe−Co. Homogeneous proton-induced reduction
of coordinated CO to CH4, by reaction with HSO3CF3, was
catalyzed by a series of mono- and bimetallic tetranuclear
clusters, including Fe−Co compounds. Their efficiency was
found to increase in the order: [Co4(CO)12] < [PPN][FeCo3(CO)12] < [PPN][Ru3Co(CO)13] < [PPN][Fe3Co(CO)13] < K2[Ru4(CO)13] < [PPN]2[Fe4(CO)13]. It appeared
that higher Co contents lowered the ability to produce methane
in Fe- and Ru-based clusters.186
Highly active Fischer−Tropsch catalysts could be obtained
by anchoring the cluster [HFeCo3(CO)12] on a silica gel matrix
bearing amino functions and subsequent decarbonylation in a
stream of hydrogen at atmospheric pressure and 473 K. At
atmospheric pressure and 513 K, 20% conversion of synthesis
gas was observed, and an unusually narrow product distribution
showed a maximum at C6.187
The highly active alumina-supported [FeCo] catalyst derived
from [FeCoCp(CO)6] was used in the hydrogenation of CO at
atmospheric pressure and 493−553 K. This system was highly
selective toward olefins (up to 44% at 553 K) and showed
conversions in the range 9−12%.188
When supported on carbon, the catalysts derived from
K[FeCo(CO)8], [HFeCo3(CO)12], K[FeCo3(CO)12], K[Fe3Co(CO)13], and [Et4N][Fe3Co(CO)13] were active in
CO hydrogenation. Interestingly, addition of potassium
markedly decreased the catalytic activity but greatly enhanced
olefin selectivity.189
Methanation and Fischer−Tropsch reactions involving CO
and CO2 have been catalyzed by a heterogeneous catalysts
derived from [HFeCo3(CO)12].122
2.5.2.26. Fe−Rh. Catalysts of the type C2[Fe2Rh4(CO)16]/
NaY zeolite (cation C + = [Me 3 (CH 2 Ph)N] + , tris(4bromophenyl)ammonium (TBPA)) were tested for CO
hydrogenation, and afforded selectively a mixture of methane
and C2−C4 alkenes.90,190 Promotion by iron in CO hydrogenation may be associated with the presence of heteronuclear
adjacent Fe−Rh sites in zeolite supercages, which enhance CO
migratory insertion into Rh−H and Rh-alkyl bonds.190b,c
Ethanol formation from the CO + H2 reaction was studied in
the presence of MMCD catalysts derived from SiO2-supported
clusters [TMBA]2[Fe2Rh4(CO)16], [Me4N]2[FeRh4(CO)15],
[TMBA][FeRh5(CO)16], and [Fe3Rh2C(CO)14]. The results
were better than with monometallic Fe or Rh precursors, and a
selectivity for ethanol of 33% was observed in the case of
[Fe2Rh4].191 Formation of C2+ hydrocarbons was largely
suppressed, possibly due to the site-blocking of the Fe−Rh
ensembles.191b,192
With the silica-suported [Fe4Rh] and [Fe5Rh] catalysts
derived from [Et4N][Fe4RhC(CO)14] (54) and [Et4N][Fe5RhC(CO)16] (55), respectively, hydrogenation reactions
were catalyzed with high activity and selectivity to oxygenates.193
2.5.2.27. Fe−Ir. The synthesis of methanol from CO + H2
was efficiently catalyzed in the presence of clusters such as
[Et 4 N] 2 [Fe 2 Ir 2 (CO) 12 ] and [Et 4 N] 2 [Fe 2 Ir 4 (CO) 16 ] on
MgO.194 The same reaction was also performed in the presence
of the MMCD silica-supported [FeIr4] catalyst, prepared from
[TMBA]2[FeIr4(CO)15]. This catalyst was found to be much
more selective for methanol formation than Fe−Rh MMCD
catalysts and was also more active than a catalyst prepared by
mixing homometallic iron and iridium clusters.97,195
2.5.2.28. Fe−Pd. A silica-supported catalyst [Fe4Pd],
prepared from [TMBA]2[Fe4Pd(CO)16], was active in MeOH
synthesis by CO reduction, and it gave mostly methane and C2+
hydrocarbons. Furthermore, a supported [Fe6Pd6] catalyst,
obtained from [TMBA]3[HFe6Pd6(CO)24] (56), was less
active, but more selective (79%) in MeOH formation, a
behavior reminiscent of a palladium-only catalyst.191,195
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2.5.2.29. Fe−Pt. A silica-supported [Fe3Pt3] heterogeneous
catalyst prepared from the planar, raft-type cluster
[TMBA]2[Fe3Pt3(CO)15] (57) was very selective in CO
hydrogenation and yielded mainly methanol like a Pt catalyst
prepared from [Et 4 N] 2 [Pt 1 2 (CO) 2 4 ], whereas the
[TMBA]2[Fe4Pt(CO)16]-derived [Fe4Pt] catalyst was more
active but yielded predominantly methane.97,191
2.5.2.32. Ru−Rh. The Ru(acac)3−Rh(acac)3 systems,
dispersed in a low-melting point quaternary phosphonium
salt (such as Bu4PBr or C7H15Ph3PBr), from which the cluster
[RuRh2(CO)12] was isolated, was active in the conversion of
synthesis gas to ethylene glycol and its monoalkyl ether
derivatives. Methanol and ethanol were the major byproducts
detected.203
The silica-supported [Ru3Rh3] catalyst prepared from
[Et4N][Ru3Rh3C(CO)15] catalyzed CO hydrogenation to
methane and oxygenates, and proved to be the least selective
catalyst for oxygenates (12%) as compared to Ru−Mo, Ru−
Mn, Ru−Fe, and Ru−Ni analogues.159
2.5.2.33. Ru−Ni. Similarly, when supported on silica, the
cluster [Et4N]2[Ru3Ni3C(CO)13] exhibited poor activity and
selectivity toward C1−C5 oxygenates (16%) in CO hydrogenation albeit with lower activity and selectivity toward
oxygenates (12%) than the corresponding Ru−Mo, Ru−Mn, or
Ru−Fe clusters.159
2.5.2.34. Ru−Cu, Ru−Ag, Ru−Au. A homogeneous process
for the synthesis of methanol from CO and H2 (CO/H2 ratio =
1:1, THF, 548 K, 1200 atm) has been investigated in the
presence of the heterometallic carbide clusters [Ru6(ML)2C(CO)16] (M = Cu, Ag, Au; L = organonitrile). Although the
presence of ruthenium is known to catalyze the formation of
hydrocarbons from synthesis gas, none was observed in these
cases.204
2.5.2.35. Os−Rh. The cluster [H2Os3Rh(acac)(CO)10] was
physisorbed on γ-Al2O3 and tested in CO + H2 reactions.
Under the conditions used, fragmentation of the cluster seemed
to occur to give mononuclear rhodium complexes and
triosmium clusters. In comparison, the corresponding Fe−Rh
cluster-derived catalyst was 2 orders of magnitude more active
at 543 K. The major product observed was methane, and
hydrocarbons were formed in approximately a Schulz−Flory−
Anderson distribution. The heterogeneous [Os3Rh] catalyst
was 2 orders of magnitude more active at 543 K than the
corresponding [FeOs3] catalyst, but showed a lower selectivity
for ether formation.185
2.5.2.36. Os−Ni. Hydrogenation of CO and CO2 was carried
out in the presence of the γ-Al2O3 supported clusters [Os3Ni(μH)3Cp(CO)9] (58) and [Os3Ni3Cp3(CO)9] (59) as heterogeneous catalysts.144 These [Os3Ni] catalysts were more efficient
in CO methanation than the [Ni2] and [Os3] catalysts derived
from [Ni2Cp2(CO)2], [H2Os3(CO)10], and [Os3(CO)12],
respectively. Good conversions (0.83 mol of CO converted
per g·atom of metals) and high selectivity in CH4 (96−100%)
were observed at temperatures above 523 K, with small
amounts of CO2 and C2 hydrocarbons as byproducts.142 The
catalysts [Os3Ni] were found to give yields superior to 90% for
CO2 methanation at temperatures between 523 and 623 K. It
led to better conversion and selectivity than the [H2Os3],
[Os3], or [Ni2] catalysts.142,144
2.5.2.30. Ru−Os. A heterogeneous alumina-supported
[RuOs3] catalyst prepared from [H2RuOs3(CO)13] was slightly
active in the formation of hydrocarbons and dimethyl ether
from CO + H2.196
2.5.2.31. Ru−Co. Together with some Fe−Co analogues, the
cluster [PPN][Ru3Co(CO)13] was investigated for the protoninduced homogeneous reduction of coordinated CO to CH4
(proton source: HSO3CF3).186
The bimetallic MMCD catalysts obtained from [RuCo2(CO)11], [HRuCo3(CO)12], and [H3Ru3Co(CO)12] on
silica showed low activity in CO hydrogenation but higher
selectivity for oxygenated products than the corresponding
monometallic systems.197
Xiao et al. have found that [RuCo2], [RuCo3], and [Ru3Co3]
catalysts on silica derived from the clusters [RuCo2(CO)11],
[HRuCo3(CO)12], and [Ru3Co3C(CO)14] were more active for
the production of both hydrocarbons and oxygenates than
[Fe3Ru3] catalyst derived from [Fe3Ru3C(CO)13]2−. Selectivities for oxygenates could reach 38% at 458 K.159,183
Methanation and Fischer−Tropsch reactions involving CO
or CO2 took place with a catalyst derived from [HRuCo3(CO)12] on γ-Al2O3, γ-Al2O3/KOH, and MgO.122
For CO hydrogenation, a comparative study of MMCD
catalysts prepared from [HRuCo3(CO)12], [Ru2Co2(CO)13],
[H2Ru2Co2(CO)12], and [H3Ru3Co(CO)12] on silica showed
that those with a 1:1 ratio of Ru/Co had the lowest activity,
while the corresponding monometallic [Ru4] and [Co4],
obtained from [H4Ru4(CO)12] and [Co4(CO)12], respectively,
were the most active.198 Those materials were also studied in
Fischer−Tropsch synthesis.198,199
Hydrogenation of CO with a [RuCo3] catalyst was suggested
to involve a carbene mechanism.200
Methanation of CO was achieved with γ-alumina-, silica-, and
Na−Y zeolite-supported catalysts derived from [PPN][Ru3Co(CO)13]180 and [HRuCo3(CO)12].201 The formation of CO2
suggested the occurrence of the WGSR and the possibility, at
low CO/H2 ratio (1:4), to observe some CO2 methanation.
The alumina-supported catalysts yielded the best results under
these conditions.
The clusters [HRuCo3(CO)12] and [HRu3Co(CO)13] were
synthesized inside the cages of NaY zeolites by ion exchange,
and subsequently activated under reducing atmosphere. The
resulting [RuCo3] and [Ru3Co] materials were more active in
CO hydrogenation than the corresponding [Ru] and [Co]
catalysts prepared from monometallic precursors. Thus,
[Ru3Co] exhibited 36.6% selectivity toward oxygenates for
2.8% CO conversion, while [RuCo3] showed 48.8% selectivity
for a conversion of 6.7%, suggesting a positive effect of a higher
Co/Ru ratio on both conversion and selectivity.202
2.5.2.37. Co−Rh. The synthesis of oxygenated compounds
such as methanol, ethylene glycol, glycerine, or 1,2-propylene
glycol from CO and H2 was achieved in the presence of the
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complex [Co{Rh12(CO)30}]175 and salts of the dianion
[Co3Rh9(CO)30]2−.205
Hydrogenation of CO was tested with [Co2Rh2] and
[Co3Rh] catalysts derived, respectively, from [Co2Rh2(CO)12]
and [Co3Rh(CO)12] on silica198 or on ZrO2,206 and higher
selectivity for oxygenates was observed as compared to
monometallic systems.
Amine-functionalized resins to which Co−Rh clusters such as
[Co4−xRhx(CO)12] (x = 0−2) were tethered have been used in
a two-step process for the production of isobutene from
propylene and synthesis gas. The alcohol mixture obtained in
the first step was dehydrated on aluminum oxide.207
2.5.2.38. Co−Cu. The dinuclear complex [(OC)4CoCu(TMED)] (60) was impregnated onto a crystalline silica wafer,
then reduced in CO and H2 atmospheres at 473 K. The
resulting heterogeneous [CoCu] catalyst was assumed to
consist of dispersed Co small NPs among Cu aggregates.
This system catalyzed CO hydrogenation to a mixture of C1,
C2, and MeOH, with conversions ranging from 1.5% to 2.5%
between 433 and 473 K.27g
yield. Only the homometallic Ru−Ru analogue gave similar
results, with 41% yield for cyclohexanol.211
2.5.3.2. Mo−Co. Selective hydrogenation of crotonaldehyde
to crotyl alcohol (Scheme 16) was catalyzed by a heterogeScheme 16
neous catalyst obtained by pyrolysis of the mixed carboxylates
[Mo2{Co3(CO)9CCO2}4], in contrast to conventional catalysts
that are selective for the hydrogenation of the CC double
bond. In particular, selectivities for crotyl alcohol up to 36%
were observed, at 6.5% conversion. A catalyst obtained from the
homometallic cluster [Co2{Co3(CO)9CCO2}4] was able to
reach 100% selectivity, albeit at 3.5% conversion only.212
2.5.3.3. Mo−Rh. A [Mo 2 Rh] catalyst derived from
[Mo2RhCp3(CO)5] on silica was used for the hydrogenation
of acetaldehyde. The presence of molybdenum significantly
suppresses the C−C bond splitting reaction whereas hydrogenation to ethanol is promoted by more than 1 order of
magnitude. Thus, selectivities for ethanol reached 95−98%. A
catalyst prepared from impregnation of the salts RhCl3 and
MoCl5 gave similar results.213
2.5.3.4. W−Ru, Fe−Ru. Similarly to the Cr−Ru (61a) and
Mo−Ru (61b) systems described above, the complexes
[(OC) 4 W(μ-PPh 2 ) 2 Ru(CO) 3 ] (61c) and [(OC) 3 Fe(μPPh2)2Ru(CO)3] (61d) catalyzed the hydrogenation of
cyclohexanone to cyclohexanol. They were both much less
active than 61a and 61b, giving yields of 6% and 10%,
respectively. In all cases, byproducts included butane, 1-butanal,
and 1-butanol.211
2.5.3.5. Ru−Rh, Ru−Ir. The complexes [H(OC)(PPh3)2Ru(μ-bim)Rh(COD)] (bim = 2,2′-bi-imidazolato) (33a) and
[H(OC)(PPh3)2Ru(μ-bim)Ir(COD)] (33b) were more active
in hydrogen transfer from propan-2-ol to cyclohexanone (to
afford cyclohexanol), or benzylideneacetophenone than the
corresponding mononuclear complexes. The electronic communication through the bi-imidazolato ligand was considered
key to the higher catalytic activity observed in comparison to
the corresponding mononuclear complexes (see section
2.5.1.38 for more details).123,124
Reduction of cyclohexanone to cyclohexanol by hydrogen
transfer from propan-2-ol was more efficiently catalyzed with
the complexes [H(OC)(PPh3)2Ru(μ-Cl)(μ-pz)M(diolefin)]
(M = Rh or Ir; pz = pyrazolate; diolefin = COD or TFB
(TFB = tetrafluorobenzobarrelene)) than with the corresponding mononuclear rhodium and iridium complexes. The authors
also suggested that the diolefin ligand TFB stabilizes the
bridged (μ-Cl)(μ-pz) heterometallic species, thus preventing
cleavage of the complexes and keeping the two metal centers in
close proximity.214
2.5.2.39. Rh−Ir. Hydrogenation of CO was performed with
salts formulated as [Ir2{Rh12(CO)30}]208 and
[Ir2{Rh12(CO)30}3]178 and with Al, Ga, Ir, Se, Y, or Re salts
of anions such as [Rh6Ir6(CO)30]2− or [Rh9Ir3(CO)30]2−.
Oxygenated compounds, such as methanol, ethylene glycol,
glycerol, and 1,2-propylene glycol, were produced.205
2.5.2.40. Rh−Pt. Ethylene glycol and methanol were the
favored products resulting from hydrogenation of CO catalyzed
by [PPN][Rh5Pt(CO)15].209 In contrast, the catalytic properties of [PPN]2[Rh4Pt(CO)12] are greatly reduced. This low
activity was correlated with the enhanced amount of [PPN]+
present rather than with the increased Pt/Rh ratio. Because
platinum-only catalysis yields methanol and not ethylene
glycol,210 the authors suggested that mixed molecular clusters
of unknown nature were probably involved in the catalysis.209
The synthesis of organic compounds such as methanol,
ethylene glycol, glycerol, and 1,2-propylene glycol from CO
and H2 was achieved with a metal salt formulated as
[Pt{Rh12(CO)30}].175
2.5.2.41. Rh−Cu, Rh−Ag, Rh−Au, Rh−Zn. The transformation of CO and H2 to oxygenates such as methanol,
ethylene glycol, glycerol, and 1,2-propylene glycol was achieved
with the salts formulated as [M2{Rh12(CO)30}] (M = Cu, Ag,
Au),208 and [Zn{Rh12(CO)30}].175 The clusters were recovered
from the filtrate by recrystallization.
2.5.3. Hydrogenation of Aldehydes and Ketones.
2.5.3.1. Cr−Ru, Mo−Ru. Hydrogenation of cyclohexanone, at
413 K and under 40 bar of H2, was performed with the
dinuclear metal−metal bonded complex [(OC) 4 Cr(μPPh2)2Ru(CO)3] (61a) as a homogeneous catalyst. Cyclohexanol was obtained in rather low yields (21%). This system
was more active than the W−Ru and Fe−Ru analogues, but less
active than the Mo−Ru one. Indeed, the complex [(OC)4Mo(μ-PPh2)2Ru(CO)3] (61b) afforded cyclohexanol with 56%
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2.5.3.6. Ru−Pt. The single-step hydrogenation of dimethyl
terephtalate to 1,4-cyclohexanedimethanol (see section 3.14)
was achieved with several silica-supported decarbonylated
heterometallic carbido clusters: [Ph4P]2[Ru5PtC(CO)15],129e
[PPN] 2 [Ru 10 Pt 2 (C) 2 (CO) 28 ], 1 2 9 e [Ru 5 PtC(μ-SnPh 2 )(CO)15],133 [Ru5PtC(μ-GePh2)(CO)15],133 and [Ru5PtC(CO)16].133 The first step, as mentioned in section 2.5.1.41,
consists of the hydrogenation of the CC bonds of the
benzene ring. The second step involves the reduction of the
CO bond of the ester functions to yield alcohol groups.
Magnesia-supported134 and mesoporous silica-supported135
[Ru5Pt] composites derived from the trimetallic cluster
[Ru5PtC(μ-SnPh2)(CO)15] were efficient catalysts for the
hydrogenation of citral. They were very selective (90%) toward
the formation of α,β-unsaturated alcohols (geraniol and nerol)
at 100% conversion after 6 h of reaction.134 Partial subsequent
hydrogenation of the carbon−carbon double bonds led to 3,7dimethyloctanol (see section 2.5.1.41) (Scheme 17).
Scheme 18
Pt dispersion. All catalysts examined for comparison showed
high initial conversions (>90%) and good selectivities for
toluene (ca. 90% yield after 20 h on stream). However, after 40
h on stream, the MMCD catalyst remained active, while the
activity of the conventional Pt-based catalysts dramatically
decreased.216
2.6.3. Fe−Ru. The glc Chromosorb-supported [FeRu3]
MMCD catalyst derived from [H2FeRu3(CO)13] catalyzed
dehydrogenation/disproportionation reactions at temperatures
in the range 373−503 K. A broad range of substrates, including
cyclic mono- and dienes (cyclohexane, cyclohexene, cyclohexadienes, methylcyclohexane), was studied. In all cases, the
main reaction was dehydrogenation, but some disproportionation products were also observed. For instance, at 423 K,
cyclohexene gave a mixture of benzene (97.5%) and cyclohexane (2.5%).120
2.6.4. Ru−Ni, Os−Ni, Os−Ni−Cu. The Chromosorb Psupported [Ru3Ni] and [Os3Ni] catalysts derived from the
clusters [Ru3Ni(μ-H)3Cp(CO)9] and [Os3Ni(μ-H)3Cp(CO)9]
(58), respectively, catalyzed the hydrogenation−dehydrogenation of alcohols. Both catalysts afforded almost quantitatively
dimethyl ether as a result of dehydration of methanol (2MeOH
→ Me2O + H2O). Similarly, ethanol yielded diethyl ether with
70% or 25−35% selectivity when [Ru3Ni] and [Ru3Os] were
used, respectively. The latter system afforded C1−C2 alkanes
with even higher selectivity.128
The [Os3NiCu] MMCD catalyst derived from [Os3Ni(μCuPPh3)(μ-H)2Cp(CO)9] (42) on Chromosorb P exhibited a
significantly different behavior toward dehydrogenation of
alcohols as compared to the catalysts obtained from [Ru3Ni(μ-H)3Cp(CO)9] and [Os3Ni(μ-H)3Cp(CO)9]. Formaldehyde
and acetaldehyde were obtained from methanol and ethanol,
respectively, with more than 80% selectivity when no H2 was
used, either by direct dehydrogenation, or by hydration of the
in situ formed ethylene. Also, acetone could be obtained from ipropanol.128
2.6.5. Pt−Au. The clusters [Pt(AuPPh3)8](NO3)2 (5) and
[Pt(NO3)(AuPPh3)2(PPh3)2](NO3) (62) were supported on
commercial SiO2 and activated under O2 at 573 K, then under
H2 at 473 K. Elemental analyses evidenced that most of the
phosphorus from the cluster precursors remained after thermal
activation, which resulted in enhanced stability of the resulting
catalysts. These [PtAu8] and [PtAu2] catalysts were tested in
hexane and propane conversion. In the former case, a maximum
of 10% conversion was achieved, with selectivities for hexenes
around 90%, mainly due to the presence of P in the samples.
The results for propane conversion were quite similar, mainly
yielding propene with 90% selectivity at 35% conversion.217
Scheme 17
2.5.3.7. Os−Ni. Thermal treatment under H2 of the
ChromoP-supported cluster [Os3Ni(μ-H)3Cp(CO)9] (58)
afforded a [Os3Ni] heterogeneous catalyst active in the
hydrogenation of acetone to propane. A multistep reaction
pattern was proposed, which involved first hydrogenation of
acetone to isopropanol, dehydration of the latter on the support
with formation of propylene (see section 2.7.2), followed by
hydrogenation of the latter to propane (see section 2.5.1.45).143
2.5.3.8. Co−Cu, Co−Zn. Selective hydrogenation of
crotonaldehyde to crotyl alcohol was tested in the presence
of high surface area catalysts prepared by controlled pyrolysis of
the clusters [Cu 2 {Co 3 (CO) 9 CCO 2 } 4 ] and [Zn 4 O{Co3(CO)9CCO2}6]. Both systems could reach 60−65%
selectivity at 2−3% conversion.212
2.5.4. Hydrogenation of Oxygen. 2.5.4.1. Pt−Au.
Hydrogenation of oxygen to water at 303 K and 1 atm was
achieved with a microcrystalline powder of the cluster
[Pt(AuPPh3)8](NO3)2 (5). The reaction 2D2 + O2 → 2D2O
was monitored by mass spectrometry. The rate of this reaction
is similar to that observed for H2−D2 equilibration.43b
2.6. Dehydrogenation of Alkanes (to Alkenes) and Alcohols
(to Aldehydes)
2.6.1. Mo−Pt. Highly active [Mo6Pt] catalysts for the
dehydrogenation of butane, isobutane, and propane were
prepared by impregnation of the inorganic cluster
[NH4]4[H4PtMo6O24] on MgO. They were more active and
more resistant to deactivation than the conventionally prepared
bimetallic Mo−Pt/MgO or monometallic Pt/MgO and Mo/
MgO catalysts. The selectivity to the corresponding alkene was
typically above 97%.215
2.6.2. Re−Pt. The linear complex [Re2Pt(CO)12] supported
on Al2O3 yielded a MMCD catalyst, which was more resistant
to deactivation during catalytic dehydrogenation of methylcyclohexane to toluene than conventional catalysts (Scheme
18). This could be explained by the role of Re in stabilizing the
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2.8.2. Fe−Ir. Moderate activity was observed with
Na2[FeIr4(CO)15] as homogeneous catalyst precursor for the
WGSR, indicating a weak synergistic effect between the two
metals, although it was more active than the monometallic
precursor [Ir4(CO)12] alone. The hydrido cluster [HFeCo3(CO)12], however, was inactive under the same conditions,
and a mixture of [Fe(CO)5] and [Rh4(CO)12] did not reveal
any synergistic effect between the two metals.220d
2.8.3. Ru−Co. Water gas shift reactions were investigated
with Ru−Co clusters as homogeneous catalysts. Only
[H3Ru3Co(CO)12] was observed to initiate a catalytic system.
Under basic conditions, [RuCo2(CO)11] and [HRuCo3(CO)12]
were practically inactive. The cluster [H3Ru3Co(CO)12]
decomposes easily under a CO atmosphere to yield
[Ru3(CO)12], which appears responsible for the catalytic
activity of the system, thus ruling out any synergism between
the two metals.220d,221
2.8.4. Ru−Rh. Pyridine solutions of the mixed-metal
clusters [PPN][RuRh5(CO)16], [H2Ru2Rh2(CO)12] were less
active for the catalytic WGSR than the homometallic complex
[Rh2(CO)4Cl2], suggesting that no synergistic effect takes
place.220d
2.8.5. Co−Rh. The clusters [Co2Rh2(CO)12] and [Co3Rh(CO)12] produced a highly active catalytic system under basic
WGSR conditions. The cobalt carbonyls are totally inactive, but
rhodium complexes were as active as the bimetallic species,
indicating the lack of synergistic effect between the two
metals.220d
2.8.6. Co−Ir. The cluster [Co2Ir2(CO)12] was only a poor
catalyst precursor under basic WGSR conditions, and no
synergistic effect was observed between the two metals, because
iridium complexes were more active than the bimetallic
species.220d
From a comparison between the systems described above, it
appears that the most active monometallic catalysts were based
on Ru and Rh complexes, the latter being ca. 2 orders of
magnitude more active than the former. Only two metal
couples were found to exhibit synergism under the reaction
conditions (373 K, 0.40−0.60 atm of CO): Fe−Ru and Co−
Rh. In particular, Fe−Ru clusters proved to be 2 orders of
magnitude more active than monometallic Fe or Ru species,
while Co−Rh compounds were almost 3 times more active
than the Fe−Ru systems.
2.7. Dehydration of Alcohols
2.7.1. Mo−Pd. The octanuclear cluster Na2[Pd4{MoCp(CO)3}4] was used for the dehydration of MeOH, EtOH, and
Me2CHOH, which occurred via C−O bond cleavage and H
transfer to give carbene ligands. In the case of PhCH2OH,
trans-stilbene was formed.218
2.7.2. Os−Ni. Hydrogenation of acetone with the
Chromosorb P-supported [Os3Ni] catalyst obtained from
[Os3Ni(μ-H)3Cp(CO)9] was assumed to involve a dehydration
step. Thus, hydrogenation of acetone would lead to the
formation of isopropanol (see section 2.5.3.7), which could
afford propene upon dehydration. Subsequent hydrogenation
of the carbon−carbon double bond would yield propane (see
section 2.5.1.45).143
2.7.3. Pd−Zn. When supported on alumina, the acetatobridged complex [Pd(μ-O2CMe)4Zn(OH2)] (63) calcined
under Ar and activated with H 2 afforded a [PdZn]
heterogeneous catalyst. It was compared to the corresponding
monometallic [Zn] and [Pd] catalysts in the dehydration of
alcohols. In particular, ethanol conversion afforded C1−C11
alkanes and olefins, oxygenates, CO, and CO2. The [Pd]
catalyst was more selective toward alkanes and CO, whereas
[Zn] and [PdZn] yielded more olefins in the range of C3−C10.
Moreover, the [Zn] catalyst did not afford any CO or CO2.
Addition of glycerol to any of these systems enhanced the
selectivity for aliphatic C4−C10+ hydrocarbons. The surface of
the catalyst was probed by EXAFS and XRD, which suggested
the presence of Pd(0), Pd hydride, Pd−Zn alloy, and mixed
zinc−alumina spinel.219
2.8. Water Gas Shift Reaction
2.8.1. Fe−Ru. The clusters [FeRu2(CO)12] (52), [Fe2Ru(CO)12] (53), their phosphine and phosphite derivatives
[FeRu2(CO)11(PR3)], [FeRu2(CO)10(PR3)2] (R = Ph, OMe),
[FeRu 2 (CO) 10 (dppe)], [Fe 2 Ru(CO) 11 (PR 3 )], [Fe 2 Ru(CO)10(PR3)2] (R = Ph, OMe), and [Fe2Ru(CO)10(dppe)],
as well as [H2FeRu3(CO)13] were more active WGSR catalyst
precursors than the monometallic precursors [Fe3(CO)12] and
[Ru3(CO)12], at 373 K and 0.40−0.60 atm CO.220 The results
showed a clear decrease in turnover frequency as the iron
content of the cluster decreased. If monosubstitution by
phosphine or phosphite enhances the activity of the clusters
with a high iron content by stabilizing the parent cluster, it
seems that disubstitution of [Fe2Ru(CO)12] rather diminishes
the stability of the cluster under basic WGSR conditions
(Scheme 19).220d Interestingly, under the same conditions, the
clusters [H2FeOs3(CO)13] and [FeOs2(CO)12] were found
inactive.
2.9. Oxidation Reactions
2.9.1. Oxidation of Alkanes and Alkenes. As shown
below, the oxidation of alkanes and alkenes under mild
conditions with O2 usually leads to ketones (and aldehydes to
some extent). However, when H2O2/O2 was used, the
selectivity toward alcohols was enhanced, as a result of the
reduction of the carboxylic acids obtained during the reaction.
2.9.1.1. V−Co. Air-oxidation of cyclohexane to yield
cyclohexanone was catalyzed in the presence of the complex
[VCoOL]2+ (L = the macrocyclic ligand {−NCHC6H2MeOCHNC6H4−}2) (64) covalently linked to carbamatemodified alumina. Some unidentified products, along with
cyclohexanol, were observed, and the selectivity toward
cyclohexanone was higher than 75%.222
2.9.1.2. V−Rh. The SiO2-grafted rhodium vanadate cubanetype clusters [Bu 4 N] 2 [{η 3 -C 4 H 7 ) 2 Rh} 2 (V 4 O 12 )] 2 and
[(Cp*Rh)4V6O19] catalyzed the selective oxidation of propene
to acetone with higher TOFs than monometallic Rh- and Vbased species. The selectivity for acetone was of 41% for
Scheme 19
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cyclohexane) by hydrogen peroxide to the corresponding
ketones and alcohols under ambient conditions. Such a high
activity when compared to monometallic Fe, Cu, or Co
catalysts suggests the occurrence of strong synergistic effects.
More precisely, selectivities were close to 100%, and yields of
alcohols were in the range 25−40%, depending on the reaction
time and the H2O2 to catalyst molar ratio, while the yields of
ketones were in the range 2−7%.226
2.9.1.6. Fe−Cu. Cyclohexane oxidation by O2 was performed
in the presence of the intercalated complex [FeCuL1](NO3)2·
4H2O [L1 = the macrocyclic ligand {−NCHC6H2MeOCHN(CH2)3−}2] (67a) in Zr-pillared montmorillonite clay. A
selectivity of 87% toward cyclohexanone was reached for a
conversion of 14% at 463 K. The formation of an unidentified
species was observed in the catalysis reaction mixture.227
[Bu 4 N] 2 [{η 3 -C 4 H 7 ) 2 Rh} 2 (V 4 O 12 )] 2 and of 85% for
[(Cp*Rh)4V6O19], the latter being much more selective than
the monometallic species (<55%).80,223
2.9.1.3. Cr−Mn, Cr−Co, Mn−Co. Oxidation of cyclohexene
to cyclohexenone was catalyzed by silica-supported Cr−Mn,
Cr−Co, and Mn−Co complexes. Only the first two systems
were found to involve synergistic effects between the different
metal atoms.224
2.9.1.4. Fe−Co. The heterobimetallic Schiff base complex
[Fe2Co4OSae8]·4DMF·H2O (H2Sae = salicylidene-2-ethanolamine) (65) (Figure 2) was used for alkane oxidation by
A Fe−Cu complex formulated as [FeCuL2](NO3)2 where L2
= the macrocyclic ligand {−NCHC6H2MeOCHNC6H4−}2
(67b) was covalently anchored to carbamate-functionalized
alumina for performing cyclohexane oxidation. EDX analysis
indicated a Cu/Fe ratio of ca. 5.7 in the catalytic material, which
suggests that most of the species are Cu−Cu complexes. The
only obtained product was cyclohexanone.228
2.9.1.7. Fe−Au. Total oxidation of toluene and chlorobenzene was tested in the presence of heterogeneous [Fe4Au4] and
[Fe 4 Au] catalysts, obtained by thermal treatment of
[Et4N]4[Fe4Au4(CO)16] and [Et4N][Fe4Au(CO)16], respectively. The Fe4Au4 cluster converts to the Fe4Au cluster upon
oxidation. Thus, when adsorbed on TiO2, it oxidizes, and the
resulting species are [Fe8Au13(CO)32]n−, [Fe4Au(CO)16]−,
along with [HFe(CO)4]− and [HFe3(CO)11]− fragments. The
cluster [Et4N][Fe4Au(CO)16] remained intact upon adsorption
on the support. A subsequent thermal treatment led to
segregated Au/FeOx/TiO2 material in both cases. Under N2
or H2, dispersed Au NPs with sizes in the range of 3−7 nm
were obtained, whereas agglomeration occurred under oxygen
and afforded NPs of 20−25 nm. The FeOx layer is responsible
for the good dispersion of the gold species. These catalysts
were not stable in the presence of dichlorobenzene, but gave
100% conversion in toluene combustion, CO2 being the only
product formed.229 A complementary study revealed that the
presence of Au was necessary to achieve 100% selectivity for
CO2, because FeOx/TiO2 materials yielded a mixture of CO2,
CO, and H2O as products.230
The same cluster precursor [Et4N][Fe4Au(CO)16] was also
deposited on ceria, to perform catalytic toluene combustion.
However, ceria alone was found to be a better catalyst than
either FeOx/CeO2 or Au/FeOx/CeO2.231
2.9.1.8. Co−Cu. The complex [Co3CuCl3(MeDea)3(solv.)]
(where H2Dea = diethanolamine and solv. =
(MeOH)0.55(H2O)0.45) was studied for its magnetic and
Figure 2. Core of the FeCo Schiff base cluster 65. Adapted from ref
225.
hydrogen peroxide under mild conditions, in the presence of
nitric acid, which afforded the corresponding ketones (along
with some aldehydes) and alcohols. Kinetic studies led to the
assumptions that hydroxyl radicals were involved and attack the
C−H bonds of the alkanes. Electrospray ionization mass
spectrometry (ESI−MS) experiments suggested that [Co2Fe(Sae)4]+, formed during the oxidation reactions, could be the
active catalyst.225
2.9.1.5. Fe−Co−Cu. The heterotrimetallic complex
[FeCoCu(L)3(NCS)2(MeOH)]2·3.2H2O (H2L = diethanolamine) (66) (Figure 3) is a highly active and selective catalyst
for the oxidation of cycloalkanes (namely cyclopentane and
Figure 3. Structure of the FeCoCu complex 66. Reproduced with
permission from ref 226. Copyright 2006 Royal Society of Chemistry.
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catalytic properties. It was reported to be active in oxidation of
cyclohexane by hydrogen peroxide to cyclohexanol and
cyclohexanone under ambient conditions with yields up to
23% (Scheme 20). The addition of PPh3 to the reaction
mixture was necessary for the reduction of Ph-O−OH to Ph−
OH, thus enhancing the selectivity toward cyclohexanol.232
Scheme 20
proton transfer from the alcohol to an oxo-bridge, and βhydrogen elimination.
2.9.2.3. Fe−Au. The ceria-supported [Fe4Au] material,
obtained from [Et4N][Fe4Au(CO)16], was tested in the
catalytic combustion of methanol. The catalyst had the same
composition as the aformentioned Au/FeOx/TiO2 supported
catalysts (see section 2.9.1.7). FeOx/CeO2 exhibited the same
activity as bare ceria, but the presence of gold greatly enhanced
the total oxidation of methanol.231
The same reaction was evaluated in the presence of the
mesoporous silica SBA-15-supported cluster-derived Au/FeOx/
SiO2 catalyst obtained from [Et4N][Fe4Au(CO)16]. The Au
NPs were located mostly outside the pores, with sizes around
13 nm. The presence of gold significantly improved the activity
and selectivity for CO2, as compared to the gold-free FeOx/
SiO2 catalysts. Moreover, the close proximity of Au and Fe,
favoring synergistic effects, was responsible for the higher
activity of this catalyst as compared to Au/FeOx/SiO2 catalysts
prepared by deposition−precipitation methods.238
2.9.2.4. Ru−Ni, Ru−Pd, Ru−Pt. The heterotrinuclear
complexes [(dppe)M(μ3-S)2{Ru(N)Me2}2] (M = Ni, Pd, Pt,
70a−c) were tested in the oxidation of benzyl alcohol to
benzaldehyde in toluene and in supercritical CO2. The Ru−Ni
complex was slightly more active than the corresponding Ru−
Pd and Ru−Pt complexes, but all systems gave similar product
distributions.239
2.9.1.9. Co−Cu−Zn. The heterotrimetallic complexes
[CoCuZn2Cl3(MeDea)3(solv.)] (H2Dea = diethanolamine;
solv. = (MeOH)0.74(H2O)0.26 or DMF) were tested in
cyclohexane oxidation by hydrogen peroxide. Their activities
were much lower than those of the corresponding Co−Cu
compound described earlier (see section 2.9.1.8), with yields up
to 4%. The main product was cyclohexanone, along with a
small amount of cyclohexanol. These results suggested either a
strong synergistic effect of Co−Cu moieties or an inhibitory
effect of the Zn atoms.232
2.9.1.10. Pd−Cu. The oxidation of 1-decene to 2-decanone
by O2 was tested in the presence of the μ4-oxo cluster
[Pd6Cu4Cl12O4(HMPA)4]. The reaction also proceeded under
argon atmosphere, with the oxygen atoms from the cluster
being able to oxidize the substrate, albeit with lower yields.233
The polymeric complex [CuL4Cl(μ-Cl)PdCl2·PdCl2]n (L =
pyrrolidin-2-one) catalyzed the oxidation of cyclohexene to a
mixture of cyclohexanone and cyclohexenone (88:12) with a
36% yield.234
2.9.1.11. Pt−Au. Oxidation of propylene in the absence of
NO (otherwise used for selective catalytic reduction of NO by
hydrocarbons) was evaluated with the silica-supported [Pt2Au4]
catalyst, derived from [Pt2Au4(CC-t-Bu)8] (7). Similarly to
the reduction of NO by the same catalytic system (see section
2.15.1.3), activity was detected only at temperatures higher than
623 K, whereas catalysts prepared by coimpregnation of
monometallic complexes were active at 473 K.47
2.9.2. Oxidation of Alcohols. 2.9.2.1. Ta−Re. The
alkoxide complex [Ta4(ReO4)2O2(OEt)14] was used as a
precursor to titania-supported ReOx/Ta2O5/TiO2 catalysts
with different loadings (1 and 10 wt %). Those systems were
used in oxidation of methanol to selectively afford dimethoxymethane, as opposed to ReOx/TiO2 catalysts, which instead
exhibited high selectivity to formaldehyde.235
2.9.2.2. Cr−Ru, Cr−Os. The complexes C[RuNR2(μO)2CrO2] (68a, cation C+ = Ph4P+, R = Me; 68b, cation C+
= Bu4N+, R = CH2SiMe3) were active in air-oxidation of various
alcohols, to yield the corresponding aldehydes.236
Similarly, selective air oxidation of alcohols was possible in
the presence of various oxo-bridged complexes: [Ph4P][Os(N)Me 2 (μ-O) 2 CrO 2 ] (69a), C[Os(N)(CH 2 SiMe 3 ) 2 (μO)2CrO2] (cation C+ = (n-Bu)4N+, Ph4P+) (69b), [(nBu)4N][Os(N)Ph2(μ-O)2CrO2] (69c), and [Ph4P][Os(N)Me(CH2SiMe3)(μ-O)2CrO2] (69d). Benzylic primary and secondary alcohols could thus be transformed into the corresponding
aldehydes and ketones, respectively.236,237
A mechanism was suggested, which involved coordination of
the alcohol to the ruthenium or osmium center, followed by
The complex [PPh4][Ru(N)Me2(μ-O)2Pd((−)-sparteine)]
(71) is an efficient catalyst for the aerobic oxidation of aryl and
allyl alcohols. In particular, in the presence of O2, it catalyzed
the conversion of allyl alcohol to propionaldehyde and acrolein
in a 1:2 ratio, and the oxidation of benzyl alcohol to
benzaldehyde. The addition of molecular sieves to trap the
water during the reactions greatly improved the yields.240
The cluster [Ru4Pt2(CO)18] was used to prepared carbonsupported RuPt/C NPs for the electrocatalytic oxidation of
methanol (to CO2 most likely). It was more active than
commercial catalysts, probably due to the high dispersion of
very small NPs.241
Alumina-supported RuPt NPs were prepared by decarbonylation of the cluster precursor [Ph4P]2[Ru5PtC(CO)15] at 468
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cluster [Et4N][Fe4Au(CO)16]. These catalysts were less active
than the usual catalysts described in the literature.247
2.9.3.3. Pt−Au. Oxidation of CO was achieved with the
intact silica-supported cluster [Pt(AuPPh3)6(PPh3)](NO3)2
(3).46a Oxidation of CO was also evaluated in the presence
of TiO2- or SiO2-supported [Pt2Au4] catalysts, derived from
[Pt2Au4(CC-t-Bu)8] (7). When silica was used as a support,
the Pt−Au catalysts were slightly less effective than the catalysts
prepared from metallic salts, but when titania was used as a
support, the system became active at much lower temperatures
than the coimpregnated salt-derived catalysts, due to the high
dispersion of Au and of the nature of the support.248
2.9.4. Oxidation of THF. 2.9.4.1. Mo−Ru. The dinuclear
complexes [R(CO)3MoRu(CO)2Cp] (R = η5-indenyl, η5cyclopentadienyl) were found to be active catalysts for the
aerobic oxidation of THF under ambient conditions, the main
product being γ-butyrolactone (Scheme 22). However, [Ru(CO)2Cp]2 was much more active and selective (up to 70%)
than these heterobimetallic species.249
K under reduced pressure. This system was tested in the
production of H2 from steam reforming of ethanol (Scheme
21). It gave better results than commercial Ru/Al2O3 and the
Scheme 21
salt-impregnated corresponding catalysts, in terms of selectivity
and ethanol conversion, probably due to the NPs size (<2 nm
on average) and high dispersion. Also, the presence of Pt in the
catalysts seemed to help reduce the coking process during the
reaction.242
2.9.2.5. Co−Ni. The cubane-type cluster [Co2Ni2(μ3OMe)4(acac)4(OAc)2] was used to prepare NaY-supported
CoNi oxide heterogeneous catalysts. This CoNiO2/NaY system
was used in the oxidation of methanol with conversions >80%
and selectivity toward CO2 > 98%. The monometallic
analogues CoO/NaY and NiO/NaY exhibited slightly better
and worse activities, respectively, than the bimetallic materials.243
2.9.3. Oxidation of CO. The preferential oxidation of CO
(PROX) in the presence of H2-rich gas stream is of essential
importance for applications in proton-exchange membrane fuel
cells (PEMFC), as it allows for its removal. In PEMFCs, H2 is
produced from the reaction (fuel + O2 + H2O ⇌ COx + H2),
followed by the WGSR (CO + H2O ⇌ CO2 + H2). The
composition of the gas after the WGSR contains up to 1% of
CO in H2, which can poison the anode of the PEMFC, hence
the need to avoid it as much as possible. Among the known
methods to remove the CO formed, preferential oxidation
(PROX) appeared most promising. The PROX method
involves two reactions in competition: the oxidation of CO
to CO2 and the oxidation of H2 to H2O, hence the need for
selective catalysts. Typically, catalysts containing Ru, Rh, Ir, Pt
or Cu, Ag, Au metals were used on inorganic oxides such as
ceria or maghemite. In particular, the Fe−Pt couple, arising
from the adsorption of Pt catalysts onto Fe2O3 supports, seems
the most promising system, although Au-based, and more
generally precious metal-based, catalysts are widely studied.244
2.9.3.1. Fe−Pt. Oxidation of CO in air, or in the presence of
H2 (PROX), was performed with the silica-supported [Fe2Pt]
and [Fe2Pt5] catalysts derived from the heterobimetallic
clusters [Fe 2 Pt(COD)(CO) 8 ] 245 and [Fe 2 Pt 5 (COD) 2 (CO)12],245a,246 respectively, after decarbonylation at 623 K
under H2 or He. These catalysts were mostly constituted of
small FePt NPs of 1−2 nm, homogeneously dispersed on the
matrix, as opposed to samples prepared from homometallic salt
precursors. The cluster-derived catalysts were more active than
the latter, suggesting that Fe has a positive effect on the activity,
but underwent deactivation (slower in PROX than in air) under
catalytic conditions.
2.9.3.2. Fe−Au. Preferential oxidation of CO in the presence
of H2 (PROX) (see introduction to this section) was tested
with [Fe4Au] obtained from the titania- or ceria-supported
Scheme 22
2.9.5. Oxidation of Phosphines. 2.9.5.1. Cr−Os. The
complex C[Os(N)(CH2SiMe3)2(μ-O)2CrO2] (cation C+ =
Bu4N+, Ph4P+) (69b) was reacted with Ph2PCH2CH2PPh2
(dppe) to yield the air-sensitive compound C[(dppe)Os(N)(CH2SiMe3)2(μ-O)2CrO2], which was observed to slowly
decompose to afford 69b and Ph2P(O)CH2CH2P(O)Ph2.
With high amounts of dppe, the reaction proceeds catalytically
(Scheme 23). The authors believe that the chromate ligand
helps in stabilizing the complex, thus allowing for multiple
uses.236,250
Scheme 23
2.9.5.2. Ru−Pd. The complex [PPh4][Ru(N)Me2(μ-O)2Pd((−)-sparteine)] (71) catalyzed the oxidation of PPh3. It could
be recovered after the reaction, even if a small amount of the
phosphine remained coordinated to the metal center. Full
conversion was observed after 24 h reaction time.240
2.10. Carbon−Carbon Bond Formation
Because cyclization reactions have already been mentioned in
the section dealing with hydrogenolysis reactions (see section
2.4), we shall not deal with them in this section.
2.10.1. Homologation Reactions. With the exception of a
Ru−Co catalyst, which catalyzed methyl acetate homologation,
this section exclusively deals with methanol homologation
reactions.
2.10.1.1. Mn−Pd. Homologation of methanol was tested
with the iodo complex [(OC)3Mn(μ-dppm)2PdI]. In the
presence of aqueous HI, methanol reacted with CO/H2 (1:1,
14 atm) at 403 K to afford Me2O, AcOH, AcOMe, and
MeCH(OMe)2 (55% molar selectivity for the latter).176
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Co−Cu one (ca. 52% selectivity at 35% methanol conversion).255
2.10.1.2. Fe−Co. Methanol homologation was catalyzed by
the Fe−Co salts C[FeCo3(CO)12] (cation C+ = Et4N+ or
Bu4N+)251 or [Et4N][Fe3Co(CO)13]251b,c when promoted with
methyl iodide and carried out at relatively high pressures and
moderate temperatures. It was possible to obtain acetaldehyde
in 80% selectivity at methanol conversions of 75%. Optimal
ethanol selectivity required long reaction times at high
temperature.251a In particular, a higher selectivity for ethanol
at lower conversion of methanol was obtained with [Et4N][Fe3Co(CO)13] at 40 atm CO, 80 atm H2, and 453 K.251b
2.10.1.3. Ru−Co. Methyl acetate homologation was achieved
in the presence of syn-gas, with the clusters [Et4N][RuCo3(CO)12] and [Et4N][Ru3Co(CO)13] as homogeneous
catalyst precursors. The presence of the two metals improved
considerably the yield of ethyl acetate. Conversions ranging
from 50% to 70% were achieved, with selectivities for ethyl
acetate up to 33%. Other observed products include acetic acid,
ethanol, and ethers. Mechanistic insights included hydrolysis of
methyl acetate to methanol (and acetic acid), which is further
homologated to ethanol. Subsequent condensation of ethanol
and acetic acid affords ethyl acetate.252
Methanol homologation with catalysts containing ruthenium
in addition to cobalt are preferred for ethanol production,
presumably due to their ability to readily hydrogenate
acetaldehyde, thereby eliminating undesired byproducts.
Thus, high ethanol selectivity at high methanol conversion
was observed with [CpRu(PPh3)2Co(CO)4]. However, a
mixture of [CpRu(PPh3)2Cl] and [Co2(CO)8] provided the
same activity.253
When promoted by methyl iodide, the clusters [HRuCo3(CO)12] and C[RuCo3(CO)12] (cation C+ = Na+, Cs+,
Et4N+, Ph4P+, PPN+) exhibited improved catalytic activities in
methanol homologation, as compared to the homometallic
complexes [Co2(CO)8] and [Ru3(CO)12] alone.251c,254 The
anionic cluster [Ru3Co(CO)13]− gave a lower yield of ethanol
under the same conditions.251c,254b
Although consistent with consecutive transformations, the
synergism resulting from a mixed-metal system has been
identified in the case of Ru−Co carbonyl clusters. High activity
and good selectivity for ethanol were observed in methanol
homologation with [Et4N][RuCo3(μ2-η2-PhC2Ph)(CO)10]
(72). In this case, up to 54% selectivity for ethanol was
achieved, at 46% methanol conversion. This system was slightly
more active than both the Ru−Co−Cu and the Ru−Co−Au
clusters described below, with similar selectivity. Other reaction
products include methyl acetate, ethyl acetate, diethyl ether,
and traces of acetaldehyde.255
2.10.1.5. Ru−Rh. When ruthenium and rhodium salts were
used in the same system, a synergistic effect for methanol
homologation was observed at 100 atm synthesis gas pressure,
whereas ruthenium or rhodium chloride alone were inactive for
ethanol synthesis.221 No enhancement of ethanol production
was observed with the mixed-metal compounds [HRuRh3(CO)12], [HRuRh3(CO)10(PPh3)2], [H2Ru2Rh2(CO)12], and
[PPN][RuRh5(CO)16] as catalyst precursors, which is consistent with the decomposition of the clusters found to occur in
all of the experiments.256
2.10.1.6. Os−Co. Methanol homologation was catalyzed in
the presence of the cluster [Et4N][OsCo3(CO)12], which
exhibited high activity, although the selectivity in ethanol was
much lower than that observed with Ru−Co systems.251b
2.10.1.7. Co−Rh. Methanol homologation was also catalyzed
by the tetranuclear precursors [Co2Rh2(CO)12] and [Co3Rh(CO)12]. High activities (more than 50% conversion) were
observed, but selectivities for ethanol were always very low (less
than 2%). The selectivities were highest for dimethyl acetal,
methyl acetate, and dimethyl ether.251b,c,253c,254b
2.10.1.8. Co−Pd, Co−Pt. In the methanol homologation
reaction, ethanol was obtained with less than 1% yield when
[Co2Pd(CO)7(dppe)] was used as a homogeneous catalyst (ca.
61% methanol conversion). The main products were
acetaldehyde dimethylacetal, dimethlether, acetaldehyde, and
methyl acetate (Scheme 24).251b,254b
Scheme 24
Similar results were observed when the triangular cluster
[Co2Pt(CO)7(dppe)] was used under the same reaction
conditions, except that the selectivity for ethanol was ca.
twice that of the Co−Pd catalyst (3.3% vs 1.3%) and the
conversion was lower (ca. 49%).251b,254b
2.10.2. Carbonylation Reactions. 2.10.2.1. Carbonylation of Alcohols. 2.10.2.1.1. Mo−Fe, Fe−Rh, Fe−Ni, Fe−Cu,
Fe−Hg. Homogeneous carbonylation of ethanol in the
presence of ethyl iodide to ethylpropionate and diethyl ether
(Scheme 25) was catalyzed by a series of Fe-containing
heterobimetallic complexes: [MoFe(μ-Ph2Ppy)2(CO)6] (I),
[FeRh(μ-Ph2Ppy)2(μ-CO)(CO)3Cl] (II), [FeNi(μ-Ph2Ppy)2-
2.10.1.4. Ru−Co−Cu, Ru−Co−Au. Under the same reaction
conditions as for the aforementioned cluster 72, methanol
homologation was catalyzed with high activity and good
selectivity by the trimetallic clusters [RuCo3(μ3-CuPPh3)(CO)12] (73) and [Au(PPh3)2][RuCo3(CO)12] as homogeneous catalysts. The Ru−Co−Au cluster was more active (41%
conversion) and selective for ethanol (ca. 60%) than the Ru−
Scheme 25
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the catalytic conditions were hydrocarbonylation, affording
acetaldehyde and its dimethylacetal, carbonylation, leading to
methyl acetate, and methane formation. The reduction steps
are facilitated by the presence of ruthenium.261
2.10.2.2.2. Co−Rh. A mixed-metal species formulated as
[CoRh(CO) 7 ], formed in situ when [Co2(CO) 8 ] and
[Rh4(CO)12] were reacted under CO/H2 pressure, has been
postulated as an active catalyst in the hydrocarbonylation of
diketene. In particular, diketene and substituted diketene gave
3-substituted succinic anhydrides under such conditions
(Scheme 27).262
(CO)3(NCS)2] (III), [FeCu(μ-Ph2Ppy)2(CO)3Cl] (IV), and
[FeHg(μ-Ph2Ppy)2(CO)3(SCN)2] (V). They were compared
to the mononuclear complex [RhCl(PPh3)3].257
The results are compiled in Table 2. All catalysts led to high
conversions (from 88.5% to 99.5%). Most complexes are more
Table 2. Catalytic Carbonylation of Ethanol at 493 Ka257
selectivity (%)
entry
complex
ethanol conversion
(%)
diethyl
ether
ethyl
propionate
1
2
3
4
5
6
I
II
III
IV
V
RhCl(PPh3)3
88.5
99.5
95.2
91.4
94.4
96.4
81.3
1.4
52.3
76
73.2
32.3
18.7
98.6
47.7
24
26.8
67.7
a
Scheme 27
Entries 2 and 6 were performed at 473 K.
2.10.2.2.3. Co−Pd. The carbon-supported [Co2Pd] catalyst
derived from the triangular cluster [Co2Pd(CO)7(dppe)] was
tested in the hydrocarbonylation of MeOH. The close
proximity between the promoter metal (palladium) and cobalt
centers appears critical for the occurrence of cooperative
carbonylation and hydrogenation (Scheme 28). The primary
selective for diethyl ether (entries 1, 3, 4, and 5), but the Rhbased complexes are very selective for ethyl propionate (entries
2 and 6). In particular, the Fe−Rh complex II yields almost
quantitatively ethyl propionate.
2.10.2.1.2. Os−Ir. The cluster [PPN][Os3Ir(CO)13] was
used in the carbonylation of methanol with MeI or HI as
cocatalysts. The two products obtained were acetic acid and
methyl acetate (Scheme 26). The former undergoes
Scheme 28. Catalytic Cycle for Methanol
Hydrocarbonylationa
Scheme 26
esterification due to the excess of MeOH in the system, thus
leading to a higher amount of methyl acetate. It was found that
no intact Os3Ir cluster remained after catalysis, but rather a
mixture of [PPN][Os 3 (CO) 3 I 3 ] and [Ir 4 (CO) 12 ] was
formed.258
2.10.2.1.3. Ir−Pt. Carbonylation of methanol to acetic acid
was achieved in the presence of the Ir and Pt iodo-complexes
[PPN][IrI3Me(CO)2] and [Pt(μ-I)I(CO)]2. During the
catalytic reactions, the iodo-bridged heterometallic complex
[PPN][IrPtMeI5(CO)3] (74), most likely responsible for the
activity of such a system, could be isolated. This short-lived
intermediate undergoes decomposition to [PPN][PtI3(CO)]
and [IrMeI2(CO)3] under CO pressure.10,259 The authors
considered two different isomers, 74a and 74b, for the complex
[PPN][IrPtMeI 5(CO) 3 ], from FAB-MS and 13C NMR
studies.260
a
Adapted from ref 261.
reactions were hydrocarbonylation, affording acetaldehyde and
its dimethylacetal, carbonylation, leading to methyl acetate, and
methane formation. The reduction steps were facilitated by the
presence of palladium.261
The existence and importance of heterometallic centers was
deduced from the comparison of activities and selectivities with
those of mechanical mixtures of monometallic catalysts and of
catalysts prepared by coimpregnation.
2.10.2.3. Carbonylation of Olefins. 2.10.2.3.1. Zr−Rh. The
early late bimetallic complex [Ph4As][Cp*2Zr(μ-S)2Rh(CO)2]
was reported to initiate the carbonylation of ethylene to
acrolein in the presence of PPh3 (Scheme 29). It yielded 2
2.10.2.2. Hydrocarbonylation Reactions. 2.10.2.2.1. Ru−
Co. Carbon-supported MMCD catalysts obtained from
[HRuCo3(CO)12], [Ru2Co2(CO)13] and [HRu3Co(CO)13],
respectively, were used to investigate the role of ruthenium as
promoter in the cobalt-catalyzed hydrocarbonylation of MeOH.
A close proximity of the promoter metal and the cobalt centers
seems to be a condition for cooperative carbonylation and
hydrogenation to occur. The observed primary reactions under
Scheme 29
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times more acrolein than the complex [Cp*2Zr(SH)2]. Under
the same conditions, rhodium complexes were inactive.
Moreover, addition of triethyl orthoformate allowed for the
reaction to be catalytic.263
2.10.2.3.2. Fe−Pd. The phosphanido-bridged complex
[(OC)4Fe(μ-PPh2)Pd(μ-Cl)]2 (15) was found to be active in
the carbonylation of 1-octene and 1,5-cyclooctadiene in the
presence of ethanol to afford the corresponding esters under
mild conditions (348 K, 50 atm). In the case of 1-octene, the
total yield of esters was 10 times greater than when
[PdCl2(PPh3)2] was used as a catalyst (Scheme 30). In both
cases, the isomer distribution was ca. 1:1.60
Further investigations on this reaction showed that
complexes such as [L{RC(O)}Pd−Co(CO)4] (75a, L = bpy;
75b, L = TMEDA; 75c, L = phen; R = Me, Ph) were also
highly active.267
2.10.2.4.3. Co−Pt. The complex [Me(dppe)PtCo(CO)4]
was reported to promote the catalytic carbonylation of
thietanes to γ-thiobutyrolactones (Scheme 32). Comparing
Scheme 32
Scheme 30
the activities of monometallic and Pt−Mn, Pt−Fe, or Pt−Mo
materials revealed that the presence of both Pt and Co is
necessary for the process to occur. Furthermore, the activity of
this cluster was even higher than that of the usual [Co2(CO)8]/
[Ru3(CO)12] catalytic system. The authors suggested a
mechanism involving Co−Pt bond cleavage, allowing the
thietane to bind to the platinum, followed by C−S bond
cleavage, CO insertion, and a ring-closing step to release the
desired product.268
2.10.3. Hydroformylation Reactions. 2.10.3.1. Hydroformylation of Olefins. It should be noted that because
hydroformylation is performed in the presence of CO/H2
mixtures, subsequent hydrogenation of the aldehyde first
obtained often leads to the formation of alcohols. Thus,
under appropriate conditions and in the presence of a specific
catalyst, selectivity toward alcohols can be enhanced. It is
noteworthy that only one example was reported for the
hydroformylation of alkynes (see section 2.10.3.1.8).
In homogeneous olefin hydroformylation reactions, strong
synergistic effects involving mononuclear precursors are
sometimes observed, even though no heterometallic species,
and thus no metal−metal bond, are evidenced. In particular,
catalytic binuclear elimination appears to be the origin of the
good results obtained for rhodium-based systems.269
2.10.3.1.1. Ti−Rh. Under mild temperature and pressure, the
complexes [CpTi(μ3-S)3{Rh(L)}3] (L = tetrafluorobenzobarrelene [tfbb], COD) (76) were used in the catalytic hydroformylation of 1-hexene and styrene in the presence of CO and
P-donor ligands. The P/Rh ratio was found to rule the activity
and selectivity of the cataylsts. No hydrogenation or isomerization was observed. In the case of 1-hexene hydroformylation,
the best results were obtained with PPh3, when L = tfbb and P/
Rh = 2 or 4. Thus, at 96% aldehyde conversion, 77−78%
regioselectivity for the linear aldehyde was observed. Noteworthy is that the presence of phosphite ligands resulted in
inactive systems, whereas with L = tfbb, better conversions
were achieved with phosphites. The use of chiral diphosphine
ligands allowed even better conversions (up to 99% with
((−)-BDPP) and selectivities such as 95% (with (−)-BDPP
too) (BDPP = 2,4-bis(diphenylphosphino)pentane).270
2.10.2.4. Other Carbonylation Reactions. 2.10.2.4.1. Co−
Rh. The synthesis of coumarins by cyclocarbonylation of
alkynes with 2-iodophenol in the presence of CO and pyridine
could be performed with the reusable [Co2Rh2] catalyst
obtained from the cluster [Co2Rh2(CO)12] in yields higher
than 80% (Scheme 31). Various susbstituents were tested on
the internal alkyne, such as Me, Et, Pr, or Ph. Coumarins were
also obtained from the reaction between phenols and propylic
esters.264
Scheme 31
Heterobimetallic [Co2Rh2] NPs exhibit good activity and
selectivity in the cyclohydrocarbonylation of alkynes. In
particular, diphenylacetylene was reacted with CO (30 atm)
and water in the presence of NEt3, and afforded furanone in
85−88% yields even after five uses. Alkynes with various
substituents were also tested with good yields. The tandem CO
insertion-cyclohydrocarbonylation of a broad range of α-keto
alkynes yielded substituted furanones with very good
regioselectivity.265
2.10.2.4.2. Co−Pd. Copolymerization of unsubstituted and
C- or N-substituted aziridines with CO was investigated under
mild conditions in the presence of the complex [(bpy)AcPdCo(CO)4]. In particular, aziridine afforded the corresponding
copolymer with 89% yield, 2-methylaziridine with 69% yield,
and N-ethylaziridine with 81% yield. Mo−Pd analogous
complexes were found to be inactive, indicating the importance
of the bimetallic couple employed.266
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Although not as active as the mononuclear compound
[Rh(COD)(PPh3)2][BPh4], the bimetallic complex [Cp2Ti(μCH2PPh2)2Rh(COD)][BPh4] can be used for the hydroformylation of 1-hexene and 1,5-cyclooctadiene.271
2.10.3.1.2. Zr−Rh. Hydroformylation of 1-hexene was
achieved with the phosphanido-bridged complex [Cp2Zr(μPPh2)2RhH(CO)(PPh3)] as a homogeneous catalyst. It
afforded n-heptanal with ca. 80% yield. The complex [HRh(CO)(PPh3)3] was more active, but the overall n-heptanal yield
was lower because the selectivity was lower. The main
byproduct was 2-methylhexanal.272 The same reaction was
catalyzed by the complexes [L2Zr(μ-CH2PPh2)2Rh2(CO)2(μ-St-Bu)2] (L = Cp, Cpt) (77) at 353 K and 5 atm (CO + H2).
Almost quantitative conversion occurred within 2 h, and the nheptanal to methylhexanal ratio was ca. 2. The authors
explained this enhanced activity as compared to the related
monometallic complex [(μ-PPh2(CH2)4PPh2)Rh2(CO)2(μ-S-tBu)2] by an increased electron density on rhodium atoms from
the Zr.273
hexene. Their good activities were attributed to the in situ
formation of the heterobimetallic species [Cp2(CH2PPh2)Zr(μCH2PPh2)Rh(acac)(CO)2] (80) and [Cp2Zr(μ-CH2PPh2)2Rh(acac)(CO)] (81), respectively, because the Zr complexes
alone are inactive, and [Rh(acac)(CO)2] is much less active
than these bimetallic systems. The same systems were also
tested in hydroformylation of 1,5-hexadiene and 1,7-octadiene,
but with much lower activities.278
Hydroformylation of 1-octene was performed with the
precatalyst [Cptt2Zr(μ3-S)2{Rh(CO)2}2] (Cptt = η5-1,3-ditertbutylcyclopentadienyl) (82) in the presence of the P-donor
ligands P(OMe)3, P(OPh)3, and PPh3 and under mild
conditions.279 No synergistic effect was observed, and the
complex could not be completely recovered after the reaction,
most likely due to the formation of monometallic Rh
complexes. The only products of the reaction were 1-nonanal
and 2-methyloctanal, while only traces of octane were detected.
Varying the P/Rh ratio did not seem to impact the activity, but
the nature of the phosphine cocatalyst did. The highest
conversion was achieved with P(OPh)3, but the amount of
isomerization product was much higher; thus only 70%
selectivity for the aldehyde was obtained. The best results
were found with P(OMe)3: the selectivity for the aldehyde
product reached 95−98% for conversions higher than 80%;
while with PPh3, the selectivity was >90%, but the conversion
was only 25−30%.
Hydroformylation of 1-hexene was achieved with 100%
conversion, under mild conditions, and with very short
induction time, in the presence of the bridged complex
[Cp2Zr(μ-CH2PPh2)2RhH(PPh3)] (78). Addition of PPh3 in a
1:3 ratio slightly enhanced the selectivity toward n-heptanal.274
This bimetallic system is more active than monometallic Zr or
Rh species. Similar results were obtained with [Cp2Zr(μCH2PPh2)2RhH(CO)(PPh3)].275
The complex [Cp2Zr(μ-CH2PPh2)2Rh(COD)][BPh4]271,276
and its Cp-substituted analogue [Cpt2Zr(μ-CH2PPh2)2Rh(COD)][BPh4]276 are active catalysts in hydroformylation of
1-hexene and 1,5-cyclooctadiene, reaching 100% conversion,
but after longer induction times than the complex [(PPh3)2Rh(COD)][BPh4]. The complexes [Cp2Zr(μ-CH2PPh2)2Rh2(μ-St-Bu) 2 (CO) 2 ] and [Cp t 2 Zr(μ-CH 2 PPh 2 ) 2 Rh 2 (μ-S-tBu)2(CO)2] gave very similar results, except for the slightly
shorter induction times.276 Noteworthy is that all of the Zr−Rh
complexes tested in 1-hexene hydroformylation gave a linear to
branched aldehyde ratio of approximately 2.
The tetranuclear complex [(C5H4SiMe3)2Zr(μ-PPh2)2Rh(μS-t-Bu)]2 (79) was also tested in 1-hexene hydroformylation at
353 K, under 20 bar of H2/CO (1:1). It appeared to be a poor
catalyst, as compared to the aforementioned Zr−Rh complexes,
probably because of the lack of coordination sites to anchor H
and CO during the reaction.277
The catalytic systems {[Rh(acac)(CO) 2 ] + [Cp 2 Zr(CH 2 PPh 2 ) 2 ]} and {[Rh(acac)(CO) 2 ] + [Cp 2 ZrH(CH2PPh2)2]} were tested in the hydroformylation of 1-
Although details were not provided, the zirconocene-bridged
complex [MeZr{μ-η5:η1-(C5H4PPh2)}2Rh(CO)(PPh3)] (83)
catalyzed the hydroformylation of 1-hexene to heptanals with
very good activity at 353 K.280
2.10.3.1.3. Mo−Fe−Co. The dppe ligand bridging the Fe−
Co bond in the cluster [MoFeCoCp′(μ3-S)(μ-dppe)(CO)6] is
believed to render the Fe and Co sites more active for the
binding of the substrates during olefin hydroformylation.281
2.10.3.1.4. Mo−Co. The hydroformylation of 1-pentene was
studied with the mixed-metal clusters [MoCo2(μ3-CMe)Cp(CO) 8 ] (84a), [MoCo 2 (μ 3 -CMe)Cp(CO) 7 {P(OMe) 3 }]
(84b), and [MoCo2(μ3-S)Cp(CO)8] (84c) as homogeneous
catalysts.109 However, it should be noted that isomerization of
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reaction could not be fully characterized, but it was assumed to
be a Rh−Mn carbonyl compound, responsible for the catalytic
activity.283
1-pentene competes with hydroformylation to hexanal and 2methylpentanal. Thus, aldehyde yields of 13.5%, 25.5%, and
2.4% were obtained for 84a, 84b, and 84c, respectively. The
first two catalysts exhibited a linear to branched ratio of 2.4 and
2.9, while the third was 100% selective for the linear isomer.
The clusters could be recovered almost entirely (>90%) after
catalysis. Moreover, the cluster 84b was also active in styrene
hydroformylation, affording aldehydes with ca. 41% yield, with
high selectivity for 2-phenylpropionaldehyde.109a
2.10.3.1.11. Fe−Ru. The homogeneous hydroformylation of
styrene (393 K, 20 atm, CO/H2 = 1) was performed in the
presence of the bimetallic complex [(OC)3Fe(μ-PPh2)2Ru(CO)3] (61d). It proved to be the most active system of a
series of M−Ru, M−Pd (M = Cr, Mo, W), and M−Pt (M =
Mo, W) catalysts, leading to a yield of 42%. Its activity was
explained by synergistic effects between the two metals, because
Fe−Fe and Ru−Ru analogous complexes gave only 9% and 3%
yields, respectively. The complex was recovered intact at the
end of the reaction, unlike in the case of M−Pd and M−Pt
systems.211
2.10.3.1.12. Fe−Co. The trinuclear cluster [FeCo2(μ3PPh)(CO)9] (87) has been used as a homogeneous catalyst
in hydroformylation of 1-pentene. The aldehyde yield was of ca.
90%, and the selectivity was rather poor (linear to branched
ratio of 1.4).109
2.10.3.1.5. Mo−Co−Ni. Hydroformylation of alkenes to
linear and branched aldehydes was catalyzed by the cluster
[MoCoNi(μ3-CMe)Cp2(CO)5] (26) with low activities. In
particular, ca. 8% and 6% aldehyde yields were obtained in 1pentene and styrene hydroformylation, respectively. Isomerization of 1-pentene competed strongly under the reaction
conditions.109
2.10.3.1.6. Mo−Rh. The silica-supported [Mo2Rh] catalyst,
derived from [Mo2RhCp3(CO)5], was used as a heterogeneous
catalyst for the hydroformylation of ethylene and propene.
Molybdenum appears to increase the rate of both hydrogenation and hydroformylation of olefins. Propanal, the primary
product of the hydroformylation, was suggested to be
hydrogenated to propanol on active bimetallic centers.168a,213
2.10.3.1.7. W−Ru. The complex [(OC)4W(μ-PPh2)2Ru(CO)3] (61c) was studied as a homogeneous catalyst for the
hydroformylation of styrene. The reaction occurred with 10%
yield and ca. 70% selectivity for the branched aldehyde, while
the corresponding Cr−Ru and Mo−Ru catalysts gave yields
lower than 2%. Under the same conditions, only the W−Pd and
Fe−Ru analogues were more active.211
2.10.3.1.8. W−Rh. The phosphanido-bridged complex
[(OC)4W(μ-PPh2)RhH(CO)(PPh3)] was found to be a
homogeneous catalyst for hydroformylation of alkenes and
alkynes. In the reaction with styrene, the conversion was
complete after 20 h, and almost 100% selectivity was observed
for the branched chain aldehyde.282
2.10.3.1.9. W−Pd. Hydroformylation of styrene to aldehydes
was performed in the presence of the dinuclear complex
[(OC)4W(μ-PPh2)2Pd(PPh3)] (85) with 15% yield. The
corresponding Cr−Pd and Mo−Pd complexes showed yields
lower than 2%, while the Mo−Pt and W−Pt complexes were
even less active. Only the Fe−Ru analogous catalyst was more
active.211
Hydroformylation of cyclohexene to yield cyclohexanecarbaldehyde was catalyzed by the cluster [Et4N][FeCo3(CO)12],
and synergistic effects were involved. Thus, 27% yield could be
obtained after 4 h. However, the cluster [Et4N][Fe3Co(CO)13]
exhibited little activity. A mixture of [Co 2 (CO) 8 ] +
[Ru3(CO)12] with a Ru:Co ratio of 9.9 afforded the desired
product almost quantitatively after 4 h.284
Hydroformylation of terminal, internal, and cyclic olefins was
achieved in the presence of the cluster [(PhCH2)Me3N][FeCo3(CO)12], which showed good catalytic activity and a
selectivity close to 100%.285
The cluster [Fe2Co2(μ4-PPh)2(CO)11] (88) was shown to
persist during hydroformylation of terminal olefins at 403 K.286
2.10.3.1.13. Fe−Rh. The complex [FeRh{μ-P(t-Bu)2}(μdppm)(μ-CO)(CO)3] was used for the catalytic hydroformylation of ethylene with 100% selectivity for propionaldehyde. The complex apparently decomposed during the process,
to afford mononuclear complexes, most likely responsible for
the activity of the system.287
The cluster [HFe 3 Rh(CO) 11 (μ 4 -η 2 -CCHPh)] (13)
showed the same activity as [Rh4(CO)12] in the hydro-
2.10.3.1.10. Mn−Rh. The cluster [Mn2Rh2(μ3-CPh)(μCPh)Cp2(μ-CO)3(CO)3] (86) was used as a homogeneous
catalyst precursor for the hydroformylation of styrene at 333 K
and 2 MPa CO/H2. The conversion was complete after 4 h,
and selectivity for the branched isomer 2-phenylpropionaldehyde was in the range 92−94%. The product recovered after
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phine and tris(diphenylphosphino)methane, was tested with
the cluster [HRuCo3(CO)12] as a homogeneous catalyst. The
desired product was obtained in 37% yield. A mixture of the
complexes [Co2(CO)8] + [Ru3(CO)12] in a Ru to Co ratio of
9.9 gave 100% yield.254a,284
Polymer-supported Co−Ru clusters anchored via N, P, or S
coordinating atoms were tested in hydroformylation of
cyclohexene. It was found that the surface Co/Ru ratio played
a more important role than the total Co/Ru ratio.291
Ethylene and propylene hydroformylation was catalyzed by
carbon-supported heterogeneous catalysts derived from the
clusters [HRuCo3(CO)12], [H3Ru3Co(CO)12], or [Et4N][Ru3Co(CO)13]. Higher rates and selectivities to n-alcohol
production were observed with the cobalt-rich MMCD
catalysts.292
2.10.3.1.19. Ru−Rh. The complex [RuRh(μ-dppm)2Cl(CO)3] (89) was tested in the homogeneous hydroformylation
of pentene under mild conditions.293
formylation of 1-pentene. Typically, after 6 h reaction time,
70% conversion was achieved, and the selectivity was higher for
hexanal than for 2-methylpentanal (linear to branched ratio of
2).58
Hydroformylation of 1-pentene was performed in the
presence of the nitrido clusters [Ph4P][Fe4Rh2N(CO)15] and
[Ph4P]2[Fe5RhN(CO)15] as homogeneous catalysts with a
selectivity of 35−65% in n-hexanal.288
The carbide cluster [Ph4P][Fe5RhC(CO)16] (55) was also
used as catalyst precursor for the hydroformylation of 1pentene. Under catalytic conditions (60 atm CO + H2 at 373
K), it transformed into [Fe4Rh2C(CO)16] and [Ph4P][Fe4RhC(CO)14] (54). The Fe4Rh2C cluster was found to be more
active precursor than 55. The Fe4RhC cluster transformed
further into [Ph4P][Fe3Rh3C(CO)15] during catalysis, which
showed an activity similar to that of 55. The latter exhibited
activity similar to that of [Fe4Rh2C(CO)16] in hydroformylation of 1-pentene.289
Propene hydroformylation reactions could be catalyzed with
high activity and selectivity when the [Fe4Rh] and [Fe5Rh]
catalysts obtained from [Et4N][Fe4RhC(CO)14] and [Et4N][Fe5RhC(CO)16], respectively, were supported on silica. The
[Fe3Rh3] catalyst derived from the cluster [Et4N][Fe3Rh3C(CO)15] was comparatively less active.193
The clusters [Me 4 N] 2 [FeRh 4 (CO) 1 5 ], [TMBA][FeRh5(CO)16], [TMBA]2[Fe2Rh4(CO)16], and [Fe3Rh2C(CO)14] have also been used in olefin hydroformylation
when supported on silica and proved to be much more active
than [Rh4(CO)12]-derived catalysts. Moreover, good selectivities for butanol were observed in propylene hydroformylation
(in the range 42−63%).97,191,290
2.10.3.1.14. Fe−Ir. Ethylene hydroformylation was performed in the presence of the heterogeneous silica-supported
catalyst derived from [TMBA]2[FeIr4(CO)15], which exhibited
enhanced alcohol selectivity as compared to [Ir4] on
SiO2.191a,195
2.10.3.1.15. Fe−Pd. The heterogeneous [Fe6Pd6] catalysts
prepared from [TMBA]3[HFe6Pd6(CO)24] (56) on SiO2
showed enhanced alcohol selectivity in ethylene hydroformylation as compared to [PdCl2].195 Ethylene hydroformylation with the silica-supported [Fe4Pd] catalyst obtained
from [TMBA]2[Fe4Pd(CO)16] led to higher selectivity in
alcohol, because of its higher Fe content.191a Propylene
hydroformylation was also catalyzed by these bimetallic systems
with high selectivities for alcohols.
2.10.3.1.16. Fe−Pt. The silica-supported [Fe3Pt3] and
[Fe4Pt] heterogeneous catalysts prepared from
[TMBA]2[Fe3Pt3(CO)15] (57) and [TMBA]2[Fe4Pt(CO)16],
respectively, were less active in propylene hydroformylation
than the corresponding iron−palladium systems (see section
2.10.3.1.15).191a
2.10.3.1.17. Ru−Os. The polymer-supported cluster
[polym∼NR3][H3RuOs3(CO)12], obtained from cation exchange with the cluster [Ph4As][H3RuOs3(CO)12], was active
in the hydroformylation of 1-hexene. It was found to be more
active and selective toward n-heptanal than the corresponding
Ru and Os tetranuclear homometallic clusters, thus suggesting
synergistic effects. In particular, the selectivity for n-heptanal
was ca. 72% under the reaction conditions. Noteworthy is the
formation of small amounts of 2-hexene as a result of
simultaneous isomerization.63
2.10.3.1.18. Ru−Co. Hydroformylation of cyclohexene to
cyclohexanecarbaldehyde, in the presence of triphenylphos-
When the cluster [PPN][RuRh5(CO)16] was used in the
hydroformylation of 1-hexene, some hydrogenation was also
noted, but aldehydes were obtained in 98% yields. Moreover,
the linear to branched ratio was of 0.7, and no alcohol
formation was noted.294
2.10.3.1.20. Co−Rh. The coordinatively unsaturated bimetallic compound [CoRh(CO)7] seems to be involved as an
active species in hydroformylation reactions.295 Indeed, a
synergistic effect was evidenced in the hydroformylation of
pentafluorostyrene.296 Excellent regioselectivities were reported
for the hydroformylation step of the hydroformylationamidocarbonylation of trifluoropropene using a [Co2(CO)8]/
[Rh6(CO)16] system in which [CoRh(CO)7] could have been
generated.
The dinuclear complexes [(OC)LCo(μ-H){μ-P(t-Bu)2}Rh(CO){HP(t-Bu)2}] (L = CO, HP(t-Bu)2) were reported to
homogeneously catalyze the hydroformylation of terminal
olefins such as ethylene, propylene, and 1-octene with better
selectivities for the linear isomers.297
A cobalt−rhodium system, promoted by triphenylphosphine,
enables a selective hydroformylation of dicyclopentadiene
(DCPD) under relatively mild conditions. The main products
obtained were those of paths A and B (Scheme 33), depending
on the initial PPh3/metal ratio and the CO/H2 pressure.
Typically, path A was favored at 1 atm, while path B was
preferred when the pressure was raised to 40 atm. Under
pressure, the complexes [CoRh(CO)6(PPh3)] and [CoRh(CO)5(PPh3)2] seem to be the active species, and they could be
recovered after the experiments. Moreover, synergistic effects
were observed. At ambient temperature, however, the
fragmentation of the clusters to monometallic complexes
causes a loss of activity.298
The cluster [Co2Rh2(CO)12] was reported to catalyze the
hydroformylation of 1-hexene and 3,3-dimethylbut-1-ene,
whereas [Co3Rh(CO)12] catalyzed only that of 1-hexene.295b,299 The cluster [Co2Rh2(CO)12] was more active in
the hydroformylation of cyclohexene, under mild conditions
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[Co2Rh2(CO)12]. Hydroformylation of 1-dodecene and other
aliphatic and aromatic olefins was tested, and afforded linear
and branched aldehydes. This system could be reused up to five
times without noticeable loss of activity, and the selectivity was
better (close to 100% at 100% conversion) when aromatic
olefins were used as substrates. Synergistic effects seem to be at
the origin of such results when compared to monometallic
[Co] and [Rh] catalysts obtained from the corresponding
homometallic carbonyl clusters.307
2.10.3.1.21. Co−Ni. Homogeneous hydroformylation of 1pentene to hexanal and 2-methylpentanal has been catalyzed by
the cluster [Co2Ni(μ3-CMe)Cp(CO)6]. After 24 h, the
aldehyde yield was 87.5%. While most analogous Mo−Co,
Mo−Co−Ni, and Fe−Co systems were selective for the linear
aldehyde hexanal, the selectivity of this system was higher for 2methylpentanal (linear to branched ratio of 0.6). Hydroformylation of styrene was achieved under mild conditions in
89% aldehyde yield and with moderate to high branched to
normal selectivity (ratio of 7.6). The cluster could be recovered
in high yield (>90%) after catalysis.109a
2.10.3.1.22. Co−Pd. An anchored heteronuclear cobalt−
palladium complex, obtained by the reaction of an anchored
cobalt complex [SIL-(CH2−CH2−CH2PCy2)3Co3(CO)7] with
a benzene solution of [PdL4] [L = (PhCHCH)2CO], was
tested in the catalytic hydroformylation of propylene under
mild conditions (313−373 K, 1 atm of CO). This system
exhibited greater activity than the individual homometallic
cobalt and palladium complexes, under similar conditions, and
was even active at 313 and 333 K, when the homometallic
complexes were inactive. Moreover, selectivities for the linear
aldehyde were in the range 84−87% at temperatures between
353 and 373 K.308 A possible reason for the synergistic effect
observed when using cobalt−palladium complexes could be the
simultaneous formation of reactive Pd−H and Co−C bonds.309
2.10.3.1.23. Co−Pt. The linear complex trans-[Pt{Co(CO)4}2(CNCy)2] (90), the triangular cluster [Co2Pt(CO)7(dppe)], and the butterfly cluster
[Co2Pt2(CO)8(PPh3)2] are quite active catalysts in hydroformylation of 1-pentene within the 353−373 K range but not
at 333−338 K. At 373 K, the tetranuclear cluster afforded
hexanal with 63.5% selectivity at 85.4% conversion. Interestingly, the dpae analogue of [Co2Pt(CO)7(dppe)] is not active
at 353 K, even though the chelating ligand is not bonded to the
active cobalt atoms.51
Scheme 33
(323 K, 1 atm CO + H2), than [Rh4(CO)12], and addition of
P(OPh)3 enhanced its activity.300
Hydroformylation of 1-hexene was achieved with
[Co2Rh2(CO)12] supported on alumina, silica, or magnesium
silicate to form C7-aldehydes with good yields. The best results
for the production of C7-alcohols (yields >90%) were obtained
with alumina as a support in the presence of NEt3 at 50 bar
(CO:H2 = 1) and 373 K.299
When the cluster [Co2Rh2(CO)12] was entrapped in silica
with polystyrene sulfonic acid, it allowed styrene hydroformylation with moderate yields (ca. 10%).149
Olefin hydroformylation was tested in the presence of aminefunctionalized resins to which Co−Rh clusters, such as
[Co4−xRhx(CO)12] (x = 0−2), were tethered. In particular,
[Co2Rh2(CO)12] catalyzed the hydroformylation of acrolein
dimethyl acetal in the presence of PhMe to give
HOCH2CHMeCH(OMe)2 and HO(CH2)3CH(OMe)2 in
50.4% and 12.1% yield, respectively, at 100% conversion.301
The silica-anchored cluster [Co3Rh(CO)10(Ph2P∼SIL)2] was
used for 1-hexene hydroformylation, leading to 94.2%
conversion and 97.7% selectivity to aldehydes (linear to
branched ratio = 2.1).302
The SiO2-supported [Co2Rh2(CO)12] and [Co3Rh(CO)12]derived catalysts [Co2Rh2] and [Co3Rh], respectively, showed
excellent activities for the formation of oxygenates (alcohols +
aldehydes) in atmospheric hydroformylation of ethylene and
propylene.303 For ethylene hydroformylation, the activity of the
[Co3Rh] catalyst was reported to be about 20 times that of a
[Rh4(CO)12]/SiO2-derived monometallic catalyst.304 The
activities and selectivities of those two catalysts deposited on
ZnO were studied as a function of the composition of the
clusters in the vapor-phase hydroformylation of ethylene and
propene.305 Performances decreased in the order: [Rh4] >
[Co2Rh2] > [Co3Rh] > [Co4]. Precursors with higher cobalt
contents produced more linear aldehyde. When supported on
carbon, the same catalysts [Co2Rh2] and [Co3Rh] were also
tested in the gas-phase hydroformylation of ethylene and
propene. They were found to be active catalysts.305 The
[Co2Rh2] catalyst on various supports, such as alumina, silica,
magnesium oxide, and NaY zeolite, was studied for hexene
hydroformylation and found to give 97% yield of the C7
alcohol.301c,306
Charcoal-supported heterobimetallic NPs with sizes ranging
from 1 to 3 nm were obtained from the cluster
Hydroformylation of 1-hexene and 1,3-butadiene was
catalyzed by the butterfly cluster [Co2Pt2(CO)8(PPh3)2] with
higher activity than the corresponding mononuclear Co−P and
Pt−P complexes. 310 This was related to the electron
distribution within the mixed-metal cluster.75
2.10.3.1.24. Co−Cu. A silica-supported [CoCu] catalyst
derived from the bimetallic cluster [(CO)4CoCu(TMED)]
(60), consisting of discrete Co NPs with Cu aggregates, was
tested in hydroformylation of ethylene. More than 70%
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was explained by synergistic effects of the mixed-metal
system.314
2.10.4. Intramolecular Hydroacylation Reactions.
Hydroacylation is a convenient route for the formation of
ketones starting from aldehydes and alkenes/alkynes. In
particular, as the intramolecular reaction is generally favored,
the products are usually cyclic ketones. Some heterometallic
complexes were used to catalyze such reactions.
2.10.4.1. Ti−Rh. Intramolecular hydroacylation of 3substituted pentenals, such as 3-phenyl-4-pentenal and styrene
2-carboxaldehyde, could be achieved in the presence of the O−
P bridged complex [OiPrTi(μ-η1:η1-OCMe2CH2PPh2)3RhCl]
(93). In the case of 3-phenyl-4-pentenal, only 3-phenylpentanone was obtained, in 98% yield (Scheme 36).315
selectivity toward propanal was achieved at 453 K, for a
conversion of 4.3%. Two other products were formed: 3pentanone (23%) and propanol (<3%).27g
2.10.3.1.25. Rh−Zn. Hydroformylation of functionalized
terminal olefins, such as 1-hexene, 5-hexen-1-ol, propene, and
2-propen-1-ol, was achieved in the presence of the Rh−Zn
complex [ZnRhCl2(CO)(NOP)][BF4] (91) (NOP is the
heterobinucleating ligand 2,6-bis[(3-(diphenylphosphino)propoxy)methyl]pyridine). No induction period was observed,
unlike in the case of the mononuclear complex [RhCl(CO)(PPh3)2], which required 2−3 h. Metal ion cooperativity was
thus observed.
Scheme 36
It is possible that Zn(II) functions as an internal acceptor,
which abstracts the chloride ion from the Rh(I) center during
formation of the active species.311
2.10.3.1.26. Ir−Cu. The complex [Cl(CO)Ir(μPh2Ppy)2Cu][BF4] (92) was used as a homogeneous catalyst
for the hydroformylation of styrene at 353 K, 80 atm of CO/H2
(1:1). Conversions ranging from 50% to 70% were achieved,
and selectivities for branched aldehydes were the highest. The
other main product was ethylbenzene, as a result of sole
hydrogenation.312
Similarly, the hydroacylation of styrene 2-carboxaldehyde led
to the cyclization product only, with 40% yield. The authors
suggested a cooperative effect between the metal centers where
Ti(IV) would activate Rh(I) through +/+ charge repulsion.315
2.10.5. Cyclopropanation of Styrene. 2.10.5.1. Ti−Ru.
The bridged complexes [CpCl2Ti(μ-η5:η1-C5H4(CH2)nPR2)RuCl2(p-cymene)] (R = Ph, n = 0, 2; R = Cy, n = 2), similar to
18, were active in the addition of ethyldiazoacetate to styrene
(Scheme 37). They showed slightly higher activities than the
2 . 1 0 . 3 . 2 . Ot h e r H y d r o f o r m y l a t i o n R e a c t i o n s .
2.10.3.2.1. Co−Rh. In the homogeneous hydroformylation of
formaldehyde, [Co2Rh2(CO)12] afforded unexpectedly both
glycolaldehyde and ethylene glycol with an overall molar
selectivity of ca. 50% (Scheme 34).313
Scheme 37
Scheme 34
corresponding half-sandwich complexes [X 3 Ti(μ-η 5 :η 1 C5H4(CH2)nPR2)RuCl2(p-cymene)] (R = Ph, n = 0, X = Cl;
R = Ph, n = 2, X = O-i-Pr; R = Cy, n = 2, X = O-i-Pr). In all
cases, only the cyclopropanation products were obtained, and
no metathesis product could be identified.316
2.10.5.2. Ta−Ru. Cyclopropanation of styrene with diazoacetate N2CHCO2Et was performed with a set of tantalocene
heterometallic complexes as precatalysts. Thus, [Cp*Cl2Ta(μη5:η1-C5H4(CH2)2PR2)RuCl2(p-cymene)] (R = Ph, Cy) (94a),
their hydroxo analogues [Cp*Cl(HO)Ta(μ-η 5 :η 1 C5H4(CH2)2PR2)RuCl2(p-cymene)]Cl (94b), and the oxo
versions [Cp*Cl(O)Ta(μ-η5:η1-C5H4(CH2) 2PR2)RuCl2(pcymene)] (94c) were all active, with conversions ranging
from 33% to 61% (achieved with [Cp*Cl(HO)Ta(μ-η5:η1-
Using [Co2Rh2(CO)12] as a homogeneous catalyst, hydroformylation of N-allylacetamide afforded pyrrolidine B with
≥98% selectivity (Scheme 35). With rhodium catalysts, 2formylpyrrolidine A was the major product. (The hemiamidal
C was shown to be the precursor of A and B.) Such a selectivity
Scheme 35
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bar of CO at 343 K (Scheme 39). The yield was 65% at almost
quantitative conversion.322
C5H4(CH2)2PCy2)RuCl2(p-cymene)]Cl), and trans/cis ratios
of the cyclopropane products around 62/38. Moreover, almost
no metathesis reaction was observed, as opposed to the Ru
complexes [(PR3)RuCl2(p-cymene)], which suggests that the
Ta center contributes to the selectivity of the cyclopropanation.317
Scheme 39
2.10.6.2. Ru−Co. The clusters C[RuCo3(CO)12] (cation C+
= H+, Et4N+, bmim+) were used in the intramolecular Pauson−
Khand reaction of diethyl(allylpropargyl)malonate to afford
cyclopentenone, as described above. For conversions of 100%,
the yields were superior to 90% in most cases, with 2 mol %
catalyst loading.322
2.10.6.3. Co−Rh. Charcoal-supported [Co 2 Rh 2 ] and
[Co3Rh] NPs with sizes around 2 nm were prepared from
[Co2Rh2(CO)12] and [Co3Rh(CO)12], respectively. They were
tested in the Pauson−Khand-type reaction between α,βunsaturated aldehydes and alkynes to yield 2-substituted
pentenones,323 and more widely in reactions involving
aldehydes as CO source for the reaction (Scheme 40).323,324
They were much more active than [Co] and [Rh] catalysts,
suggesting some synergy between the metal centers.
2.10.5.3. Mo−Cu. Cyclopropanation of styrene with ethyl
diazoacetate (Scheme 37) in the presence of a racemic solution
of [Mo3CuS4(dmpe)3Cl4]+ afforded the two isomers with 80%
yields. When the enantiopure cluster [Mo3CuS4{(R,R)-MeBPE}3Cl4]+ where ((R,R)-Me-BPE) = (+)-1,2-bis[(2R,5R)-2,5(dimethylphospholan-1-yl)]ethane was used instead, asymmetric induction was observed, with 88% yield of product and 20−
21% ee for each isomer. Intramolecular cyclopropanation of 1diazo-5-hexen-2-one (Scheme 38) was catalyzed by the racemic
Scheme 40
Scheme 38
mixture in refluxing CH 2 Cl 2 , affording 95% yield of
bicyclo[3.1.0]hexan-2-one, whereas the enantiopure cluster
gave 84% yield with 25% ee. In all cases, the clusters were
recovered intact after the reaction.318 Mechanistic studies,
substituting S by Se and/or Cl by Br in the chiral cluster,
suggested that the reaction proceeds through Cu−chalcogenide
bond cleavage.319
2.10.5.4. Fe−Cu. The heterobimetallic complex trans[(OC)3Fe(μ-LP,N)2Cu][BF4] (LP,N = (2-oxazoline-2-ylmethyl)diphenylphosphine) (95) was used in styrene cyclopropanation
by ethyl diazoacetate. The trans- and cis-ethyl 2-phenyl-1cyclopropanecarboxylates were obtained, in 91% isolated yield
and in a 70:30 ratio. The complex 95 could be recovered after
complete conversion of ethyl diazoacetate.320
These catalytic systems were also used for the asymmetric
intramolecular Pauson−Khand-type reactions with an enyne, in
the presence of crotonaldehyde as CO source, and a chiral
phosphine ligand to enhance the selectivity (Scheme 41). The
best results were obtained when (2S,4S)-(−)-2,4-bis(diphenylphosphino)pentane was used.324
Scheme 41
In a similar manner, the supported [Co2Rh2] material
mentioned above catalyzed the intramolecular Pauson−Khand
reaction of allenynes325 and the Pauson−Khand-like carbonylative cycloaddition of bisallenes326 with yields up to 85% and
70%, respectively (Scheme 42).
Scheme 42
2.10.6. Pauson−Khand Reactions. The Pauson−Khand
reaction (PKR), which consists of the coupling of an alkyne, an
alkene, and CO, represents a convenient procedure to access
cyclopentenones with high regio- and stereoselectivities.321
2.10.6.1. Fe−Co. The tetrahedral cluster [HFeCo3(CO)11(PPh3)] was used as a precatalyst for the intramolecular Pauson−Khand reaction of diethyl(allylpropargyl)malonate to afford the corresponding cyclopentenone, under 8
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with a broad molecular weight distribution for the products,
with Mw/Mn ratios up to 5.42. Also, it was less active than the
corresponding homometallic Zr−Zr complex.331
2.10.6.4. Co−Pt. The intramolecular Pauson−Khand reaction of diethyl(allylpropargyl)malonate was performed in the
presence of the trinuclear clusters [(PNP)PtCo2(CO)7] (PNP
= dppa, PhN(PPh2)2, C6H13S(CH2)2N(PPh2)2) (96). A
minimum of 5% loading was required to obtain yields in the
range 85−93%.322
Simlarly, in the presence of MAO, the Ti−Zr complex
[CpCl2Zr{μ-(η5:η5-C5H4C(CH2)4C5H4)}TiCl3] catalyzed the
polymerization of ethylene with a much lower activity than
[ZrCp2Cl2] and the homometallic Zr−Zr analogue.332
2.10.7.2. Ti−Cr. Strong synergism was observed in ethylene
polymerization in the presence of a series of Ti−Cr bimetallic
complexes with different metal−metal distances and MAO as
cocatalyst. Indeed, complexes [{(η5-indenyl)[1-Me2Si(t-BuN)](TiCl2)}(CH2)n{N[(CH2)2(SEt)]2(CrCl3)}] (99a−c) exhibited very good selectivity for n-butyl-branched polymers,
as opposed to mononuclear Ti or Cr analogous complexes, as
well as mixtures of both, which yielded linear polymers only. In
particular, increasing Mn values and increasing activities were
observed in the order 99a > 99b > 99c. From a mechanistic
point of view, it was suggested that oligomerization to 1-hexene
occurs at the Cr center, while subsequent polymerization
occurs at the Ti center. More precisely, the covalent bonding of
the two metal centers, and thus their close proximity, induces a
confinement that seems beneficial for the integrity and the
efficiency of the transfer of the oligomers from the Cr center to
the Ti center, resulting in better results with 99a than 99b and
99c.327
2.10.7. Transformations of Ethylene. Strong cooperative
effects in olefin polymerization catalysis may be observed when
secondary interactions occur between weakly basic monomer
substituents and a second metal center, whether the system is
homo- or heterometallic. In particular, substantial cooperative
effects may result from well-designed interactions between the
active sites. Even in the absence of direct metal−metal
interaction in the precursor complex, heterometallic complexes
have often been found to achieve high activities, cooperative
effects being enhanced by a closer proximity between the metal
centers.14a,24,327 However, some examples are shown below for
bimetallic couples otherwise not or under-represented, and we
hope that the lack of studies on corresponding metal−metal
bonded heterometallic precursor complexes could encourage
further research in the field.
2.10.7.1. Ti−Zr. The dinuclear complex (μ-CH2CH23,3′){(η5-indenyl)[1-Me2Si(t-BuN)](TiMe2)}{(η5-indenyl)[1Me2Si(t-BuN)](ZrMe2)} (97) was tested in the homopolymerization of ethylene, in the presence of the cocatalyst
(Ph3C)+[B(C6F5)4]−. Mainly branched long-chain polyethylene
products (>C6) were obtained in high yields. For comparison, a
mixture of monometallic Ti and Zr complexes bearing the same
ligands afforded almost exclusively nonbranched products.
Thus, the branching process would suggest a mechanism
involving both metal centers.328
2.10.7.3. Ti−W. The dinuclear complex [Cp*Cl2Ti(μN2)WCl(depe)2] exhibited higher activity in the polymerization
of ethylene than the constrained geometry catalyst complex [(tBuNSiMe2C5Me4)TiCl2], with both modified MAO and Al(iBu)3/[Ph3C][B(C6F5)4] as cocatalysts.333
2.10.7.4. Ti−Pd. Ethylene polymerization was tested with the
MAO-activated complex [TiCl 2 {μ-(t-Bu 2 CH)N(C 6 H 4 )PPh2}2PdCl2] (100a). It was 3 times less active than the
corresponding mononuclear Ti complex, and the polydispersity
of the products obtained was larger, evidencing an inhibiting
effect of Pd on the activity. The Ti−Ni analogue yielded no
polymer at all under these conditions. Whether the poor
catalytic performances are related to the absence of metal−
metal interaction in the precursor complexes was not
established.334
2.10.7.5. Ti−Pt. The complex [TiCl2{μ-(t-Bu2CH)N(C6H4)PPh2}2PtCl2] (100b), when activated with MAO, was evaluated
in ethylene polymerization, but it was found to be even less
active than its Ti−Pd counterpart (see section 2.10.7.4).334
2.10.7.6. Zr−Hf. The metallocene derivative complex
[CpCl2 Zr{μ-(η 5-C5 H4)C(CH2 ) 5(η5 -C 9H 6)}HfCl2 Cp] is a
poor catalyst for ethylene polymerization in the presence of
MAO.335
The oxo-bridged complex [Cp*2MeZr(μ-O)TiMe2Cp*],
when activated with MAO, efficiently catalyzed the polymerization of ethylene at room temperature in toluene. The
products are linear low-density polyethylene species. The
presence of the oxo bridge could be responsible for the
enhanced acidity at the metal centers.329
The related compound [Cp*2MeZr(μ-O)Ti(NMe2)3], after
MAO activation, was also tested as a catalyst for the
polymerization of ethylene and styrene. DFT calculations
supported the hypothesis that the Zr center is mostly
responsible for the formation of polyethylenes, while
polystyrene seems to be formed mainly at the Ti center,
which is sterically more accessible, although less energetically
favorable.330
Ethylene polymerization was catalyzed by the MAO-activated
complex [CpCl2Zr{μ-(η5:η5-C5H4SiMe2C5H4)}TiCl2Cp] (98),
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C5Me4)2ZrCl2]339 were tested in the polymerization of
ethylene with MAO as cocatalyst. These complexes yielded
isotactic polymers (>95% selectivity) with higher molecular
weight than zirconocene complexes.338
Ethylene polymerization was performed in the presence of
the MAO-activated complex [CpCl2 Zr{μ-(η 5 :η 5 -C 5H 4 C(CH2)4C5H4)}Rh(COD)] (104a). The Zr−Zr analogue was
more active and yielded polymers with a narrower molecular
weight distribution, probably due to the difference between the
two metal centers.332
Also, [CpCl2Zr{μ-(η5:η5-C5H4C(CH2)4C5H4)}HfCl2Cp] is
less active than its Zr−Zr analogue and than [ZrCp2Cl2] in
ethylene polymerization in the presence of MAO.332
2.10.7.7. Zr−Cr. The arsenido-bridged heterobimetallic
complex [Cp2Zr{μ-As(SiMe3)2}2Cr(CO)4] (101a) is a good
precatalyst for the polymerization of ethylene, after activation
with MAO, under mild conditions. However, the phosphanidobridged Zr−Mo analogue [Cp2Zr{μ-P(SiMe3)2}2Mo(CO)4] is
more active. The authors assumed a mechanism involving the
formation of Zr cations and P-bridged Cr-MAO anionic
species, the latter being mostly responsible for the activity.336
2.10.7.12. Zr−Ni. When activated with MAO, the
phosphanido-bridged compound [Cp2Zr{μ-P(SiMe3)2}2Ni(CO)2] (101c) catalyzed the polymerization of ethylene at
temperatures between 298 and 338 K. It proved to be more
active than the Zr−Cr analogous complex, but less than the
Zr−Mo one.336,340
The complex [Cl 2 Zr(η 5 -C 5 Me 4 )SiMe 2 (η 5 -C 5 H 3 )CH 2 (CH) 2 CO 2 CH 2 (C 5 H 3 N)CHN(dipp)NiBr 2 (H 2 O)]
(105b) afforded a mixture of methyl- and ethyl-branched
polymers in the catalytic polymerization of ethylene, with MAO
as a cocatalyst.337
2.10.7.8. Zr−Mo. Similarly, ethylene polymerization was
achieved in the presence of the complex [Cp 2 Zr{μP(SiMe3)2}2Mo(CO)4] (101b) as precatalyst and MAO as
cocatalyst. It exhibited a better activity as compared to its
arsenido-bridged Zr−Cr and phosphanido-bridged Zr−Ni
counterparts.336
2.10.7.9. Zr−Fe. In the presence of MAO, the metallocene
derivative [Fe{μ-(η5-C9H6)CMe2(η5-C5H4)Zr(η5-C5H5)Cl2}2]
(102) exhibited activity in ethylene polymerization similar to
that of the model catalyst [ZrCp2Cl2].335
2.10.7.13. Zr−Pd. The complex [Cl2Zr(η5-C5Me4)SiMe2(η5C5H3)CH2(CH)2CO2CH2(C5H3N)CHN(dipp)PdCl2] (105c)
catalyzed the polymerization of ethylene to yield linear
polyethylene, in contrast to its Co and Ni counterparts.337
2.10.7.14. Hf−Rh. In the presence of MAO as cocatalyst, the
complex [CpCl2Hf{μ-(η5:η5-C5H4C(CH2)4C5H4)}Rh(COD)]
(104b) was found to be less active than its Zr−Rh counterpart
104a in ethylene polymerization.332
2.10.7.15. V−Cr. Ethylene polymerization was achieved with
a [VCr] catalyst prepared from [VCrCp3(CO)3] on SiO2.
Polymers with a broad weight distribution were obtained.341
2.10.7.16. Cr−Mo. The complex [CrMo(OAc)4·2H2O]
supported on silica catalyzed the polymerization of ethylene
at 358 K. Comparisons were made with the corresponding
homometallic precatalysts [Cr 2 (OAc) 4 ·2H 2 O] and
[Mo2(OAc)4·2H2O]. Lewis acid cocatalysts (aluminum or tin
alkyls) favor the formation of isomers and oligomers. The
corresponding [CrMo] and [Cr2] + [Mo2] heterogeneous
catalysts revealed a cooperative effect of the two centers.342
2.10.7.17. Fe−Ru. Ethylene self-homologation was catalyzed
by silica-supported [Fe3−xRux] (x = 0−3) catalysts, among
which [Fe2Ru], prepared from [Fe2Ru(CO)12], showed the
maximum activity. Increased selectivity toward propene/butene
(C3:C4 ratio) was observed when increasing the Fe content in
2.10.7.10. Zr−Co. In the presence of MAO, the complex
[Cp*Co{μ-(η5-C9H6)CMe2(η5-C5H4)Zr(η5-C5H5)Cl2}] (103)
showed activities in ethylene polymerization similar to that of
the Zr−Fe complex [Fe{μ-(η5-C9H6)CMe2(η5-C5H4)Zr(η5C5H5)Cl2}2].335
Ethylene polymerization was successfully initiated with the
dinuclear complex [Cl2Zr(η5-C5Me4)SiMe2(η5-C5H3)CH2(CH)2CO2CH2(C5H3N)CHN(dipp)CoCl2] (105a) (see section 2.10.7.12) in the presence of modified MAO. Ethylbranched polymers were thus obtained, suggesting dimerization
of ethylene at the cobalt center and copolymerization of 1butene and ethylene at the zirconium center.337
2.10.7.11. Zr−Rh. The complexes [LRh(η2-CH2CH)2Si5
(η -C 5 H 2 -2,4-Me 2 ) 2 ZrCl 2 ] (L = η 5 -C 9 H 7, η 5 -C 5 H 5 , η 5 C 5 Me 5 ) 3 3 8 and [(η 5 -C 9 H 7 )Rh(η 2 -CH 2 CH) 2 Si(η 5 69
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lyzed the polymerization of propylene in the presence of MAO.
They showed better activities than their arsenido-bridged Zr−
Cr and phosphanido-bridged Zr−Ni counterparts.340
the MMCD catalysts, in contrast to the conventional
catalysts.89
2.10.7.18. Fe−Co. A phosphinooxazoline ligand was used to
prepare the bimetallic, trinuclear complex trans-[{(OC)4Fe(μPPh2CH2-oxazoline)}2CoCl2] (106). This compound is active
in ethylene oligomerization and gave linear α-olefins in the
range C4−C26, with a maximum of the Schulz−Flory
distribution around C6.343
2.10.8.6. Zr−Fe. Dinuclear and trinuclear ferrocenyl
derivatives of the type [CpFe(μ-C5H4SiMe2C5H2R1R2)ZrCpCl2] (R1 = R2 = H; R1 = Me, R2 = H; R1 = R2 = Me;
R1 = Ph, R2 = H) are very active olefin polymerization catalysts.
In particular, [{CpFe(μ-C5H4SiMe2C5H4)}ZrCpCl2] allows
copolymerization of ethylene and propylene and terpolymerization of ethylene, propylene, and diene.344
The metallocene derivative [Fe{μ-(η5-C9H6)CMe2(η5C5H4)Zr(η5-C5H5)Cl2}2] (102) has been tested as a cocatalyst
for propylene polymerization in the presence of MAO. It
exhibited activities close to that of the model system
[ZrCp2Cl2]-MAO.335
2.10.8.7. Zr−Co. The activity in propylene polymerization of
the complex [Cp*Co{μ-(η 5-C 9 H 6 )CMe 2 (η 5 -C 5 H 4 )Zr(η 5 C5H5)Cl2}] (103), when activated with MAO, is close to
that of [Fe{μ-(η5-C9H6)CMe2(η5-C5H4)Zr(η5-C5H5)Cl2}2]
(102).335
2.10.8.8. Zr−Rh. The polymerization of α-olefins was carried
out in the presence of the complexes [CpRRh(η2-CH2
CH)2Si(η5-C5H2-2,4-Me2)2ZrCl2] (CpR = Cp, Cp*, Ind)338
and [(η5-C9H7)Rh(η2-CH2CH)2Si(η5-C5Me4)2ZrCl2],339
with MAO as cocatalyst. These complexes yielded isotactic
polymers (>95% selectivity) with higher molecular weight than
when zirconocene complexes were used in polymerization of 1hexene or propylene. A mixture of mononuclear Zr and Rh
complexes showed lower activities and selectivities, suggesting
synergistic effects in the case of the bimetallic precursors, even
though the metal centers are separated by more than 6 Å.338
The MAO-activated complex [CpCl2Zr{μ-(η5:η5-C5H4C(CH2)4C5H4)}Rh(COD)] (104a) catalyzed the polymerization
of propylene with lower activity than Ti−Zr, Zr−Zr, and Zr−
Hf analogous complexes. However, it was more efficient than
the Hf−Hf and Hf−Rh precursors.332
2.10.8.9. Zr−Ni. The phosphanido-bridged complex [Cp2Zr{μ-P(SiMe3)2}2Ni(CO)2] (101c), when activated with MAO,
catalyzes the polymerization of propylene under mild temperature conditions.340
2.10.8.10. Hf−Rh. Propylene polymerization was performed
in the presence of [CpCl2Hf{μ-(η5:η5-C5H4C(CH2)4C5H4)}Rh(COD)] (104b) and of MAO as cocatalyst, but this complex
was less active than its Zr−Rh counterpart.332
2.10.8.11. Cr−Mo. The silica-supported complex [CrMo(OAc)4·2H2O] catalyzed the polymerization of 1-octene at 296
K. Oligomers and isomers were obtained in higher yields in the
presence of Lewis acid cocatalysts, such as aluminum or tin
alkyls. The cluster-derived catalysts [CrMo] and [Cr2] + [Mo2]
exhibited a cooperative effect of the two centers.342
2.10.8.12. Mo−Pd, W−Pd. Butadiene oligomerization was
performed in the presence of the clusters
[M2Pd2Cp2(CO)6(PEt3)2] (M = Mo, 11a, or W, 12a) and
[M2Pd2Cp2(CO)6(PPh3)2] (M = Mo, 11b, or W, 12b) to give
2.10.8. Transformations of Other Linear Olefins.
2.10.8.1. Ti−Zr. The oxo-bridged complex [Cp*2MeZr(μO)Ti(NMe2)3] was tested as a catalyst for the polymerization
of styrene, after activation with MAO. Mechanistic studies
revealed the important role of the Ti center in forming
polystyrenes, as supported by DFT calculations.330
Ethylene-propylene copolymerization was achieved in the
presence of the MAO-activated complex [CpCl2Zr{μ-(η5:η5C5H4SiMe2C5H4)}TiCl2Cp]. The product showed a broad
molecular weight distribution.331
The Ti−Zr complex [CpCl 2 Zr{μ-(η 5 :η 5 -C 5 H 4 C(CH2)4C5H4)}TiCl3] was tested in the polymerization of
propylene with MAO as cocatalyst. Its activity was much lower
than that of [ZrCp2Cl2] and of the homometallic Zr−Zr
analogue. The polymers obtained had higher molecular weight
and broader mass distributions, due to the presence of two
different metal centers.332
2.10.8.2. Ti−W. Copolymerization of ethylene and 1-hexene
was efficiently catalyzed by the bimetallic complexes
[CpRCl2Ti(μ-N2)WCl(dppe)2] (CpR = Cp, Cp′) (107a),
[CpRCl2Ti(μ-N2)WCl(depe)2] (CpR = Cp, Cp′, Cp*, Ind)
(107b), or [CpCl2Ti(μ-N2)WCl(PMe2Ph)4] (107c). The
former exhibited very high activity, while the latter was much
less active, probably due to the lability of the PMe2Ph ligand.333
2.10.8.3. Zr−Hf. The complex [CpCl2Zr{μ-(η5:η5-C5H4C(CH2)4C5H4)}HfCl2Cp] is not as active as its Zr−Zr analogue
or as [ZrCp2Cl2] for propene polymerization in the presence of
MAO.332
2.10.8.4. Zr−Cr. The polymerization of propylene was
performed with the complexes [Cp2Zr{μ-As(SiMe3)2}2Cr(CO)4] (101a) and [Cp′2Zr(μ-PHTipp)2Cr(CO)4] (Tipp
=2,4,6-i-Pr3C6H2) (108a) as catalysts and with MAO as a
cocatalyst. The best activities were observed between 298 and
338 K, but the phosphanido-bridged Zr−Mo analogues were
more active.340
2.10.8.5. Zr−Mo. The phosphanido-bridged complexes
[Cp2Zr{μ-P(SiMe3)2}2Mo(CO)4] (101b) and [Cp′2Zr(μPHTipp)2Mo(CO)4] (Tipp = 2,4,6-i-Pr3C6H2) (108b) cata70
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low molecular weight polymers, as well as a mixture of 4vinylcyclohexene, 1,5-cyclooctadiene, and cyclododecatriene.51
2.10.8.13. Co−Pt. The catalytic cyclo-oligomerization of 1,3butadiene by the butterfly cluster [Co2Pt2(CO)8(PPh3)2] was
studied.75
2.10.9. Transformations of Norbornadiene.
2.10.9.1. Mo−Pt, W−Pt. Preliminary studies with the trinuclear
chain complexes trans-[Pt{MoCp(CO)3}2(CNCy)2] and trans[Pt{WCp(CO)3}2(CNR)2] (R = Cy, t-Bu) as homogeneous
catalysts revealed that no dimerization occurred during
polymerization of norbornadiene, even after full conversion.345
2.10.9.2. Fe−Co. The tetrahedral cluster [Me 4 N][FeCo3(CO)12] was more active for the stereospecific
dimerization of norbornadiene to “Binor-S” (Scheme 39)
than [HFeCo3(CO)12] or [Co4(CO)12].346
The cluster [Et4N][FeCo3(CO)12] was entrapped in a silica
sol−gel matrix. It remained intact upon adsorption onto silica,
and was tested in the dimerization of norbonadiene to “BinorS”. Quantitative yields were obtained for the first two runs, but
the activity slightly decreased for the third and fourth runs due
to partial pore clogging.61
2.10.9.3. Fe−Pt, Co−Pt. The chain complexes trans[Pt{Fe(CO)3NO}2(CNR)2] (R = Cy, t-Bu), trans-[Pt{Co(CO)4}2(CNR)2] (R = Cy, t-Bu), the butterfly clusters
[Co2Pt2(CO)8L2] (L = PEt3, PPh3, AsPh3), and the trigonal
bipyramidal cluster [Co2Pt3(CO)9L3] (L = PEt3, PPh3)
exhibited high catalytic activity (100% conversion) with
stereospecific dimerization of NBD to the “head-to-head”
dimer “Binor-S” when a Lewis acid was present. However, in its
absence, the “exo-trans-exo” isomer was obtained selectively
(Scheme 43). Related Mo−Pt−Mo and W−Pt−W complexes
resulted in polymerization of norbornadiene.345
2.10.10. Trimerization of Alkynes. 2.10.10.1. Cr−Rh.
The complex [(OC)3Cr(μ-η6:η5-Ind*)Rh(CO)2] (Ind* =
heptamethylindenyl) efficiently catalyzed the cyclotrimerization
of DMAD (dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate) to yield hexacarbomethoxybenzene (Scheme 44). The authors point to the
formation of the complex [(OC) 3 Cr(μ-η 6 :η 5 -Ind*)Rh(DMAD)2] as the slow step of the reaction, during the
induction time.350
Scheme 44
2.10.10.2. Mo−Ru. A head-to-tail coupling around the
mixed-metal cluster [Mo2Ru(μ3-S)Cp2(CO)7], thus affording
the cluster 109, allowed for the trimerization of phenylacetylene at 371 K (Scheme 45). It is believed that the
Scheme 45
dimolybdenum unit serves as the alkyne oligomerization site,
but the chemistry overall is dependent on the entire cluster
functioning as a unit. It was possible to induce the elimination
of 1,3,5-triphenylbenzene from 109 by treatment with CO.351
Scheme 43
2.10.9.4. Co−Zn. Dimerization of norbornadiene yielded
quantitatively “Binor-S” in the presence of the bimetallic
transition metal catalyst [Zn{Co(CO)4}2], with or without a
Lewis acid cocatalyst. A possible transition state was suggested
in which two substrate molecules could come sufficiently close
for bond formation, giving rise to “Binor-S”.347
In a similar fashion, stereospecific dimerization of norbornadiene was catalyzed by the complex [Co 2 {μ-ZnCo(CO)4}2(CO)7]. The induction period was much shorter
than that with [Zn{Co(CO)4}2]. Yields in the range 70−80%
were obtained after 2 h reaction time.348
2.10.9.5. Co−Cd, Co−Hg. The trinuclear complex [Cd{Co(CO)4}2] catalyzed the dimerization of norbornadiene to a
mixture of dimers, including “Binor-S”, and thus behaves
differently from its mercury analogue [Hg{Co(CO)4}2].
Indeed, with the latter complex, a mixture of four dimers was
obtained, but no “Binor-S” was formed. In the presence of
Lewis acids, however, [Hg{Co(CO)4}2] afforded “Binor-S”
exclusively.349
2.10.11. Coupling Reactions. 2.10.11.1. Ti−Pd. Suzuki−
Miyaura coupling between phenylboronic acid and 3,5dimethoxybromobenzene in dioxane at 353 K in the presence
of Cs2CO3 yielded 90% of the expected biaryl compound, along
with 10% of biphenyl, in the presence of the complex [TiCl2{μ(t-Bu2CH)N(C6H4)PPh2}2PdCl2] (100a). Under the same
conditions, the coupling of 4-nitrobromobenzene with phenyl
boronic acid gave similar results: 85% of the desired biaryl
product and 10% of biphenyl.334
2.10.11.2. Zr−Co. The Kumada coupling of unactivated alkyl
halides with alkyl Grignard reagents such as n-octylmagnesium
bromide (Scheme 46) was achieved in the presence of the
complexes [ClZr(i-PrNPPh2)3CoI] (110a), [ClZr(MesNP-iScheme 46
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Pr2)3CoI] (110b), and [ClZr(i-PrNP-i-Pr2)3CoI] (110c) as
catalysts. Typically, the coupling of 4-bromobutane with nC8H17MgBr in the presence of these complexes gave yields of
62.9%, 81.9%, and 83.3% for 110a, 110b, and 110c,
respectively. Overall, 110a was found to be slightly less active
than the other two catalysts.
Adding 30 mol % of TMEDA greatly improved the yields.
The fact that homometallic Co complexes were inert toward
such substrates indicated that the presence of Zr is necessary
for catalytic activity.352
Scheme 48
of the aryl halides was observed. As the monometallic
precursors are inactive in these reactions, it appears that
synergistic effects take place between the different metal nuclei
of the catalysts. These catalysts are more stable and more
selective than the Ni and Pd catalysts commonly used, because
with several substrates, almost quantitative yields could be
obtained.355
2.10.11.7. Fe−Pd. The linear tetranuclear complex
[(OC)4Fe(μ-PPh2)Pd(μ-Cl)]2 (15) was found to be a highly
active homogeneous catalyst for the cross-coupling of aryl
halides or naphthyl halides and triflates with group 13-metal
alkylating agents in the presence of a tertiary phosphine. Almost
no homocoupling or hydrodehalogenation took place during
the reactions. The monometallic precursors were catalytically
inactive, which suggested the occurrence of strong synergistic
effects between the different metal centers.356
2.10.11.8. Ru−Pd. Suzukui coupling of phenylboronic acid
with arylhalides was catalyzed by Ru(II)−Pd(II) trinuclear
complexes [PdL2Ru2(bpy)4](ClO4)2 (113a) and
[PdL2Ru2(phen)4](ClO4)2 (113b) (L = N,N′-(4-amino-1benzyl piperidine)-glyoxime, see scheme). The Ru(bpy)2
cluster was the most active. Indeed, for the coupling between
1-(4-bromophenyl)ethanone and phenylboronic acid, yields up
to 97% and 94% for 113a and 113b, respectively, were
observed after 2 h. Using the corresponding aryl chloride
caused a dramatic drop in the activities, with yields of 42% and
30%, respectively, after 2 h.357
2.10.11.3. Zr−Pd. The cross-coupling reaction between secbutylmagnesium bromide and bromobenzene yielded almost
exclusively sec-butylbenzene in the presence of [Cl2Zr{μ-η5:η1(C5H4PPh2)2}PdCl2] as catalyst (Scheme 47). This complex is
a much better catalyst than the known (P−P)-chelated Pd
complexes.280
Scheme 47
2.10.11.4. Hf−Co. The Hf−Co analogue of the aforementioned Zr−Co complex, [ClHf(MesNP-i-Pr2)3CoI] (111), was
tested in the same Kumada coupling reaction, but exhibited
much lower activity than its Zr−Co counterpart.353
2.10.11.5. Cr−Ni. Coupling reactions between 3-phenylpropanal and 2-iodohex-1-ene were performed in the presence
of the complexes [Cl2Cr(i-Pr-oxazo-Ph(NSO2R)O(CH2)4phenMe)NiCl2] (R = Me, 3,5-chlorophenyl) (112), Mn,
[ZrCl2Cp2], LiCl, in MeCN at room temperature. Full
conversion was reached after several hours and afforded more
than 95% cross-coupling product (the byproducts resulted from
the homocoupling of iodohexene) with good enantiomeric
ratios (>10:1 in most cases). This system outperformed a
mixture of the corresponding monometallic Cr and Ni
fragments in terms of selectivity. Various other aldehydes
were tested, with similar results.354
2.10.11.9. Co−Pd. The cross-coupling of aryl halides or
naphthyl halides with triflates in the presence of Al-, Ga-, Inalkylating agents and a phosphine was catalyzed by the cluster
[Co2Pd(CO)7(dppe)] (114) with a good activity, exhibiting
yields close to 100% for several substrates. However, it was
generally less active than the Fe−Pd complex 15 described
above.356
2.10.11.6. Mo−Pd, W−Pd. The clusters [Mo2Pd2Cp2(CO)6(PPh3)2] (11b) and [W2Pd2Cp2(CO)6(PPh3)2] (12b) were
found to be active in the cross-coupling of aryl halides and
triflates with Al-, Ga-, or In-alkylating agents, in the presence of
a phosphine (Scheme 48). No hydrogenolysis or homocoupling
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2.10.11.10. Pd−Pt. The heterobimetallic complex
[Pd PtC l 4 ( d ma pm)] (dmapm = 1, 1-bis[di( o - N, Ndimethylanilinyl)phosphino]methane) (115) was compared
to the monometallic analogue [Pd2Cl4(dmapm)] in the aerobic
Heck coupling of iodobenzene with styrene in DMF/H2O at
373 K, with K2CO3 as a base. The former was more active than
the latter, suggesting some degree of intermetallic cooperativity.
During the catalytic reactions, slow oxidation at the phosphorus
centers occurred, which led to a decrease in the activity of the
compounds.358
Scheme 50
activity (>95%) and excellent selectivity (up to 91% ee for
the (S) isomer).360
2.11. Carbon−Nitrogen Bond Formation
Carbonylation of organic nitro compounds specifically leads to
the important class of organic isocyanates, or carbamates if
alcohol is added. Carbon−nitrogen bond formation can also be
achieved in the presence of heterometallic catalysts to afford
several kinds of substituted amines.
2.11.1. Carbonylation of Organic Nitro Derivatives.
2.11.1.1. Mo−Pd. Carbonylation of organic nitro derivatives
into isocyanates was performed in the presence of the
[Mo2Pd2] catalyst, derived from [Mo2Pd2Cp2(CO)6(PPh3)2]
(11b).361 It gave rise to higher selectivity in phenylisocyanate
(71−80%) than conventional catalysts prepared by mixing the
individual components (62−67%). Both systems allowed for
complete conversion of the substrate. Incidently, this reaction
provided the first example of the use of mixed-metal clusters for
the preparation of heterogeneous catalysts. More recently, it
was found that when solutions of such bimetallic clusters of
composition [Mo2Pd2Cp2(CO)6(PR3)2] (R = Et or Ph) were
impregnated into amorphous xerogels or ordered SBA-15, their
subsequent thermal decomposition under a reducing atmosphere afforded nanoparticles of a new bimetallic phosphide of
composition PdxMoyP, isostructural with Mo3P.18d This
emphasizes the care with which the assignment of catalytically
active species/phases should be made because thermal
treatments may be associated with unexpected transformations.
2.11.1.2. Fe−Rh. The cluster [PPN]2[FeRh4(CO)15] catalyzed the carbonylation of nitrobenzene to methyl phenylcarbamate in the presence of methanol and bipyridine. At a
PhNO2/catalyst ratio of 1500, conversions and selectivities up
to ca. 44.2% and 42.2%, respectively, were obtained. The
analogous Ru−Rh and Os−Rh gave slightly better results under
similar conditions.362
2.11.1.3. Fe−Pd. The transformation of o-nitrophenol to
benzoxazol-2-one was catalyzed by the silica-supported MMCD
2.10.12. Other Carbon−Carbon Bond Formation
Reactions. 2.10.12.1. Fe−Cu. The heterobimetallic complex
trans-[(OC)3Fe(μ-LP,N)2Cu][BF4] (LP,N = (2-oxazoline-2ylmethyl)diphenylphosphine) (95) was tested in the Diels−
Alder reaction between cyclopentadiene and methacrolein, and
yielded the two diastereoisomers exo and endo, with a total
yield of 76% (Scheme 49).320
Scheme 49
2.10.12.2. Co−Zn. The asymmetric reductive alkylation of
benzaldehyde was performed in the presence of ZnEt2 and
Co(II) complexes bearing various salen ligands. In the case of
the ligands (ROC6H3(OH)CHNCH2C6H3Me)2 (R = Me, Et),
the authors identified and proposed a structure for what they
believe to be the active species, the axially chiral bimetallic
complex [CoZnEt2(ROC6H3OCHNCH2C6H3Me)2] (116)
formed in situ. These catalytic systems afforded (S)-1phenylpropan-2-ol with 78% and 90% ee when R = Me and
Et, respectively.359
2.10.12.3. Cu−Zn. The asymmetric addition of ZnEt2 to
enones (such as RCHCH2C(O)Ph) was investigated in the
presence of CuCl2 and various binol-derived ligands (Scheme
50). It was found that the active species were heterometallic
complexes formed in situ. Thus, the polynuclear complex
[ClCuZn{Ph2PC10H5(O)}2]2 (117) exhibited very good
prepared from the clusters [FePd2(CO)4(μ-dppm)2] (118) and
[Fe2Pd2(CO)5(NO)2(μ-dppm)2] (119), respectively (Scheme
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51). Both clusters showed almost complete conversions
(>98%) and very high selectivities (95−96%).18b,c
anhydride) afforded the corresponding cyclic imines with yields
>95% after less than 1 h (Scheme 53).365
Scheme 51
Scheme 53
The results clearly indicate that both MMCD catalysts have
significantly improved properties over the corresponding
conventional catalysts under comparable conditions. Using
silica instead of alumina as a support gave much better results
with these Fe/Pd catalysts. It was found that the initially
formed bimetallic particles eventually undergo metal segregation.18c
2.11.1.4. Ru−Rh, Os−Rh. The clusters
[PPN]2[RuRh4(CO)15] and [PPN]2[OsRh4(CO)15] catalyzed
the carbonylation of nitrobenzene to phenylcarbamate in the
presence of methanol and bipyridine, which enhanced the
activity of the system. In particular, the activity and selectivity of
those catalysts were quite similar, and slightly higher than in the
case of the Fe−Rh analogue: 45.5% and 56.6%, respectively, for
the Ru−Rh system, and 45.8% and 49.1%, respectively, for the
Os−Rh one. However, at a lower PhNO2/catalyst ratio, 400
instead of 1500, the conversions could reach 98.5% and 100%
for the Ru−Rh and Os−Rh catalysts, respectively, and the
selectivities for the carbamate were 87.9% and 89.0% for the
Ru−Rh and Os−Rh systems, respectively. The only byproduct
detected was aniline. Noteworthy is that the Ru−Rh system
was also tested in the carbonylation of nitrobenzene in the
absence of methanol, thus yielding the corresponding
isocyanate, but the activity was low (20.6% conversion) and
the selectivity was only 27.5%.362
2.11.1.5. Os−Au. The hydrido-bridged cluster [Os4Au(μH)3(CO)12(PPh3)] catalyzed the oxidative carbonylation of
aniline in the presence of MeOH to give methyl phenylcarbamate with good conversion and selectivity (Scheme 52) at
2.11.2.2. Co−Rh. The preparation of oxindoles from 2alkynylanilines was performed in the presence of the [Co2Rh2]
catalyst derived from [Co2Rh2(CO)12]. A broad range of
alkynyl substituents was tested, and the corresponding
oxindoles were obtained with yields ranging from 52% to
93% (Scheme 54).366
Scheme 54
The reaction between internal alkynes, amines, and CO (5
atm) to afford α,β-unsaturated amides (Scheme 55) was
Scheme 55
catalyzed by NPs derived from [Co2Rh2(CO)12]. The yields
were moderate to high (42−79% for the reaction between
diphenylacetylene and butylamine), depending on the temperature and the CO pressure. In comparison, aminocarbonylation
reactions in the presence of the monometallic catalysts [Co4]
and [Rh4] were much less effective.367
Carbon-supported Co2Rh2 NPs derived from
[Co2Rh2(CO)12] were used as catalysts for the oxidative
carbonylation of aliphatic and aromatic primary amines to ureas
(Scheme 56). The system could be used several times before a
Scheme 52
453 K. Quantitative conversions were observed in all cases, but
the selectivity toward the carbamate product was found to
dramatically decrease upon increasing quantities of methanol in
the reaction mixture, thus favoring the formation of quinazoline
or azobenzene. Nevertheless, this system was much more active
than monometallic Os-containing cluster-derived systems.363
At 428 K, the influence of the Os/Au atomic ratio was
studied with the clusters [Os4Au(μ-H)3(CO)12(PPh3)] and
[Os4Au4(μ-H)2(CO)11(PPh3)4] in the same reaction. They
were both active (at high methanol content and with addition
of PPh3 as promoter), with conversions between 60% and 90%,
and selectivity toward methyl phenylcarbamate between 41%
and 65%.364
2.11.2. Other Carbon−Nitrogen Bond Formation
Reactions. 2.11.2.1. Mo−Pd. The intramolecular hydroamination of aminoalkynes in the presence of the cubanetype complexes [Cp*3Mo3(μ3-S)4PdL][PF6] (L = dba, maleic
Scheme 56
significant loss of activity could be noticed. A broad range of
substituents were tried, and yields in the range 12−89% were
obtained depending on the substrate.368
2.11.2.3. Co−Pd. The catalytic intramolecular C−H
amination and aziridination of various sulfamate esters has
been carried out in the presence of the bimetallic complex
[CoPd(OAc)4] and the oxidant PhI(OAc)2. Yields in the range
50−99% were observed in most cases. This system gave better
results than when [Co(OAc)2] or [Pd(OAc)2] were used, thus
suggesting cooperative effects.369
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also tested under the same conditions, and showed even better
results, but still not as good as the homometallic complex
[Ru2(μ-O2CH)(CO)4(PPh3)2].372
2.11.2.4. Pd−Ag. The catalytic ortho-amination of Narylbenzamide by [Pd(OAc)2] in the presence of [Ag(OAc)]
and CsF was studied by DFT calculations. The authors assume
that the active species can be formulated as a bimetallic acetatebridged complex [Pd(μ-OAc)3Ag], and that its activity is
superior to that of the monometallic acetate complexes.370
2.12. Carbon−Oxygen Bond Formation
2.12.1. Addition of Alcohols to Alkynes. The addition of
alcohols to alkynes affords ketals as main products. The use of
Ir−Pd and Ir−Pt heterometallic cluster-derived catalysts in such
reactions is described below.
2.12.1.1. Ir−Pd, Ir−Pt. The triangular clusters [(Cp*Ir)2(μ3S)2PdCl2] (120a) and [(Cp*Ir)2(μ3-S)2PtCl2] (120b) were
found to catalyze the addition of alcohols to alkynes. In
particular, 1-aryl-1-alkynes were converted almost quantitatively
upon addition of MeOH to the corresponding 2,2-dialkoxy-1arylalkanes (Scheme 57). The cluster 120a proved to be the
most selective catalyst (>90% in most cases), while 120b gave
slightly higher total yields of products.371
2.12.2.2. Mo−Ni. The cubane-type cluster [{Cp*3Mo3Ni(μ3S)4}2(μ-η2:η2-COD)][PF6]2 (122) was used in the intramolecular cyclization of alkynoic acids to enol lactones. After
1 h reaction in the presence of this cluster and NEt3 at room
temperature, 4-pentynoic acid afforded the corresponding enol
lactone in 96% yield. For the same reaction, the cluster
[Cp*3Mo3Ni(μ3-S)4(η2-dmad)][PF6] (dmad = dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate) gave the desired product in 95% yield after 3
h.373
Scheme 57
2.12.2.3. Mo−Pd. Stereoselective addition of carboxylic acids
to electron-deficient (terminal) alkynes (Scheme 59) was
Scheme 59
2.12.2. Addition of Carboxylic Acids to Alkynes. The
addition of carboxylic acids to alkynes generally leads to the
formation of esters (see section 3.8). However, enol lactones
can be obtained by intramolecular cyclization of alkynoic acids
(see section 3.9).
2.12.2.1. Ti−Ru. Although they do not contain metal−metal
bonds, the complexes [CpCl2Ti(μ-η5:η1-C5H4(CH2)nPR2)RuCl2(p-cymene)] (R = Ph, n = 0, 2; R = Cy, n = 2) catalyze
the addition of formic acid to 1-hexyne and to phenylacetylene
and yield the corresponding enol formates (Scheme 58) with
(gem)/(Z+E) ratios ranging from 60/40 to 82/18.
Only [CpCl2Ti(μ-η5:η1-C5H4PPh2)RuCl2(p-cymene)] was
able to compete with monometallic complexes in terms of
activity and selectivity. The tetranuclear complexes [CpCl2Ti(μ-η5:η1-C5H4(CH2)nPR2)Ru(CO)2(μ-O2CH)]2 (121a, R =
Ph, n = 0; 121b, R = Ph, n = 2; 121c, R = Cy, n = 2) were
efficiently catalyzed by the cuboidal cluster
[Mo3PdS4(tacn)3Cl][PF6]3 (tacn = 1,4,7-triazacyclononane)
(123). Typically, at full conversions, the selectivity for the Zisomers was higher than 97% with yields ranging from 50% to
85%.374
The intramolecular cyclization of a series of alkynoic acids to
the corresponding enol lactones, in the presence of NEt3, was
catalyzed by the same cluster 123 (see Scheme 60), in yields
greater than 80% for most substrates, after short times (a few
minutes in some cases). For instance, 2,2-dimethyl-5-hexynoic
Scheme 60
Scheme 58
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the sequence of oxidative addition/transmetalation/trans-to-cis
isomerization/reductive elimination steps, which occur in the
Stille reaction, that is, the palladium-catalyzed coupling of
organic electrophiles and organostannanes.379
acid yielded 3,3-dimethyl-6-methylene-2-pyrone with 98% yield
after 3 h (Scheme 60).375
2.12.2.4. Re−Ru. The complexes [Cp*Ru(μ-dppm)(μCO)2Re(CO)3], [Cp(CO)Ru(μ-dppm)Re(CO)4], and [Cp(CO)2RuRe(CO)5] were tested in the addition of carboxylic
acids to terminal alkynes. They showed good regioselectivity
(>90% for most substrates) toward the anti-Markovnikov
products (Z+E).376
2.12.3. Cycloaddition of CO 2 and Alkynes.
2.12.3.1. Fe−Rh. Cycloaddition of CO2 and propyne to afford
4,6-dimethyl-2-pyrone (Scheme 61) was achieved with a mildly
Scheme 61
2.14. Silylation Reactions
2.14.1. Hydrosilylation of Olefins and Alkynes.
2.14.1.1. Ti−Rh. The dinuclear complex [CpCl2Ti{μ-η5:η2(C5Me3(PPh2)2)}Rh(COD)][OTf] (126) was evaluated in the
catalytic hydrosilylation of acetophenone with Ph2SiH2. It
afforded 1-phenylethanol in 62% yield, which is better than the
Rh complex [(o-dppbe)Rh(COD)][OTf] (dppbe = 1,2-bis(diphenylphosphino)benzene).380
oxidized [Fe2Rh4] catalyst derived from
[TMBA]2[Fe2Rh4(CO)16] supported on silica. Other observed
products include the trimerization products 1,3,5- and 1,2,4trimethylbenzene, as well as other oligomers, all of them being
formed even in the absence of CO2. Such a system was much
more selective toward the desired lactone than [Rh4(CO)12]derived catalysts, probably due to the stabilizing effect of iron
on rhodium ions, thus providing basic O2− sites favoring the
cycloaddition of CO2, as suggested by 13CO2 labeling and FTIR
studies.377
2.12.4. Transesterification. 2.12.4.1. Co−Zn, Co−Cd,
Zn−Cd. The polymeric complex [CoZn2(O2CPh)6]n(bpa)n
(bpa = 1,2-bis(4-pyridyl)ethane) was used as a catalyst in
transesterification of esters by methanol at 323 K (Scheme 62).
2.14.1.2. Nb−Rh. The heterobimetallic compounds
[CpClNb(μ-N-t-Bu)(μ-PPh2)RhCp] (127) and [Cp2Nb(N-tBu)(μ-PPh2)RhCl(COD)] (128) were used as homogeneous
catalyst precursors for the hydrosilylation of benzaldehyde and
acetophenone.381
Scheme 62
A broad range of substrates was tested, and all of the reactions
afforded quantitatively the corresponding methyl acetate or
benzoate within 0.17−1.29 or 1.67−4 days, respectively. The
complex [Zn2Cd(O2CPh)6]n(bpa)n was more active (much
shorter induction times), because it needed less than 1 day or
1−4 days to afford quantitatively the desired methyl acetates or
benzoates, respectively, while the complex [Co 2 Cd(O2CPh)6]n(bpa)n was a much slower catalyst under the
same conditions, as it required more than 1 week to achieve
quantitative yields in most cases.378
2.14.1.3. Ta−Rh. Good activity in hydrosilylation of
acetophenone with PhMeSiH2 was achieved in the presence
of the complex [Cp2Ta(μ-PEt2)2Rh(η2-C2H4)], but the
reactions were slower than with the Nb−Rh complexes
mentioned before (see section 2.14.1.2). Also, the phosphinefree Rh complex [Rh(μ-Cl)(COD)]2 was still more active.382
2.14.1.4. Ta−Ir. The hydrosilylation of ethylene by Me3SiH,
Et3SiH, or Ph3SiH was achieved with the complex [Cp2Ta(μCH2)2Ir(CO)2] (9b); heavier alkenes were isomerized instead.
The role of tantalum is still not fully understood, because the
substrates seem to bind to the iridium center.49
2.14.1.5. Mo−Fe−Co, Mo−Co, Mo−Co−Ni. The optically
active sulfido-bridged cluster [CpMoFeCo(μ3-S)(CO)8] was
tested in the asymmetric photoinitiated hydrosilylation of
acetophenone, but, unfortunately, photoracemization proceeds
faster than the hydrosilylation reaction.383
The clusters [CpMoCo2(μ3-CMe)(CO)8], [CpMoCo2(μ3CMe)(CO) 7 (P(OMe) 3 )], [CpMoCo 2 (μ 3 -S)(CO) 8 ], and
[MoCoNi(μ3-CMe)Cp2(CO)5] (26) were active too, but
afforded PhC(OSiEt3)CH2 with 100% selectivity.383
2.13. Metal−Carbon Bond Formation
2.13.1. Mo−Pd, W−Pd. The dinuclear complexes
[(CO)3M(μ-η5:η1-C5H2Ph2(PPh2))Pd(PPh3)L] (M = Mo,
124a or W, 124b; L = PPh3, DMF) and the trinuclear chain
complexes [Pd{M(CO)3(μ-η5:η1-C5H2Ph2(PPh2))}2] (M =
Mo, 125a or W, 125b) were isolated and are relevant to the
metal−carbon bond formation between [Bu3SnCCPh] and
the iodide complexes [M(CO)3I(η5-C5H2Ph2(PPh2))] (M =
Mo or W) catalyzed by Pd0/PPh3. The main steps of this Pdcatalyzed M−C bond formation process are closely related to
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selectivity could be achieved, although small quantities of cisstilbene were also observed. Mercury poisoning tests evidenced
that the active species are not Pt colloids. The active species
were assumed to be the decarbonylated intact metal core of the
cluster and not fragments. The cluster [Bu4N][Pt3Ru6(μ3PhCCPh)(μ-H)(CO)20], obtained by deprotonation of the
former cluster, gave similar results, although it appears that
heterogeneous species might be responsible, at least in part, for
the activity. The cluster [PtRu2(μ3-PhCCPh)(CO)8(dppe)]
exhibited poor activity for the reaction.386
2.14.1.12. Co−Ni. The cluster [Co2Ni(μ3-CMe)Cp(CO)6]
was found to catalyze the photoinitiated hydrosilylation of
acetophenone to PhC(OSiEt3)CH2 as the only product.383
2.14.1.13. Ir−Pt. The complexes [(PPh3)2Pt(μ-SRS)IrClCp*][SbF6] (R = cis-C8H14, trans-C8H14) were used in
the catalytic hydrosilylation of terminal alkynes R′CCH (R′
= Ph, Bu, COOMe) with Et3SiH or Ph3SiH to afford β-(Z)vinylsilanes (Scheme 64) in high yields (71−97%). Noteworthy
is that 100% selectivity for the β-(Z) product was achieved
when Ph3SiH was used, while it was in the range 74−96% when
Et3SiH was used.387
2.14.1.6. Mo−Pd, Mo−Pt. The photocatalyzed hydrosilylation of 1-pentene was tentatively catalyzed by the clusters
[Mo2Pd2Cp2(CO)6(PEt3)2] (11a) and
[Mo2Pd2Cp2(CO)6(PPh3)2] (11b). However, only isomerization and hydrogenation products could be detected. Under
the same conditions, the clusters [Mo2Pt2Cp2(CO)6(PEt3)2]
and [Mo2Pt2Cp2(CO)6(PPh3)2] catalyzed the hydrosilylation
of 1-pentene, albeit with little activity, to C5H11SiEt3 with 4%
and 3% yield, respectively. The predominant reaction was olefin
isomerization to trans-2-pentene.51
2.14.1.7. W−Co. Photoinitiated hydrosilylation of acetophenone with triethylsilane occurred in the presence of the
complex [WCo 2 (μ 3 -CH)Cp(CO) 8 ] and afforded PhC(OSiEt3)CH2 as the only product.383
2.14.1.8. W−Pd. The planar clusters
[W2Pd2Cp2(CO)6(PEt3)2] (12a) and
[W2Pd2Cp2(CO)6(PPh3)2] (12b) were tested in the photocatalyzed hydrosilylation of 1-pentene but afforded only
hydrogenation and isomerization products, such as pentane
and 2-pentenes.51
2.14.1.9. Fe−Co. Homogeneous photoinitiated hydrosilylation of acetophenone to PhC(OSiEt3)CH2 could be catalyzed
in the presence of the cluster [FeCo2(μ3-PPh)(CO)9].383
2.14.1.10. Fe−Rh. Hydrosilylation of phenylacetylene was
catalyzed by [Me4N][Fe5RhC(CO)16], and the activity was
assigned to the Rh atom.384
2.14.1.11. Fe−Pt, Ru−Pt, Os−Pt. The clusters
[FePt 2 (PhCCPh)(CO) 5 (PPh 3 ) 2 ], [RuPt 2 (PhCCPh)(CO)5(PPh3)2] (129), [Ru2Pt2(μ-H)2(CO)8(PPh3)2] (130),
[Ru2Pt(PhCCPh)(CO)7(PPh3)] (131), and [OsPt2(PhC
CPh)(CO)5(PPh3)2] were tested in the catalytic hydrosilylation
of diphenylacetylene and 1,4-bis(trimethylsilyl)butadiyne with
triethylsilane (Scheme 63).
Scheme 64
2.14.2. Hydrosilylation of Ketones. 2.14.2.1. Zr−Co. The
dinuclear complex [(THF)Zr{μ-(MesNP-i-Pr2)}3Co(N2)] exhibited enhanced activity in ketone hydrosilylation as compared
to monometallic Zr or Co complexes. A broad range of
substrates was probed, with yields higher than 95% in most
cases. The authors evidenced a mechanism involving radical
coupled intermediates such as [(R2CO)Zr(MesNP-i-Pr2)3Co(N2)]2, unlike the typical Chalk−Harrod-type hydrosilylation
pathway.388
2.14.3. Silylformylation Reactions. 2.14.3.1. Co−Rh.
The tetrahedral clusters [Co2Rh2(CO)12] and [Co3Rh(CO)12]
catalyze the regioselective inter- or intramolecular silylformylation of alkynes (Scheme 65) and 1-alkynals and the
silylcarbocyclization of enynes, diynes, and alkynals. These
synthetically important reactions have been reviewed.389
Scheme 63
Scheme 65
Good conversions were reached, but the monometallic Pt
complex [Pt(PPh3)(PhCCPh)] was a much better catalyst.
The authors suggest that, in all cases, the active species are Pt
fragments of the initial catalyst, which are responsible for the
observed activity.385
The layer-segregated cluster [Pt3Ru6(μ3-RCCR)(μ3-H)(μH)(CO)20] (R = Ph, Tol) was a good precursor to the catalytic
hydrosilylation of diphenylacetylene by HSiEt3 to afford (E)[(1,2-diphenyl)ethenyl]triethylsilane. Very high activity and
Silylformylation of the C−C triple bond of C4H9CCH was
achieved in the presence of the cluster [Co2Rh2(CO)12].
Synergism between the metal centers was elucidated by DFT
calculations. The theoretical studies suggest that the role of the
Co atoms is to bind the substrate to the catalyst, thus
preventing hydroslilyation to occur, and subsequently to
provide electrons during the process. The reaction itself takes
place at the Rh centers.390
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mixture, to yield N2. They proved to be almost inactive,
reaching 11% conversion only, at 673 K. Comparatively, the
CoFe2O4 and NiFe2O4 spinel nanocrystals, obtained from the
clusters [Fe2Co(μ3-O)(μ-OOCMe)6(H2O)3]·2H2O (132b)
and [Fe2Ni(μ3-O)(μ-OOCMe)6(H2O)3]·2H2O (132c), respectively, were more active. Thus, with the [Fe2Co] catalyst, a
maximum conversion of 24% was observed at 703 K, while with
the [Fe2Ni] catalyst, conversions ranging from 37% at 523 K to
70% at 753 K could be achieved.396
The cluster [Co2Rh2(CO)12] was used in a wide range of
catalytic reactions, including the silylcarbotricyclization of
triynes. At 295 K, the conversion was total, and the major
product (Scheme 66) was obtained with 86% selectivity.391
Scheme 66
The complexes [Co2Rh2(CO)12] and [(t-BuNC)RhCo(CO)4] were found to be efficient catalysts for the intramolecular silylformylation of some bis(silyl)aminoalkynes with
yields ranging from 75% to 87% (Scheme 67).392
Scheme 67
2.15.1.3. Pt−Au. The silica-supported [Pt2Au4] catalyst,
obtained by thermal activation of the cluster [Pt2Au4(C
CtBu)8] (7) in O2/He at 573 K, then in H2 at 473 K, was used
for the catalytic reduction of NO to N2 by propylene. This
catalyst was active at higher temperature than the monometallic
and heterometallic catalysts prepared from impregnation or
coimpregnation of metallic salts, but it was much more selective
for the formation of N2 (82% selectivity at 641 K).47,397
2.15.2. Reduction of Nitrates and Nitrites.
2.15.2.1. Mo−Fe. The cubane cluster [Et4N]2[(Cl4-cat)(MeCN)MoFe3S4Cl3], when supported on glassy carbon
electrode, was studied in the electrocatalytic reduction of
nitrates and nitrites.398
2.15.3. Reduction of Nitrobenzene to Aniline.
2.15.3.1. Ru−Pt. Heterogeneous catalysts supported on silica
were prepared from various clusters. Thus, [Ru5PtC(CO)16],
[Ru5PtC(CO)15(SnPh2)], and [H2Ru2Pt2(Sn-t-Bu3)2(CO)9]
were decarbonylated under vacuum at 473 K. These systems
were used for the hydrogenation of nitrobenzene to aniline. All
three catalysts reached 100% selectivity, achieving conversions
in the range 80−100%.399
2.15.3.2. Co−Rh. The silica-entrapped [Co2Rh2(CO)12]
cluster was used in nitrobenzene hydrogenation. The first
four runs, for a duration of 22 h, gave a mixture of aniline and
aminocyclohexane with the following ratios: (1) 96/4, (2) 64/
36, (3) 16/84, and (4) 2/98. This progressive change of
selectivity can be explained by the fact that the cluster precursor
remained intact after encapsulation, but lost its carbonyl ligands
during the catalytic reactions, thus affording NPs with a
diameter of 2−3 nm.61
2.15.4. Reduction of Hydrazines to Amines.
2.15.4.1. V−Fe. The reduction of hydrazine to yield ammonia
(Scheme 69) was achieved with conversions above 80% after 2
h, by using the cubane-type cluster [NEt4][VFe3S4Cl3(DMF)3]
as a homogeneous catalyst.101b
These two complexes also catalyzed the silylcarbocyclization
of enynes. The former was more active, with conversions close
to 100% under very mild conditions, and without using CO
atmosphere, and a selectivity of 100% toward the methyl
compound could be achieved. The complex [(t-BuNC)RhCo(CO)4], however, yielded a mixture of the methyl and the
aldehyde products (Scheme 68).393
Scheme 68
Bimetallic NPs derived from the cluster [Co2Rh2(CO)12]
appeared to be active in the silylcarbocyclization of enynes. It
was found that in the presence of a CO atmosphere,
carbonylative cyclization occurred, yielding only the aldehyde
product, while in the absence of CO, the methyl product was
formed alone. A wide scope of substrates was tested, and good
conversions were achieved in most cases. This catalyst was
reusable several times without loss of activity.394
2.15. Reduction of Nitrogenated Compounds
2.15.1. Reduction of NO. 2.15.1.1. Mo−Pd. Selective
catalytic reduction of NO, in the presence of CO and O2, has
been achieved with the alumina-supported [Mo2Pd2] catalysts
derived from [Mo2Pd2Cp2(CO)6(PPh3)2] (11b). This system
was more selective than a catalyst prepared from the
corresponding metal salts [Mo+Pd], but it rapidly decomposed
under the reaction conditions, thus undergoing deactivation.395
2.15.1.2. Mn−Fe, Fe−Co, Fe−Ni. When treated at 673 K,
the trinuclear oxoacetate-bridged cluster [Fe2Mn(μ3-O)(μOOCMe)6(H2O)3]·2H2O (132a) afforded Fe2MnO4 ferrite
NPs. Those were tested in NO reduction by a propane/butane
Scheme 69
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heterogeneous catalysts.406 They also allow the properties of
the corresponding MMCD catalysts to be compared to those of
the classical MoS2-promoted catalysts.
2.16.1. Mo−W−Fe, Mo−W−Co, Mo−W−Ni. The cagetype clusters K8[P2Mo2W18M2(H2O)O68]·MoO6·15H2O (M =
Fe, Co, Ni) were adsorbed onto an alumina matrix for
applications in thiophene HDS.103
2.16.2. Mo−Fe. The alumina-supported linear complex
[Et 4 N] 2 [Mo 2 FeS 4 O 4 ] and the cubane-type cluster
[Et4N]3[Mo2Fe6S8(SPh)6(OMe3)3] were used for the HDS of
thiophene.103
The [Mo2Fe2] catalyst, derived from [Mo2Fe2S2Cp2(CO)8],
and supported on γ-Al2O3, SiO2, TiO2, and MgO, exhibited
activities for S-removal from thiophene comparable to those of
commercial HDS catalysts while showing decreased H 2
consumption (less butane formation).162,164b,406c
2.16.3. Mo−Fe−Co. The two cubane-type clusters [Et4N]3[Mo2Fe5CoS8(SPh)6(OMe)3] and [Et4N]3[Mo2Fe4Co2S8(SPh)6(OMe)3] were active in the HDS of thiophene.103
2.16.4. Mo−Ru. The bimetallic complex [Cp(CO)3MoRu(CO)2Cp] was impregnated on alumina and activated at 673 K
for application in HDS catalysis. It was more active than the
[Mo], [Ru], and [Mo+Ru] catalysts, prepared by impregnation
of homometallic carbonyl complexes or by gas-phase
deposition. It reached 98% conversion of thiophene at 623 K,
for a selectivity toward n-butane higher than 96%.407
The cubane-type cluster [Mo3Ru(μ3-S)4Cp′3(CO)2][pts]
(25a) was impregnated on alumina and sulfidated at 623 K,
thus affording a Mo3S4Ru phase. The system was tested in the
simultaneous HDS of dibenzothiophene (DBT), HDN of
indole, and hydrogenation of naphthalene (see section 2.5.1.8),
with better results than the corresponding Mo3Pd and Mo3Pt
materials, but not as good as the Mo3Rh and Mo3Ir ones. The
activity of this Mo3Ru catalyst was higher than the sum of the
activities of Mo3 + Ru materials, suggesting some degree of
synergism. Under the reaction conditions, the products of the
HDS of DBT were biphenyl and small amounts of cyclohexylbenzene (Scheme 72).108
2.15.4.2. Mo−Fe. The cubane cluster [Et4N]2[(Cl4-cat)(MeCN)MoFe3S4Cl3] was tested, as a model for Mo−Fe
nitrogenase, in the reduction of hydrazine to ammonia and of
cis-dimethyldiazene to methylamine (Scheme 70). In the latter
Scheme 70
case, methylamine was the only observable product, unlike in
the case of the nitrogenase cofactor, which yields methylamine,
ammonia, and methane, as a result of the reduction of the C−N
bond. Cobaltocene was used as a source of electron, while
lutidine hydrochloride was used as a source of proton.400 Such
clusters are intensively studied due to their structural
relationship with the nitrogenase cofactor.101,401
2.15.4.3. Mo−Ru. The cubane cluster [Cp*3Mo3(μ3S)4RuH2(PPh3)][PF6] catalyzes the disproportionation of
hydrazine to ammonia and dinitrogen, but [Cp*3Mo3(μ3S)4RuH2(PCy3)][PF6] is more active (Scheme 71). In
Scheme 71
particular, at 333 K, up to 20 mol of NH3 (and thus ca. 5
mol of N2) per mol of catalyst could be obtained in the latter
case, while only 6.6 mol of ammonia (ca. 1.6 mol of dinitrogen)
per mol of catalyst were converted in the former. The authors
did not investigate why replacing PPh3 with PCy3 had so much
impact on the yields. Also, these heterobimetallic clusters were
less active than mononuclear Mo- and dinuclear Ru-thiolate
complexes.402
2.15.4.4. Mo−Rh, Mo−Ir. The reduction of the hydrazine
derivative H2N−NMePh to NHMePh was catalyzed in the
presence of lutidine/HCl (H source), cobaltocene (electron
source), and the heterobimetallic cubane-type clusters
[{Mo(O)Cl2}{MoCl2(DMF)}(Cp*M)2(μ3-S)2(μ3-L)2] (M
= Rh or Ir, L = S or Se) with good activity and selectivity. In
particular, the Ir-based clusters were more active than the Rhbased ones, and the Se-containing were more active than the Scontaining ones. The yields of NHMePh increased depending
on the catalyst in the order: MoRhS (31%) < MoRhSe (56%) <
MoIrS (64%) < MoIrSe (70%).403
2.15.5. Hydrogenation of N2. 2.15.5.1. Ru−Ni, Os−Ni.
When supported on γ-alumina (modified with 30 wt % K as
KOH), the [Ru3Ni] catalyst obtained from [Ru3Ni(μ-H)3Cp(CO)9] showed activity in ammonia synthesis from a H2/N2
mixture.404 Even if it was more effective than the [Os3Ni]
catalyst prepared from the analogous [Os3Ni(μ-H)3Cp(CO)9],
the monometallic ruthenium catalyst derived from
[Ru3(CO)12] was still the most active.405
Scheme 72
2.16.5. Mo−Co. When supported on alumina, the linear
complex [Et4N]2[Mo2CoS4O4] was found to catalyze the HDS
of thiophene.103 Hydrodesulfurization (HDS) has been very
much studied with this metal couple.163a,164b,406b,c,408
The catalytic activity of the cluster [Mo 2 Co 2 (μ 3 S)3Cp′2(CO)4] supported on alumina in HDS of thiophene
and thiophenol was similar to that found for heterogeneous
Mo/Co/S catalysts.162 The [Mo2Co2] catalysts derived from
[Mo2Co2S3Cp2(CO)4] and supported on γ-Al2O3, SiO2, TiO2,
and MgO have been extensively studied for HDS.408,409 It was
found to be as efficient as commercial HDS catalysts for Sremoval from thiophene, while showing decreased H 2
consumption (less butane formation).162,164b The cubane
cluster [Mo2Co2S4(C5Me4Et)2(CO)2] reacts with PhSH
under CO pressure to give PhSSPh and PhSC(O)Ph, indicating
also catalytic HDS activity.410
2.16. Hydrodesulfurization and Hydrodenitrogenation
Environmental problems have emphasized the role of catalysts
capable of removing sulfur, and hydrodesulfurization (HDS)
has become an increasingly important reaction in both coal and
petroleum refining.163a The availability of new molecular sulfido
bimetallic clusters provides molecular models relevant to HDS
catalysis by generating a better insight into processes such as
substrate coordination and mobility, C−S bond cleavage, and
C−H bond formation, which may occur on the surface of
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423 K, however, this trend was reversed, and mixed-metal
catalysts showed higher initial conversions, although the
reaction progressively stopped with time.414
2.16.6. Mo−Rh, Mo−Ir. Alumina-supported heterogeneous
catalysts were prepared from the sulfidation at 623 K of the
cubane-type clusters [Mo3Rh(μ3-S)4Cp′3(COD)][pts]2 (25b)
and [Mo3Ir(μ3-S)4Cp′3Cl(COE)][pts] (25c), thus affording
Mo3S4Rh and Mo3S4Ir phases. These materials are good
catalysts for the simultaneous HDS of dibenzothiophene, HDN
of indole, and hydrogenation of naphthalene (see sections
2.5.1.12 and 2.5.1.13), exhibiting much better results than the
corresponding Mo3Pd, Mo3Pt, and Mo3Ru catalysts, Mo3Ir
being slightly more active. However, they were still one-half as
active as a model Mo3Ni catalyst. Observations by TEM suggest
a good dispersion of small Rh or Ir clusters on a MoS2 phase,
accounting for the enhanced activity, as compared to
[Mo3+Rh] or [Mo3+Ir] systems.108
2.16.7. Mo−Ni. The linear complex [Et4N]2[Mo2NiS4O4]
was used as a precursor for alumina-supported catalysis in the
HDS of thiophene.103
Incorporating the cubane-type cluster [Mo3NiS4Cl(H2O)9]3+
(133) into various zeolites by ion-exchange afforded a
catalytically active material in HDS of benzothiophene.411 In
particular, 97% selectivity for ethylbenzene could be achieved
with Mo3NiS4/KL, at 94% conversion, which is better than
Mo3S4/KL. Also, EXAFS studies showed that the Mo3NiS4
cluster partially decomposes to Mo3S42− and Ni2+ moieties after
ion-exchange.412
2.17. Dehydrogenation of Amine-boranes
2.17.1. Zr−Fe. Dehydrogenation of amine-boranes, as
potential candidates for hydrogen storage, was investigated in
the presence of heterobimetallic precursors. Thus, the
dehydrogenation of Me2NH·BH3 was performed in the
presence of the complex [MeZr(μ-η5:η1-C5H4PEt2)2FeCp*]
at 323 K in toluene, affording H2 with 75% of yield, along with
cyclic [Me2N−BH2]2 (Scheme 73).415
Scheme 73
2.17.2. Zr−Ru. The dehydrogenation of Me2NH·BH3 was
catalyzed in toluene at 323 K by several Zr−Ru complexes.
Yields of 85−98% were obtained with [MeZr(μ-η5:η1C5H4PEt2)2RuCp*], [(Me2N)Zr(μ-η5:η1-C5H4PEt2)2RuCp*],
and [{Zr(μ-η5:η1-C 5H4PEt2 )(μ3-η 5:η1:η1-C 5H3PEt2)(μ-H)RuCp*}] for total conversions. The complexes [Cl2Zr(μ-η5:
η1-C5H4PEt2)2RuClCp*], [ClZr(μ-η5:η1-C5H4PEt2)2RuCp*],
and [(BH4)Zr(μ-η5:η1-C5H4PEt2)2RuCp*] were poor catalysts
under the same conditions, with H2 yields below 10%. A
mechanistic study with [MeZr(μ-η5:η1-C5H4PEt2)2RuCp*]
suggested the formation of hydrido clusters as intermediates,
as well as the participation of both metallic centers in the
activity.415
2.17.3. Hf−Ru. The complex [MeHf(μ-η5:η1-C5H4PEt2)2RuCp*] is a poor catalyst for the dehydrogenation of amineboranes such as Me2NH·BH3.415
2.16.8. Mo−Pd, Mo−Pt. The impregnation of the cubane
cluster [Mo3Pd(μ3-S)4Cp′3(PPh3)][pts] (25d) and [Mo3Pt(μ3S)4Cp′3(NBE)][pts] (25e) on alumina, and subsequent
sulfidation at 623 K, afforded heterogeneous materials
consisting of large Pd or Pt aggregates poorly dispersed on a
MoS2 phase. The poor dispersion of these aggregates might be
responsible for the low catalytic activity of the system in the
simultaneous HDS of dibenzothiophene, HDN of indole, and
hydrogenation of naphthalene (see sections 2.5.1.15 and
2.5.1.16). The coimpregnated [Mo3+Pd] and [Mo3+Pt]
systems were more active.108
2.16.9. W−Fe, W−Co. Thiophene HDS was performed in
the presence of the alumina-supported complexes
[Et4N]2[W2FeS4O4] and [Et4N]2[W2CoS4O4].103
2.16.10. W−Rh. The dinuclear complex [(triphos)Rh{η3(CO)5WS(C6H4)CHCH2}] (triphos = MeC(CH2PPh2)3)
was used as a model catalyst for HDS of benzothiophene. The
isolation of the intermediate complex [(triphos)RhH(μ-H){μo-S(C6H4)C2H5}W(CO)4] suggests a pathway involving hydrogenation of the C−C double bond of the heterocycle, followed
by hydrogenolysis to 2-ethylthiophenolate and desulfurization
to ethylbenzene + S products such as H2S.413
2.16.11. W−Ni. The linear trinuclear complex
[Et4N]2[W2NiS4O4] was found to be very active in thiophene
HDS reactions, with nickel having a promotion role.103
2.16.12. Ru−Co. The carbon- and γ-alumina-supported
[RuCo2] and [Ru2Co] heterogeneous catalysts derived from
[RuCo2(μ3-S)(CO)9] and [HRu2Co(μ3-S)(CO)9], respectively, were tested in thiophene desulfurization. Their activities
were lower at 673 K than those of catalysts containing only Ru
or Co, due to a lack of stability at such high temperatures. At
2.18. Miscellaneous
2.18.1. Ti−Zn. The copolymerization of CO2 and cyclohexene oxide, catalyzed by [Cp2Ti(OCH2CH2OZnEt)2] under
ambiant conditions, afforded the corresponding poly(cyclohexene carbonate) (Scheme 74). After 100 h of reaction,
3.6 g of polymer per g of catalyst were obtained.416
Scheme 74
2.18.2. Mo−Co. Liquefaction of a sub-bituminous and a
bituminous coal was performed with a series of dispersed
[Mo2Co2] catalysts, among which the most active was that
derived from the thiocubane cluster [Mo2Co2S4Cp2(CO)2].417
2.18.3. Mn−Zn. Catalytic water oxidation to O2, as a mimic
reaction to natural photosynthesis, has recently emerged as a
strategy toward green and renewable fuels. For this reason,
many catalytic systems have been developed. While most
organometallic-derived catalysts are obtained from mono- or
dinuclear Mn-, Ru-, Ir-, or Pt-complexes,418 heterometallic
sytems often consist of heterogeneous Co-based oxides.419
However, Agapie and co-workers have synthesized a series of
Mn-based clusters, relevant to the oxygen-evolving complex
(OEC),420 the latter possessing a CaMn4O5 core involved in
photosystem II (membrane protein). Some of them contain a
zinc center: [LMn 3 ZnO 2 (OAc) 2 (MeCN)][Otf] 3 421 and
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[LMn3ZnO4(OAc)3]422 (L = a hexapyridyl trisalkoxido 1,3,5triarylbenzene ligand). They were compared to Na−, Ca−, Sr−,
Sc−, or Y−Mn systems, and electrochemical studies on those
clusters provided useful information on the role of the redoxinactive center (early group heteroatom) in the OEC.
2.18.4. Re−Pt. Potential alumina-supported catalysts
derived from RePt3 molecular clusters such as [Pt3{Re(CO)3}(μ-dppm)3][PF6], [Pt3{Re(CO)3}(μ3-O)(μ-dppm)3][PF6],
[Pt3{Re(CO)3}(μ3-O)2(μ-dppm)3][PF6], and [Pt3(ReO3)(μdppm)3][PF6] were studied for petroleum refining. Their
sulfidation by propylene sulfide has been investigated as a
model for reactivity of metal surfaces and sulfidation of
bimetallic Re−Pt/Al2O3 catalysts.423
2.18.5. Fe−Pd. The heterobimetallic complexes
[(OC) 3 {R 2 (R′O)Si}Fe(μ-dppm)Pd(η 3 -allyl)] (see 134,
Scheme 75) and [(OC)3Fe{μ-Si(OR)3}(μ-dppm)PdCl] (R =
2.18.6. Fe−Pt. The [2]-platinasilaferrocenophane
[(C5H4)2Fe(SiMe2)Pt(COD)] (138) was found to be a
precatalyst for the ring-opening polymerization of the siliconbridged complex [Fe(C5H4)2SiMe2] to yield the poly(ferrocenylsilane) [{Fe(C5H4)2SiMe2}]n. A key step for the
reaction is believed to involve dissociation of the COD
ligand.427
Scheme 75
2.18.7. Co−Rh. The cluster [Co2Rh2(CO)12] was entrapped in an alumina sol−gel matrix for applications in
catalytic disproportionation of dihydroarenes. The products
were a mixture of fully aromatic and tetrahydrogenated
compounds. For instance, 1,3-cyclohexadiene afforded a
mixture of cyclohexane (47.5% yield) and benzene (50%
yield). When supported on a silica sol−gel matrix, the same
cluster was totally inactive, suggesting an important role of the
support. This can be explained by the change of nature of the
cluster when set in contact with the support: on silica, alloying
occurs, while on alumina, no NPs are observed in the reaction
conditions.74
3. SYNTHESIS OF SPECIFIC CHEMICAL FUNCTIONS IN
THE PRESENCE OF HETEROMETALLIC CATALYSTS
This section presents the metal couples used for the synthesis
of a given chemical function. Trends and results are provided,
based on the description given in section 2. A list of the
different metal couples used for the synthesis of various
chemical functions is given in Table 3.
3.1. Synthesis of Alkanes
Among all of the reactions that were mentioned in section 2,
several can lead to the formation of alkanes. Indeed,
hydrocarbon skeletal rearrangements (see section 2.4) can
afford lighter alkanes via hydrogenolysis. Similarly, hydrogenation of alkenes or alkynes can lead to alkanes (see section
2.5.1), and so does hydrogenation of CO (see section 2.5.2).
Thus, Re−Ir, Fe−Ru, Fe−Rh, and Rh−Ir bimetallic
complexes were found to yield active catalysts in ethane
hydrogenolysis, affording methane as the main product.
Butane hydrogenolysis can yield C1 to C3 products. It was
observed that Mo−Ir and W−Ir clusters were very selective for
ethane, and a high Ir content in the catalyst precursor increases
the activity. Similarly, Rh−Ir complexes favor central C−C
bond scission of butane. In this case, however, increasing the Ir
content seemed to lower the activity. On the other hand, Fe−
Rh clusters supported on NaY zeolites were found to be more
Me, SiMe3) (135) are effective catalyst precursors for the
dehydrogenative coupling of triorganotin hydrides HSnR′3 (R′
= Ph, n-Bu) to Sn2R′6.424 It is assumed that the bimetallic
structure of the catalysts is retained throughout the reactions,
and that the Sn moieties react with the catalyst to form a Fe−
Pd−Sn intermediate (Scheme 75).425
The influence of the bridging phosphine ligand was also
studied, by testing the activity of the complexes [(OC)3(R3Si)Fe(μ-L)Pd(η3-allyl)] (R = OMe, Me(OSiMe3)2; 134, L =
dppm; 136, L = dppa; 137, L = Ph2Ppy). It was found that the
complex with a Ph2Ppy-bridge was more active than that with a
dppa bridge. The dppm-bridged complex was the least active of
the three.426
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Table 3. Utilization of Molecular Mixed-Metal Clusters for the Synthesis of Chemical Functions
catalyzed reaction
homogeneous catalysts
immobilized
catalysts
Synthesis of Alkanes
by hydrocarbon skeletal rearrangements
by hydrogenation of C−C multiple bonds
by hydrogenation of CO or CO2
Synthesis of Alkenes
by isomerization of olefins
by olefin metathesis
by hydrogenation of C−C multiple bonds
Mo−Pd, Fe−Pt
Ru−Os, Ru−Pt
Os−Rh, Os−Au
Co−Pt, Rh−Pt
Fe−Co
Cr−Ru, Mo−Fe, Mo−Ru, Mo−Co, Mo−Ni,
W−Ir
Mn−Fe, Mn−Ru, Re−Os
Fe−Ru, Fe−Co, Fe−Rh, Fe−Pd, Fe−Pt
Ru−Os, Ru−Co, Os−Rh, Os−Ni
Co−Cu
Ta−Rh, Ta−Ir, Cr−Fe, Cr−Pd
Mo−Fe, Mo−Ru−Co, Mo−Co−Ni, Mo−
Pd
W−Fe, W−Ru−Co, W−Pd
Mn−Fe, Fe−Ru, Fe−Co, Fe−Rh, Fe−Pd
Ru−Co, Ru−Ni, Ru−Cu, Ru−Au
Os−Rh, Os−Ni, Co−Pt
Ti−Ru
V−Fe, Cr−Pd
Mo−Fe, Mo−Fe−Co, Mo−Co−Ni
Mo−Rh, Mo−Ir, Mo−Pd, Mo−Pt
W−Fe−Co, W−Os, W−Rh, W−Ir, W−Pd,
W−Pt
Mn−Ru, Re−Rh
Fe−Ru, Fe−Ru−Co, Fe−Pd
Ru−Rh, Ru−Ir, Ru−Ni, Ru−Pt
Os−Ni
Co−Rh, Co−Pt, Rh−Au
Ru−Os
Os−Rh
Fe−Pd, Ru−Os, Co−Rh
Mo−Pd
Synthesis of Alcohols
by hydrogenation of CO or CO2
Ti−Rh
by homologation of methanol
by oxidation of alkanes and alkenes
Cr−Pd, Mo−Ir, W−Ir, W−Pd
Re−Os, Re−Ir, Re−Pt
Fe−Ru, Fe−Rh, Fe−Pt, Ru−Ni, Ru−Pt
Co−Rh, Co−Pt, Rh−Ir, Ir−Pt, Pt−Cu, Pt−Au
Ta−Rh, Ta−Ir
Mo−W−Fe, Mo−W−Co, Mo−W−Ni
Mo−Fe, Mo−Fe−Co, Mo−Co, Mo−Ni
W−Fe, W−Co, W−Ni, W−Pt
Fe−Ru, Fe−Co
Ru−Os, Ru−Co, Ru−Ni, Ru−Pd, Ru−Pt
Ru−Cu, Ru−Ag, Os−Ni
Co−Rh, Rh−Pt
Pt−Cu, Pt−Au
Ta−Rh, Ta−Ir
Mo−Fe, Mo−Fe−Co, Mo−Ru−Co
Mo−Co, Mo−Co−Ni, Mo−Rh
Mo−Pd, Mo−Pt
W−Fe−Co, W−Os
W−Ni, W−Pd, W−Pt
Mn−Fe, Re−Rh, Re−Pt
Fe−Ru−Co, Fe−Rh
Ru−Co, Ru−Rh, Ru−Ir, Ru−Ni, Os−Ni
Co−Pt, Rh−Au, Ir−Pt
Fe−Co, Ru−Co
by hydrogenation of CO or CO2
by dehydrogenation of alkanes
by dehydration of alcohols
by hydrogenation of aldehydes and ketones
heterogeneous catalysts
Os−Au
Cr−Mo, Cr−W
Mo−Pd
Fe−Ru
Mo−Rh
Mo−Ru, Mo−Rh, Mo−Ir, Mo−Pd, Mo−Pt
Fe−Ru, Ru−Co, Ru−Pd, Ru−Pt, Ru−Cu
Os−Ni, Os−Ni−Cu
Co−Rh
Mo−Fe, Mn−Fe, Fe−Co, Fe−Rh
Mo−Pt, Re−Pt, Pt−Au
Os−Ni, Pd−Zn
Co−Rh
Ru−Cu, Ru−Ag, Ru−Au
Co−Rh, Rh−Ir, Rh−Pt
Rh−Cu, Rh−Ag, Rh−Au
Cr−Ru, Mo−Ru, W−Ru
Fe−Ru, Ru−Rh, Ru−Ir
Fe−Co
Ru−Co, Ru−Co−Au, Ru−Rh
Os−Co, Co−Rh, Co−Pd
Fe−Co, Fe−Co−Cu
Co−Cu, Co−Cu−Zn
Cr−Ru, Cr−Pt, Mo−Ru, Mo−Rh, W−Rh, W−
Pt
Mn−Fe, Mn−Ru
Fe−Ru, Fe−Rh, Fe−Ir, Fe−Pd, Fe−Pt
Ru−Co, Ru−Ni, Co−Rh, Co−Cu
Mo−Co, Mo−Rh
Ru−Pt, Os−Ni
Co−Cu, Co−Zn
V−Co
by hydroformylation of olefins
Mo−Rh
Fe−Ir, Fe−Pd, Fe−Pt, Ru−Co
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Table 3. continued
catalyzed reaction
homogeneous catalysts
immobilized
catalysts
heterogeneous catalysts
Synthesis of Alcohols
Co−Rh
by reductive alkylation of aldehydes
Co−Zn
Synthesis of Ethers
by hydrogenation of CO or CO2
Ti−Rh, Ru−Rh
by homologation of methanol
by carbonylation of alcohols
Mn−Pd, Co−Pd, Co−Pt
Mo−Fe, Fe−Ni, Fe−Cu, Fe−Hg
Synthesis of Aldehydes
by dehydrogenation of alcohols
by oxidation of alcohols
by
by
by
by
homologation of methanol
hydrocarbonylation of methanol
carbonylation of olefins
hydroformylation of olefins
Synthesis of Ketones
by oxidation of alkanes and alkenes
Ru−Ni, Os−Ni, Os−Ni−Cu
Cr−Ru, Cr−Os
Ru−Ni, Ru−Pd, Ru−Pt
Fe−Co, Co−Pd, Co−Pt
Ru−Co, Co−Pd
Zr−Rh
Ti−Rh, Zr−Rh
Cr−Ru, Cr−Pd
Mo−Fe−Co, Mo−Ru, Mo−Co, Mo−Co−
Ni
W−Ru, W−Rh, W−Pd, Mn−Rh
Fe−Ru, Fe−Co, Fe−Rh, Ru−Co, Ru−Rh
Co−Rh, Co−Ni, Co−Pt
Rh−Zn, Ir−Cu
by oxidation of alcohols
by intramolecular hydroacylation
by Pauson−Khand reactions
Fe−Co, Fe−Co−Cu, Fe−Cu
Co−Cu, Co−Cu−Zn
Pd−Cu, Pt−Au
Cr−Os
Ti−Rh
Fe−Co, Ru−Co, Co−Pt
Synthesis of Carboxylic Acids
by hydrogenation of CO or CO2
by carbonylation of alcohols
Mo−Ru, W−Ru
Os−Ir, Ir−Pt
Synthesis of Esters
by hydrogenation of CO or CO2
by homologation of methanol and methyl
acetate
by carbonylation of alcohols
by carbonylation of olefins
by addition of carboxylic acids
to alkynes
by transesterification
Synthesis of Lactones
by oxidation of THF
by cyclization of alkynoic acids
Synthesis of Acetals
by oxidation of alcohols
by homologation of methanol
by hydrocarbonylation of methanol
Cr−Ru, Mo−Ru, Mo−Rh, W−Rh
Mn−Fe, Mn−Ru, Fe−Ru, Fe−Os, Fe−Rh
Ru−Os, Ru−Co, Ru−Ni
Os−Rh, Co−Rh
Ru−Co
Co−Rh
Co−Pd
Mo−Rh, Fe−Rh, Fe−Ir, Fe−Pd, Fe−Pt
Co−Rh, Co−Cu
V−Co, V−Rh
Fe−Cu
Cr−Mn, Cr−Co, Mn−Co
Pt−Au
Co−Rh
Mn−Pd
Mn−Pd, Ru−Co
Co−Pd, Co−Pt
Mo−Fe, Fe−Rh, Fe−Ni, Fe−Cu, Fe−Hg
Os−Ir, Ir−Pt
Fe−Pd
Ti−Ru, Mo−Pd, Re−Ru
Co−Zn, Co−Cd, Zn−Cd
Mo−Ru
Mo−Ni, Mo−Pd
Fe−Rh, Co−Rh
Ta−Re
Mn−Pd, Co−Pd, Co−Pt
Ru−Co, Co−Pd
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Table 3. continued
catalyzed reaction
homogeneous catalysts
Synhesis of Ketals
by addition of alcohols to alkynes
Ir−Pd, Ir−Pt
Synthesis of Isocyanates and Carbamates
by carbonylation of organic nitro
derivatives
Fe−Rh, Ru−Rh, Os−Rh
Os−Au
Synthesis of Ammonia
by hydrogenation of N2
by N−N bond cleavage
V−Fe, Mo−Fe, Mo−Ru
Hydrogen Storage
by WGSR
by dehydrogenation of amine-boranes
immobilized
catalysts
heterogeneous catalysts
Mo−Pd, Fe−Pd
Ru−Ni, Os−Ni
Fe−Ru, Fe−Co, Fe−Ir
Ru−Co, Ru−Rh
Co−Rh, Co−Ir
Zr−Fe, Zr−Ru, Hf−Ru
lower the activity of Pt catalysts in toluene and benzene
hydrogenation.
The Fischer−Tropsch process, involving reactions between
CO and H2, often leads to a range of products, including
alkanes, alcohols, and sometimes alkenes or other oxygenates.
Some catalysts seem to favor the formation of methane (CO
methanation). Among all of the clusters used as catalysts
precursors here, most of them afford methane as the main
product, along with C2+ alkanes. In particular, Os−Ni catalysts
showed excellent selectivity for methane (close to 100%). In
general, group VIII containing bimetallic catalysts are very
active in CO methanation. Also, Fe−Pd and Fe−Pt catalysts
were found to be more selective toward methane when the Fe/
Pd or Fe/Pt ratios were superior to 1, while they yielded mainly
methanol when the ratio was 1. Mn was found to enhance the
selectivity of iron-based catalysts toward C2−C4 olefins, rather
than toward methane. At higher temperatures, aromatic
compounds were obtained.
selective toward C1+C3 products, and a Ru−Pt cluster gave
good selectivities for methane or ethane, depending on the
support used.
Cyclopentane could be hydrogenolyzed to methane and C2+
alkanes with a Re−Pt cluster.
Hexane hydrogenolysis was achieved with Pt−Cu and Pt−Au
clusters, with a rather good selectivity for ethane (almost 50%).
Hydrogenolysis of methylcyclopentane was achieved with
several heterometallic catalysts. In particular, demethylation of
methylpentane has been performed with Pt containing
catalysts, as it is known to be an excellent catalyst for this
reaction. Thus, Fe−Pt and Co−Pt clusters were found to
catalyze that reaction with results close to monometallic [Pt].
In a similar fashion, a Ru−Ni heterogeneous catalyst allowed
for methylcyclohexane demethylation during the reduction of
toluene to cyclohexane. Conversely, a Co−Rh cluster catalyzed
the C−C bond scission of methycyclopentane to afford the
acyclic C6 isomers (hexane, 2-methylpentane, and 3-methylpentane) with good selectivity. Also, Cr−Pd and W−Pd
clusters were found to be active catalysts precursors for the
isomerization of 2-methylpentane. However, they exhibited
very different selectivities: the former favors methylcyclopentane, while the latter yields mainly 2-methylpentane.
Another way to obtain alkanes is to fully hydrogenate the
corresponding alkenes or alkynes. Although isomerization of
CC bonds usually occurs during the reaction, various
substrates can be hydrogenated with heterometallic clusters as
catalyst precursors. In this manner, aliphatic alkenes (linear
C2−C12, cyclohexene) were hydrogenated to the corresponding
alkanes. In particular, Co-containing trimetallic (Mo−Fe−Co,
Mo−Ru−Co, Mo−Co−Ni, W−Fe−Co, Fe−Ru−Co) precursors were used to hydrogenate 2-pentene to pentane. Aromatic
alkenes, such as benzene or toluene, were very efficiently
hydrogenated to cyclohexane and methylcyclohexane with Fe−
Ru, Fe−Co, Ru−Co, and Ru−Ni catalysts. Moreover, a Co−Rh
heterogeneous catalyst was found to allow full hydrogenation of
styrene and 1,2-hydronaphthalene to ethyl cyclohexane and
decalin, respectively. Also, RuCu NPs, derived from the carbido
cluster [PPN]2[Ru12Cu4(C)2(μ-Cl)2(CO)32], allowed for the
quantitative and 100% selective hydrogenation of phenylacetylene to ethylbenzene. However, Cu and Au were found to
3.2. Synthesis of Alkenes
Alkenes can be obtained by a range of reactions that were
mentioned in the previous paragraphs. Olefin isomerization
(see section 2.2) and hydrogenation (see section 2.5.1) are
often competing reactions because they take place under H2
pressure and they are usually used to obtain branched or
internal alkenes starting from α-olefins. Olefin metathesis (see
section 2.3) represents a greener route than common alkene
syntheses, and usually leads to less byproducts and waste. The
Fischer−Tropsch process can be a route to alkenes, but the
selectivites and activities still remain low and not many efficient
heterometallic catalysts have been described yet (see section
2.5.2). Routes like dehydrogenation of alkanes (see section 2.6)
or dehydration of alcohols (see section 2.7) are still to be
explored further, even if some results are already available.
Isomerization of olefins with heterobimetallic catalysts was
mainly achieved with linear α-olefins (C4−C8) as substrates.
Catalysts containing group VIII metals were the most studied,
and they were generally combined with group VI or VIII metals
to give the best results. Some M−Au (M = Ru, Os) catalysts
were found to be less active than monometallic group VIII
catalysts. A Fe−Rh catalyst was observed to be more selective
toward isomerization than hydrogenation products, which is
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while a Pd−Zn system afforded a mixture of C3−C10 olefins in
the dehydration of EtOH.
rather unusual. Other substrates, such as 1,5-COD and linear
dienes, were isomerized by M−Pd (M = Cr, Mo, W) and M−
Ni (M = Ru, Os) catalysts, respectively. Allylbenzene and cisstilbene could also be isomerized, mainly by group VII + group
VIII catalysts.
Olefin metathesis has not been studied with many
heteronuclear cluster-derived catalysts. Indeed, only four
metal couples have been used so far. The ring-closing
metathesis of N,N-diallyltosylamide was catalyzed by a Ti−Ru
allenylidene complex to yield 3-tosylamide cyclopentene. Also,
reduced Phillips-type catalysts from immobilized Cr−Mo and
Cr−W carbene or carbyne complexes were successfully used in
olefin metathesis, and Mo−Rh cubane-derived heterogeneous
catalysts were found to catalyze propene metathesis.
Hydrogenation of alkynes usually affords mixtures of alkanes
and alkenes, as mentioned above. Thus, acetylene could be
selectively hydrogenated to ethylene by V−Fe, Mo−Fe, Mo−
Fe−Co, and Os−Ni catalysts. Similarly, pentynes and hexynes
could be reduced to the corresponding alkenes mainly by Fe−
Ru catalysts, although Fe−Rh, Os−Ni, or Co−Pt catalysts were
also used. Oct-1-yne and t-Bu-propiolate could be hydrogenated selectively to oct-1-ene and t-Bu-acrylate, respectively,
by Mo−Rh, Mo−Ir, W−Rh, and W−Ir catalysts. The Mo−Rh
catalyst was found to be the most active. Phenylacetylene can
be hydrogenated to a mixture of styrene and ethylbenzene.
Mo−Pd, Mo−Pt, W−Pd, and W−Pt catalysts were found to be
highly selective for the formation of styrene. Ru−Pt and Os−Ni
species were also selective for styrene. Diphenylacetylene
reduction was studied with Fe−Ru, Ru−Ir, Co−Pt, or Rh−Au
bimetallic species, but the most active heterometallic catalyst
found was the cluster [Ru6Pt3(μ3-H)(μ-H)(μ3-PhCCPh)(CO)20], which exhibits 100% selectivity to cis-stilbene at
almost full conversion.
The reduction of CO through the Fischer−Tropsch process
often affords alkenes as byproducts. In some cases, it has been
possible to tune the selectivity of the catalysts to enhance the
formation of olefins. Thus, using heterometallic cluster-derived
catalysts, it appeared that adding Mn to Fe-based catalysts
enhanced that selectivity. Moreover, the use of potassium in
Fe−Co systems was found to improve the selectivity toward
olefins, despite the apparent loss of activity. Also, Fe−Rh
systems were able to catalyze CO hydrogenation to a mixture of
methane and C2−C4 alkenes.
Dehydrogenation of alkanes can lead to the corresponding
alkenes. Not many cluster-derived heterometallic catalysts were
used for such reactions, and it appears that all of them contain
platinum and are supported on inorganic supports. Indeed,
Mo−Pt catalysts for butane, isobutane, and propane dehydrogenation showed very high selectivity for the corresponding
alkenes, with better stability and activity than conventional
Mo−Pt catalysts. Also, methylcyclohexane could be dehydrogenated to toluene in the presence of a Re−Pt catalyst, which
proved to be more resistant to deactivation than common
catalysts. Finally, Pt−Au systems containing significant amounts
of phosphorus were successfully used for the conversion of
hexane and propane to the corresponding alkenes. Although
the activity was rather low (10−35%), the selectivity was higher
than 90% with both substrates, most likely due to the presence
of phosphorus in the catalyst.
The dehydration of alcohols constitutes another way to
obtain alkenes. However, it has not been explored significantly
with cluster-derived heterometallic catalysts. Thus, a Mo−Pd
catalyst was found to dehydrate PhCH2OH to trans-stilbene,
3.3. Synthesis of Alcohols
Various methods are available to obtain alcohols. If the
Fischer−Tropsch process can lead to oxygenates (see 2.5.2),
the main issue lies in the selectivity. The same applies to the
hydrogenation of aldehydes and ketones (see section 2.5.3)
because breaking of C−C bonds can occur under high H2
pressure. Methanol homologation is an efficient way to produce
ethanol (see section 2.10.1) even if other oxygenates may be
formed in rather large amounts (aldehydes, esters, carboxylic
acids, acetals, etc.). Hydroformylation, although it affords
mainly aldehydes, often yields alcohols as well (see section
2.10.3.1). The reduction of aldehydes affords alcohols (see
section 2.10.12) in a straightforward manner.
As mentioned in sections 3.1 and 3.2, some cluster-derived
heterometallic catalysts were found to favor the formation of
methane and alkanes, or even alkenes in CO hydrogenation.
Yet other systems afford oxygenates, and in particular alcohols,
as major products. Thus, it appears that Rh-containing catalysts
enhance the selectivity toward oxygenates and Ti−Rh catalysts
exhibit more than 50% selectivity for oxygenates. Mo−Rh and
W−Rh systems appeared to favor the formation of methanol
and oxygenates, whereas Fe−Rh catalysts were highly active
and selective for oxygenates, even though the Rh−Ir analogues
were more selective for methanol. Co−Rh, Rh−Ir, Rh−Pt, or
Rh−M (M = Cu, Ag, Au) MMCDs gave mixtures of oxygenates
such as methanol, glycerol, and ethylene glycol. Ruthenium is
known to be selective for the formation of methanol; thus some
Ru-based systems showed good selectivities for methanol
synthesis in CO hydrogenation. In particular, Cr−Ru and Mo−
Ru systems allowed for selectivities in the range of 12−20% for
oxygenates. Mn−Ru catalysts showed even better selectivities,
although lower than Ru−Co, the selectivity of which is higher
than 50%. Ru−M (M = Cu, Ag, Au) systems gave oxygenates as
major products, and no hydrocarbon product could be
detected. Other active catalytic systems were obtained from
Fe−Pd and Fe−Pt compounds, especially for methanol
synthesis. Also, Cr−Pt and W−Pt clusters offered very selective
systems for the synthesis of methanol through CO2 reduction
(>90%).
Hydrogenation of aldehydes and ketones is an efficient route
to obtain alcohols, provided the selectivity can be controlled
and C−C bond scission avoided. Cluster-derived heterometallic
catalysts were used to hydrogenate various aldehydes and
ketones. Acetaldehyde could be hydrogenated to ethanol with
rather good selectivity in the presence of a Mo−Rh catalyst.
Also, Co-based (Mo−Co, Co−Cu, Co−Zn) catalysts were
successfully used in the selective hydrogenation of crotonaldehyde to crotyl alcohol, thus favoring the reduction of the CO
bond over the CC bond. Cyclohexanone has been used as a
standard substrate during hydrogenation reactions, in the
presence of M−Ru (M = Cr, Mo, W, Fe) catalysts. Mo−Ru
exhibited the highest activity, while W−Ru was the least active
system. Fe−Ru only showed moderate activity. Similarly, Ru−
Rh and Ru−Ir complexes were used as catalysts in the proton
transfer from propan-2-ol to cyclohexanone (to afford cyclohexanol) or to benzylideneacetophenone. They proved to be
more active than monometallic complexes. Finally, a Os−Ni
system was found to hydrogenate acetone to isopropanol,
whose dehydration yielded propylene, which was subsequently
hydrogenated to propane.
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Alkane or alkene oxidation by hydrogen peroxide is a way to
obtain alcohols. While oxidation with O2 usually only leads to
ketones (and aldehydes), the use of H2O2/O2 allows for a
milder oxidation and thus for the formation of alcohols. Mostly,
Co-based heterometallic systems were used for such reactions.
Thus, oxidation of cyclohexane in air with a V−Co catalyst
afforded a mixture of cyclohexanone (up to 75% selectivity)
and cyclohexanol. Oxidation of cyclohexane with H2O2 in the
presence of Fe−Co, Fe−Co−Cu, or Fe−Cu catalysts afforded
mainly cyclohexanone, with some smaller amounts of cyclohexanol. The same reactions were tested with Co−Cu and Co−
Cu−Zn systems. They afforded a mixture of C6H10O, CyOH,
and CyOOH. It was observed that the addition of Zn in the
system lowered much the activity. The addition of PPh3 to the
reaction mixture appeared to enhance the selectivity toward
cyclohexanol through reduction of hydroperoxycyclohexane.
Some Fe-based heterometallic catalysts were used in
hydroformylation of olefins to afford alcohols. Typically, Fe−
Ir, Fe−Pd, and Fe−Pt catalysts were used in ethylene
hydroformylation and exhibited enhanced selectivities toward
alcohols. Ru−Co systems showed increasing selectivity for nalcohols with increasing the Co content in hydroformylation of
various olefins. Similarly, Co−Rh catalysts, in the presence of
NEt3, afforded very high yields of C7-alcohols in 1-hexene
hydroformylation.
Methanol homologation has been catalyzed in the presence
of iodine-based promoters and various heterometallic clusters
with metals from groups 8 and 11. In particular, Fe−Co
systems were highly selective for ethanol when long reaction
times and high reaction temperatures were used, despite lower
conversions than at lower temperatures. Also, Ru-based systems
such as Ru−Co, Ru−Co−Au, or Ru−Rh showed good activities
and improved selectivities for ethanol because they favor
hydrogenation of acetaldehydes during the process. In the case
of the Ru−Rh system, synergistic effects are believed to
operate, because it is more active than mixtures of the
monometallic species. Os−Co and Co−Rh clusters showed
high activities, but were less selective for ethanol than Ru−Co
catalysts. In contrast, Co−Pd and Co−Pt compounds yielded
almost no ethanol.
The reduction of aldehydes is a straightforward method to
afford alcohols. In particular, using an axially chiral Co−Zn
complex, it has been possible to perform the reductive
alkylation of benzaldehyde to (S)-1-phenylpropan-2-ol.
found to yield ethylene glycol as major product, with some
monoalkyl ether derivatives.
Homologation of methanol in the presence of heterometallic
cluster-derived catalysts is not very efficient for the synthesis of
ethers, and only small amounts of Me2O could be obtained.
Moreover, only group 10-based (i.e., Pd and Pt) catalysts
afforded ethers, as they tend to favor hydrogenation of
carbonylated intermediates during the process. A Mn−Pd
iodo-complex in the presence of aqueous HI yielded mainly
1,1-dimethoxyethane, along with some dimethyl ether. Co−Pd
and Co−Pt systems showed up to 30% selectivity for
acetaldehyde dimethylacetal, while the selectivity for Me2O
was less than 20%.
During methanol carbonylation reactions in the presence of
EtI, diethyl ether was obtained as the main product, depending
on the catalyst used, and only small amounts of the
corresponding ester were detected. Indeed, with a series of
Fe-based systems, Et2O was the main product (with 70−80%
selectivity) when Mo−Fe, Fe−Cu, or Fe−Hg catalysts were
used. Conversions were typically above 85−90%. However,
when a Fe−Rh complex was used, the activity and selectivity for
ethyl propionate drastically improved (almost quantitative).
3.5. Synthesis of Aldehydes
Among the available routes to synthesize aldehydes, dehydrogenation of alcohols is rather efficient, because it yields only a
few byproducts (see section 2.6). Oxidation of alcohols also
affords aldehydes with rather good selectivity (see section
2.9.2). Homologation of methanol produces acetaldehyde,
which often undergoes further hydrogenation to ethanol, but
under appropriate conditions, and using adapted catalytic
systems, it is possible to limit hydrogenation (see section
2.10.1). Hydrocarbonylation of methanol affords aldehydes
(see section 2.10.2.2), and carbonylation of olefins can lead to
unsaturated aldehydes (see section 2.10.2.3). Hydroformylation
of olefins is widely used in industry to produce aldehydes.
However, under CO/H2 pressure, subsequent hydrogenation
often takes place to yield alcohols (see section 2.10.3.1).
Dehydrogenation of methanol and ethanol to the corresponding aldehydes could be achieved with Ni-based supported
MMCD catalysts (Ru−Ni, Os−Ni, and Os−Ni−Cu). Interestingly, the Cu-containing system afforded ethylene during
dehydrogenation of ethanol, which was further carbonylated
to acetaldehyde.
Oxidation of a broad range of alcohols with molecular O2 and
in the presence of Cr−Ru and Cr−Os complexes afforded the
corresponding aldehydes with rather good activities and
selectivities. Similarly, Ru−M (M = Ni, Pd, Pt) catalysts
performed the oxidation of benzyl alcohol to benzaldehyde
with good selectivity. The most active system was Ru−Ni, while
Ru−Pd and Ru−Pt exhibited similar activities.
For the hydroformylation of olefins, Rh-based catalysts offer
good results overall, as do monometallic Rh catalysts. Thus,
Mn−Rh, Fe−Rh, Co−Rh, and Rh−Zn systems were used for
the hydroformylation of substrates such as ethylene, propene,
1-pentene, or styrene. Also, “early late” transition metal
complexes appeared to give very good results. In particular, a
Ti−Rh catalyst showed very high activity in hydroformylation
of 1-hexene, and the already high selectivity toward n-heptanal
(vs branched heptanals) could be greatly enhanced by the
addition of chiral phosphines. Similarly, the addition of PPh3 to
a Zr−Rh catalyst already able to convert 100% of olefins
resulted in highly selective hydroformylation of 1-hexene.
3.4. Synthesis of Ethers
Among the numerous ways available to synthesize ethers, the
Fischer−Tropsch process is a possibility, because oxygenates,
including ethers, are among the main products (see section
2.5.2). Methanol homologation can lead to ethers too, among
other oxygenates such as esters and aldehydes (see section
2.10.1). Carbonylation of alcohols in the presence of alkyl
iodides may lead to the formation of ethers (see section
2.10.2.1).
If Ti−Rh, M−Ru (M = Cr, Mo, Mn, Co), W−Rh, and Mn−
Fe systems can afford oxygenated compounds with rather good
selectivities during the Fischer−Tropsch process, the main
products are mixtures of oxygenates. However, Fe−Os and
Os−Rh MMCD catalysts supported on alumina were found to
afford ethers in rather good yields. In particular, Fe−Os is more
selective, but less active than its Os−Rh counterpart. Also, Ru−
Os MMCD/alumina species are slightly active, and yield mainly
hydrocarbons with some dimethyl ether. Ru−Rh catalysts were
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These systems were also used for the hydroformylation of
styrene and 1,5-COD. Bimetallic M−Ru (M = Cr, Mo, W, Fe)
and M′−Pd (M′ = Cr, Mo, W) catalysts were used for styrene
hydroformylation. Among them, the Fe−Ru system was found
to be the most active (>40%), even though its selectivity for
heptanal was rather low (<60%). All Cr- and Mo-based systems
were almost inactive (<2% yield), while W-based ones had
activities in the range of 10−15%. Other systems, such as Mo−
Fe−Co, Mo−Co, or Mo−Co−Ni, were used in olefin
hydroformylation. The latter two led to concomitant isomerization, thus affording hexanal and 2-methylpentanal in 1pentene hydroformylation. A Fe−Co catalyst showed good
hydroformylation activity for terminal, internal, and cyclic
olefins with very high selectivity (close to 100%). Cobalt-based
systems, such as Co−M (M = Ni, Pd, Pt), were used with
substrates like propylene, 1-pentene, 1-hexene, 1,3-butadiene,
or styrene. A Co−Cu catalyst offered very low activity, but
rather good selectivity for propanal in ethylene hydroformylation. Interestingly, Fe−Pd and Fe−Pt catalysts were
more selective for alcohols by favoring the hydrogenation step
of the first formed aldehydes.
Homologation of methanol in the presence of a Fe−Co
catalyst afforded acetaldehyde with rather high selectivity
(80%) at high conversions (75%). In contrast, Co−Pd and
Co−Pt systems gave low yields of acetaldehyde (<10%).
However, the main product was acetaldehyde dimethylacetal,
which was obtained with ca. 30% yield.
Hydrocarbonylation of methanol, which is performed under
CO/H2 pressure, usually affords aldehydes, and using Ru−Co
and Co−Pd heterogeneous catalysts, it was possible to form
acetaldehyde and the corresponding acetal: MeCH(OMe)2.
Other products were methyl acetate, originating from carbonylation, as well as methane, due to CO hydrogenation.
Homogeneous carbonylation of ethylene to acrolein could be
initiated in the presence of PPh3 and a Zr−Rh complex.
carboxaldehyde, were converted to the corresponding cyclic
ketones with ca. 40% yields.
PKR reactions offer an efficient route toward cyclic enones
with good regioselectivity. Indeed, Co-based clusters (Fe−Co,
Ru−Co, and Co−Pt) were used as homogeneous catalysts for
the intramolecular PKR reaction of diethyl (allypropargyl)malonate to afford the corresponding enone. The conversion
was almost quantitative in all cases, but the selectivities were
different. While the Fe−Co system gave ca. 65% yield, the Co−
Pt cluster led to yields in the range of 85−93% and the Ru−Co
one to more than 90% selectivity. Heterogeneous Co−Rh
catalysts were used in a braod range of reactions involving
aldehydes as CO source and alkynes to afford substituted cyclic
enones. The same systems were also used in the intramolecular
PKR-like reaction between CO and allenynes or CO and
bisallenes to afford the corresponding cyclic enones.
3.7. Synthesis of Carboxylic Acids
Several routes are available for the synthesis of carboxylic acids.
Among them, hydrogenation of carbon dioxide is a way to
obtain formic acid (see section 2.5.2). Carbonylation of
methanol (see section 2.10.2.1) also affords carboxylic acids.
Low activity was observed in CO2 hydrogenation in the
presence of Mo−Ru and W−Ru catalysts. However, monometallic Ru catalysts were not active at all.
Carbonylation of methanol in the presence of Os−Ir or Ir−
Pt complexes and of MeI or HI as cocatalyst afforded acetic
acid and methyl acetate. Because of the excess of methanol in
the reaction mixture, ester formation is favored, thus decreasing
the yield of acetic acid.
3.8. Synthesis of Esters
Among the numerous routes available to synthesize esters,
hydrogenation of CO and CO2 is a possibility (see section
2.5.2). Homologation reactions are efficient routes for the
production of esters (see section 2.10.1). Carbonylation of
alcohols (see section 2.10.2.1) or olefins (see section 2.10.2.3)
is suitable for the production of esters, in the presence of an
appropriate coreagent. Addition of carboxylic acids to alkynes
(see section 2.12.2) or transesterification (see section 2.12.4)
represent other available methods for the synthesis of esters.
Although several heterometallic catalysts exhibit enhanced
selectivity toward oxygenates in CO2 hydrogenation reactions
(see sections 3.4 and 3.5), only a Mn−Pd system showed
specific selectivity for esters. In particular, the reaction between
CO2 and H2 in the presence of EtOH and NEt3 afforded ethyl
formate.
Homologation of methanol in the presence of Mn−Pd, Co−
Pd, and Co−Pt heterometallic clusters afforded small amounts
of methyl acetate (ca. 5% yield). However, homologation of
methyl formate in the presence of a Ru−Co system afforded
ethyl acetate with good activity and selectivity.
Carbonylation of ethanol in the presence of EtI efficiently
afforded ethyl propionate when Fe-based heterometallic
clusters were used as catalysts. In particular, Mo−Fe, Fe−Cu,
and Fe−Hg showed activity in the range 85−95% and
selectivities between 15% and 25% for the ester at 493 K. At
this temperature, a Fe−Ni complex gave a ca. 50/50 mixture of
ether and ester. The most active and selective system was a Fe−
Rh complex, which gave almost quantitatively ethyl propionate
at 473 K. Os−Ir and Ir−Pt clusters showed enhanced selectivity
for methyl acetate in the methanol carbonylation because the
excess of methanol in the reaction mixture tends to favor the
formation of esters.
3.6. Synthesis of Ketones
Oxidation of alkanes and alkenes (see section 2.9.1) or alcohols
(see section 2.9.2) can lead to the formation of ketones. Cyclic
enones may be obtained through intramolecular hydroacylation
(see section 2.10.4) or Pauson−Khand reactions (see section
2.10.6).
A V−Co catalyst was used in oxidation of cyclohexane to
cyclohexanone with more than 75% selectivity. Similarly, a V−
Rh compound catalyzed oxidation of propene to acetone.
Three metal couples were tested in oxidation of cyclohexene to
cyclohexenone: Cr−Mn, Cr−Co, and Mn−Co. Immobilized
Fe−Co, Fe−Co−Cu, Co−Cu, and Co−Cu−Zn catalysts were
found to yield ketones and alcohols by oxidation of cyclic
alkanes using hydrogen peroxide. However, Zn appeared to
lower the activity of the system. A Fe−Cu immobilized
complex gave high selectivity (up to 87%) at 14% conversion
under similar conditions. Also, a Pd−Cu compound was used
as a catalyst for the oxidation of alkenes to ketones.
While the oxidation of primary alcohols affords aldehydes,
that of secondary alcohols leads to ketones. A Cr−Os complex
was used as an efficient catalyst for the synthesis of ketones
starting from secondary alcohols.
Intramolecular hydroacylation of alkene-aldehydes affords
cyclic alkenones. A Ti−Rh complex was used with excellent
selectivity for the targeted cyclic ketones with yields close to
100% in the intramolecular hydroacylation of 3-phenyl-4pentenal. Other 3-substituted pentenals, such as styrene 287
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logation of methanol (see section 2.10.1), or hydrocarbonylation of methanol (see section 2.10.2.2).
Oxidation of methanol in the presence of a heterogeneous
Ta−Re catalyst selectively afforded dimethoxymethane, whereas the corresponding monometallic Re system yielded formaldehyde instead.
During methanol homologation reactions, a Mn−Pd
homogeneous catalyst showed 55% selectivity for MeCH(OMe)2. Other oxygenates such as alcohols and aldehydes were
also observed. Other bimetallic couples, Co−Pd and Co−Pt,
favored the formation of acetaldehyde dimethylacetal in ca. 30%
yield as a major product.
Hydrocarbonylation of methanol leads to aldehydes and the
corresponding acetals, as with Ru−Co and Co−Pd heterogeneous catalysts. These systems afforded acetaldehyde and 1,1dimethoxyethane. Other reactions include carbonylation to
methyl acetate and hydrogenation of CO to methane.
Carbonylation of 1-octene in the presence of EtOH with a
Fe−Pd homogeneous catalyst gave the corresponding branched
and linear esters (ethyl 2-methyloctanoate and ethyl nonaoate)
in 10 times better yields than when monometallic Pd complexes
were used.
The addition of carboxylic acids to electron-deficient alkynes
(e.g., terminal alkynes) to afford esters was catalyzed by Mo−
Pd and Re−Ru catalysts with rather good regioselectivity for
the Z and Z+E isomers, respectively. A series of Ti−Ru
complexes proved to be almost as efficient as monometallic
catalysts in the addition of formic acid to 1-hexyne or
phenylacetylene to form the corresponding enol formates.
These systems exhibited rather good regioselectivities.
Transesterification of esters by methanol to the corresponding methyl acetates and benzoates was efficiently performed in
the presence of polymeric clusters containing Co, Zn, or Cd.
Among the three systems, Co−Cd showed the worst results,
because depending on the substrate, induction time of more
than a week was required to reach full conversion. The Co−Zn
catalyst gave better results, with full conversion time ranging
from hours to 4 days. Finally, the best system was the Zn−Cd
one, because a few hours proved to be sufficient to reach full
conversion in most cases (see section 2.12.4).
3.11. Synthesis of Ketals (by Addition of Alcohols to
Alkynes)
Addition of alcohols to alkynes to afford the corresponding
ketals using heterometallic cluster-derived catalysts was only
performed in the presence of Ir−M (M = Pd, Pt) trinuclear
clusters (see section 2.12.1). More precisely, a Ir−Pd complex
was more selective than the Ir−Pt one in the catalyzed addition
of methanol to 2,2-dialkoxy-1-arylalkanes. In both cases, the
yields were greater than 80%, and the conversions were almost
quantitative.
3.9. Synthesis of Lactones
Lactones can generally be obtained by the methods used in
ester synthesis. Moreover, using heterometallic cluster-derived
catalysts, oxidation of THF (see section 2.9.4), cyclo(hydro)carbonylation of alkynes (see section 2.10.2.4), cyclization of
alkynoic acids (see section 2.12.2), or cycloaddition of CO2 and
alkynes (see section 2.12.3) appear as alternative options.
A dinuclear Mo−Ru complex was used as a homogeneous
catalyst for the oxidation of THF to γ-butyrolactone, but it was
observed that the corresponding monometallic dinuclear Ru
complex was much more active and selective under similar
reaction conditions.
Two Mo−Ni cubane-type clusters were used for the catalytic
intramolecular cyclization of various alkynoic acids to the
corresponding enol lactones. They proved to be very efficient,
because full conversions and almost 100% selectivities were
reached within 1−3 h for most substrates. Similarly, a Mo−Pd
cubane cluster proved to be very efficient for the intramolecular
cyclization of alkynoic acids to enol lactones, exhibiting yields
up to 98% after sometimes very short times (several minutes).
A heterogeneous Fe−Rh catalyst was used for the cycloaddition of CO2 and propyne to afford 4,6-dimethyl-2-pyrone.
The selectivity for the desired product was higher than when
monometallic analogous Rh catalysts were used, but trimerization products, obtainable even in the absence of CO2, were still
observed in large amounts.
Substituted furanones could be obtained from the cyclohydrocarbonylation of internal alkynes when catalyzed by a
heterogeneous Co−Rh system. Yields above 80% were
obtained for such reactions, even after several uses of the
same catalyst. Similarly, a Co−Rh heterogeneous catalyst was
used for the synthesis of coumarins from the reaction of
substituted alkynes with CO and 2-iodophenol, with yields
higher than 80%.
3.12. Synthesis of Isocyanates and Carbamates (by
Carbonylation of Organic Nitro Derivatives)
The preparation of aromatic isocyanates and carbamates by
carbonylation of the corresponding organic nitro derivatives, as
shown in eqs 1 and 2, has been investigated using MMCD
catalysts (see section 2.11.1).
Ar−NO2 + 3CO → Ar−NCO + 2CO2
(1)
Ar−NO2 + 3CO + R−OH → Ar−NHCO2 R + 2CO2
(2)
There is a considerable academic and industrial interest for
these reactions, which grant access to aromatic isocyanates and
carbamates while avoiding the use of phosgene,428 classically
used to convert amino derivatives into this important class of
chemicals.
Isocyanates were synthesized by carbonylation of organic
nitro derivatives, in the presence of a heterogeneous Mo−Pd
and a homogeneous Ru−Rh catalyst. While the former system
proved effective, affording complete conversions and high
selectivities (71−80%), and thus better performances than the
corresponding monometallic systems or their mixtures, the
latter showed rather poor activity (20.6% conversion) and
selectivity (27.5%).
A series of M−Rh (M = Fe, Ru, Os) clusters were used as
catalysts for the carbonylation of nitro derivatives in the
presence of methanol. The addition of bipyridine was found to
greatly improve the activity of the systems. At high substrate to
catalyst ratios (see section 2.11.1), the Fe−Rh system was the
least effective of all, while the Ru−Rh was the most selective,
and the Os−Rh the most active. However, in the case of Ru and
Os, a lower substrate to catalyst ratio proved to greatly increase
the conversion (up to 98−100%) and the selectivity for the
carbamates (87−89%).
3.10. Synthesis of Acetals
Acetals are often used as protective groups in organic
chemistry. They can be synthesized by several methods,
including oxidation of alcohols (see section 2.9.2), homo88
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DMHT. Byproducts formed included 4-methyloxymethylhydroxymethylcyclohexane, bis(4-hydroxymethylcyclohexyl)
ether, and CHDM. Under these conditions, the [Ru12Cu4]
system is inactive. However, after 8 h reaction time, the activity
of the latter increased, and both catalysts resulted in a similar
selectivity of ca. 22% for DMHT. The [Ru5Pt] and [Ru10Pt2]
catalysts were more active and selective for DMHT and
CHDM than the [Ru6Pd6] catalyst.
Two Fe−Pd clusters were deposited on silica and alumina to
prepare heterogeneous catalysts for the conversion of onitrophenol to benzoxazol-2-one. Alumina was found to be a
better support, thus affording systems with very high activities
and selectivities. Indeed, almost quantitative yields were
observed. The use of impregnated metallic salts to prepare
related catalysts resulted in only moderate activity (ca. 40%)
and 90% selectivity.
Two Os−Au clusters with different Os to Au ratios were
used to catalyze the oxidative carbonylation of aniline in the
presence of methanol and PPh3 as promoter, to afford
phenylcarbamate with conversions ranging from 60% to 90%
and selectivities as high as 65%. Moreover, in the absence of
PPh3, it was observed that increasing the amount of methanol
in the reaction mixture dramatically decreased the selectivity
toward the carbamate, thus favoring the formation of
quinazoline and azobenzene.
4. CONCLUSION
We have attempted here to emphasize the achievements in
homogeneous, supported, and heterogeneous catalysis that
result from the use of molecular, mixed-metal cluster
compounds as precursors. An impressive number of bimetallic
(and occasionally trimetallic) systems have been examined and
found applications in an increasing number of catalytic
reactions over the last decades (see Tables 1 and 3). A given
bimetallic complex can be used in more than one type of
reaction, whether in homogeneous, supported, or heterogeneous phase (see Table 4), and this illustrates the considerable
scope of this approach and the potential for future developments. For a given bimetallic couple, much can be learned from
qualitative comparisons as a function of the ratio between the
heterometals and the type of catalysis applied for a given
reaction, even though it is generally very difficult to draw more
quantitative conclusions because meaningful comparisons can
only be made for systems studied under strictly analogous
conditions. This turns out to be only rarely possible, not only
because of the considerable diversity of precursors and types of
catalytic reactions studied, but also in view of the increasing
number and diversity of research groups engaged in this field.
In many instances, a comparison between the catalytic
performances of the heterometallic and the corresponding
monometallic precursors revealed synergistic and/or cooperativity effects.
The presence in a molecule of more than one metal center
may confer a reactivity that is unique when compared to that of
the corresponding mononuclear species. This may result, for
example, from the stabilization by metal−metal bonding of
unusual oxidation states. Such examples are known, even in
homometallic systems, where reactions such as halide exchange
with aryl iodide and C−C coupling, or C−H bond activation of
aromatic compounds, were catalyzed in the presence of Pd(I)−
Pd(I), or Pd(III)−Pd(III) dinuclear complexes, respectively.431
Similarly, aldehyde olefination could be performed in the
presence of a Ru(I)−Ru(I) complex.431,432 However, more
information is needed, even for stoichiometric transformations,
about the specific role of each metal in a heterometallic system.
Studies with heterometallic Ni−Mo complexes have thus
shown that they were able to induce stoichiometric tail-to-tail
dimerization and C−H activation of methyl acrylate. Under
similar conditions, the corresponding Ni−Ni or Mo−Mo
complexes were found totally inactive.433 In other cases, the
adjacent heterometal can be viewed as a “ligand”, enhancing the
reactivity of its neighbor.434 We have also encountered
situations where the heterometallic nature of the precursor
complex was not a sufficient condition for efficient catalysis.
Much remains to be learned about the stoichiometric and
catalytic reactivity of mixed-metal cluster compounds and
particularly about the site selectivity induced by the presence of
different metal.435
The study of heterogenized catalysts, obtained by immobilization of molecular mixed-metal clusters on solid supports,
3.13. Synthesis of Ammonia
Industrially, ammonia is mainly synthesized by the Haber−
Bosch process, using modified iron-based catalysts.429 Although
organometallic compounds, including multinuclear complexes
and hydride compounds,430 constitute an emerging tool for this
reaction, heterometallic complexes and clusters have not been
used much for that purpose (see section 2.15.5). It was also
observed that reduction of hydrazine was another possible
route (see section 2.15.4).
Hydrogenation of nitrogen was thus performed in the
presence of Ru−Ni and Os−Ni heterogeneous catalysts
adsorbed on K-modified alumina. The Ru-based system was
more active than the Os-containing one, but it was still much
less active than a monometallic Ru catalyst, pointing to a
possible inhibiting effect of the Ni center.
Reduction of hydrazine to ammonia was performed in the
presence of V−Fe−S and Mo−Fe−S cubane-type clusters as
models for nitrogenase cofactor. These systems gave very
promising results, but rather for partial reduction, such as the
selective reduction of cis-dimethyldiazene to methylamine
instead of ammonia. Also, the disproportionation of hydrazine
to yield ammonia and dinitrogen was performed in the
presence of Mo−Ru−S cubane-type clusters bearing a
phosphine ligand. Although the authors did not investigate
why, the catalyst bearing the phosphine PCy3 proved to be
more active than the one containing a PPh3 ligand.
3.14. Miscellaneous
Hydrogenation of dimethylterephtalate (DMT) to 1,4-cyclohexanedimethanol (CHDM), which is of industrial interest,
involves two reduction steps (Scheme 76). First, hydrogenation
of the CC bonds of the cyclohexene cycle leads to dimethyl
hexahydroterephtalate (DMHT), and then hydrogenation of
the ester groups affords CHDM. This reaction has been
catalyzed by a series of silica-supported Ru-based heterometallic
decarbonylated clusters. After 4 h reaction time, the [Ru6Pd6]
system shows moderate activity and 32.9% selectivity for
Scheme 76
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Table 4. Listing of Molecular Mixed-Metal Clusters Used in Catalysis, with the Corresponding References for the Synthesis and
the Catalysis
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Table 4. continued
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106
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Table 4. continued
a
The metals are listed with increasing number of their group. bThis notation is meant to indicate the core composition of the molecular precursor
but has no implication as far as the particle size, shape, or composition of the catalyst is concerned. Therefore, when there is no such notation, it
means that the reported compound is a homogeneous catalyst.
tuning due to frequently ill-defined active sites, reduced
effectiveness of components of a multimetallic catalyst, and
often severe reaction conditions). At the same time, it was
hoped that such immobilized systems would give rise to a
successful combination of the advantages inherent to
homogeneous catalysis (molecular understanding of the
mechanisms and catalytic cycles, mild reaction conditions,
high atom efficiency, and easier tuning by the ligands electronic
and steric properties) with those specific to heterogeneous
such as organic polymers or inorganic oxides or onto the pores
of well-defined micro- and mesoporous materials, functionalized or not (with, e.g., oxygen-donating ligands, with groups
having a greater affinity for low oxidation-state metal
carbonyls), has made much progress in recent years. The
development of such systems was originally motivated by the
hope to overcome the limitations and difficulties encountered
in both homogeneous catalysis (catalyst recovery and cluster
fragmentation) and heterogeneous catalysis (limited selectivity
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trimetallic association and of the intermetallic ratio in the
molecular precursor, but more research should provide better
comparative evaluations of catalysts under similar conditions.
catalysis (higher catalyst stability, applicability to a wide range
of reactions, technological versatility, and easier separation from
the reaction products).
Supported mixed-metal cluster-derived (MMCD) heterogeneous catalysts may have been considered initially as
curiosities,18b,c,361 but this is no longer the case, and they
constitute a very promising class of catalytic materials. This
development has been greatly facilitated by the huge diversity
of bimetallic molecular precursors known, their availability
often in gram scale, and the established synthetic strategies
allowing access to new bimetallic couples. Numerous studies
have concluded that bimetallic metal particles, obtained by
thermal treatment of supported molecular clusters and removal
of their ligands, often have unique catalytic properties. The use
of molecular precursors containing metals in low oxidation state
is highly desirable because lower activation temperatures are
required than when reduction of the metals is necessary. Severe
activation conditions may lead to segregation of the different
metals and jeopardize synergistic interactions. The use of
carbonyl clusters is particularly appropriate, also because the
CO ligands are cleanly and irreversibly eliminated, in contrast
to, for example, phosphines that may become the source of
desirable or undesirable phosphide phases.18d,436 It is generally
observed that the use of well-defined bimetallic molecular
precursors leads to metal particles of much better controlled
size and composition than those obtained from mixtures of
monometallic salts, because of the close proximity of the atoms
in the precursors and the existence of metal−metal bonding.
The large number of experimental parameters involved in
catalytic studies (solvent, temperature, pressure), the nature of
the support, the impregnation method used, the thermal
decomposition, and activation procedures of the catalysts all
need to be considered, and making comparisons between
results from different research groups is very difficult, if not
meaningless. Despite all of the results already available, which
provide interesting directions for future work, there is a need
for more systematic comparisons and critical testing allowing a
clear-cut evaluation of the advantages brought about by
MMCD catalysts. Comparisons with the properties of mixtures
of the corresponding homometallic complexes or of bimetallic
colloids would be highly desirable from a fundamental point of
view as well as because of their potential industrial relevance.
We also anticipate that “heterometal-sensitive reactions”, that is,
reactions that require at least two different metals to proceed
with high activity and selectivity, should be particularly
worthwhile to study as their results will be very informative,
even if only qualitatively, about the specificity of MMCD
catalysts. Their study should, in general, help improve our
understanding of fundamental aspects of catalytic chemistry.
Particularly important in this respect are the new powerful
analytical techniques, such as in situ TEM (transmission
electron microscopy), Z-contrast imaging in TEM, or ultrahighresolution aberration-corrected STEM (scanning transmission
electron microscopy), which allow atomic scale observations of
materials and have already provided researchers with new and
most valuable insights.2l,437
We hope to have provided an incentive for more studies on
multimetallic catalysis based on heterometallic clusters. The
potential of heterometallic complexes is considerable, and
several bimetallic associations remain poorly or not at all
investigated, and therefore are absent from this Review. Clear
trends have already been identified in a number of cases
concerning catalytic performances as a function of the bi- or
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Authors
*Tel.: +33 3 68851308. E-mail: paulin.buchwalter@hotmail.fr.
*E-mail: rose@unistra.fr.
*E-mail: braunstein@unistra.fr.
Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
Biographies
Paulin Buchwalter received his Master’s degree from the Université de
Strasbourg in 2009 in the field of materials chemistry. During these
studies, he first joined the group of Dr. P. Braunstein in the
Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination, Strasbourg, where he worked
on the synthesis of Prussian blue analogues. He then joined the group
of Prof. S. Bégin in the Institut de Physique et Chimie des Matériaux
de Strasbourg, and worked on the synthesis and magnetic applications
of functionalized iron oxide nanoparticles for the preparation of selfassembled monolayers on inorganic surfaces. He received his Ph.D. in
2013 under the supervision of Dr. J.-L. Paillaud (Institut de Science
des Matériaux de Mulhouse), Dr. P. Rabu (Institut de Physique et
Chimie des Matériaux de Strasbourg), and Dr. P. Braunstein, working
on the study of the thermal behavior of organometallic molecular
clusters and on the synthesis and applications of confined cobalt
phosphide nanoparticles starting from such precursors. His main
research interests are in the preparation and characterization of metal
nanoparticles and their applications in catalysis.
Jacky Rosé obtained his Ph.D. in 1985 in Organometallic Chemistry
from the University of Strasbourg under the supervision of Prof. P.
Braunstein. His current interests encompass synthetic methodologies
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bmim
Bn
bpy
Bu
cat
COA
COD
COE
Cp
Cp′
Cpt
Cp*
Cy
DCPD
depe
dmpe
dpae
dppa
dppe
dppm
ee
Et
HDN
HDS
HMPA
Ind
MAO
Me
Mes
MMCD
NBD
NBE
NP
pts
Ph
phen
PPN
Pr
PROX
py
scCO2
TBPA
TMBA
TMED
TOF
[MxM′y]
for the preparation of low oxidation-state heterometallic complexes
and clusters containing ligands such as CO, phosphines, and
hydrocarbons, the formation of new metal−metal bonds, the
electronic behavior of metal carbonyl building blocks as a function
of their structural environment, the application of the isolobal analogy,
and the use of assembling ligands for the rational synthesis of
heterometallic clusters.
Pierre Braunstein graduated from the Ecole Nationale Supérieure de
Chimie de Mulhouse (1969) and obtained his Dr. Ing. (1971) and
Doctorat d’Etat (1974) from the Université Louis Pasteur (ULP) in
Strasbourg. He spent the academic years 1971/72 as a postdoctoral
fellow at University College London (with R. S. Nyholm and R. J. H.
Clark) and 1974/75 as A. von Humboldt fellow at the TU Munich
(with E. O. Fischer). He remained within the CNRS where he became
Director of Research Except. Class at the University of Strasbourg. His
main research interests lie in the inorganic and organometallic
chemistry of the transition and main group elements (where he has
(co)authored over 500 scientific publications and review articles) and
include the synthesis and coordination/organometallic chemistry of
metal−metal bonded (hetero)dinuclear and cluster complexes, of
coordination clusters, of heterofunctional ligands, of quinonoid
zwitterions, and the study of hemilabile metal−ligand systems.
Applications range from, for example, homogeneous catalytic ethylene
oligomerization to nanosciences. He has received numerous national
and international awards and is a member of various academies,
including the french Académie of Sciences and the German National
Academy of Sciences Leopoldina. He has been featured in Angewandte
Chemie (http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/anie.
201000183/abstract).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work is dedicated to Profs. E. Sappa (Torino), A.
Tiripicchio (Parma), and H. Vahrenkamp (Freiburg) for a
decades-long friendship triggered by cluster chemistry. We
thank the Région Alsace (Ph.D. grant to P. Buchwalter), the
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, the Ministère de
la Recherche, the University of Strasbourg, and the ic-FRC of
Strasbourg (http://www.icfrc.fr) for support. We are most
grateful to the co-workers and collaborators who have been
involved in our own research and whose names appear in the
references. We thank Drs. J.-L. Paillaud, B. Lebeau (IS2M,
UHA Mulhouse), and P. Rabu (IPCMS Strasbourg) for fruitful
interactions.
1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium
benzyl
2,2′-bipyridine
butyl
catecholate
cyclooctane
cyclooctadiene
cyclooctene
η5-cyclopentadienyl (η5-C5H5)
η5-methylcyclopentadienyl (η5-MeC5H4)
η5-terbutylcyclopentadienyl (η5-C5H4-t-Bu)
η5-pentamethylcyclopentadienyl (η5-C5Me5)
cyclohexyl
dicyclopentadiene
1,2-bis(diethylphosphino)ethane
1,2-bis(dimethylphosphino)ethane
1,2-bis(diphenylarsino)ethane
1,2-bis(diphenylphosphino)amine
1,2-bis(diphenylphosphino)ethane
1,2-bis(diphenylphosphino)methane
enantiomeric excess
ethyl
hydrodenitrogenation
hydrodesulfurization
hexamethylphosphoramide [(Me2N)PO]
indenyl
methylaluminoxane (Al(CH3)xOy)n
methyl
mesityl
mixed-metal cluster-derived catalyst
norbornadiene
norbornene
nanoparticle
p-toluenesulfonate
phenyl
phenanthroline
bis(triphenylphosphine)iminium
propyl
Preferential Oxidation
pyridine
supercritical CO2
tris(4-bromophenyl)ammonium
trimethyl(benzyl)ammonium
tetramethyl(ethylenediamine)
turnover frequency
heterogeneous catalyst prepared from a molecular
cluster of metal core composition MxM′y
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ABBREVIATIONS
acac
acetylacetonato
Ar
aromatic
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