TITLE PAGE THE IMPACTS OF BRAILLE READING AND WRITING ON THE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENT IN JOS METROPOLIS BY ODOH, ANTHONY OCHIGBO UJ/2012/ED/0004 A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION AND REHABILITATION SCIENCES, FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF JOS IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A BACHELOR OF SCIENCES B.Sc.(Ed) SPECIAL EDUCATION (VH) APRIL, 2016 1|P ag e APPROVAL This study work has been read and approved by the Department of Special Education and Rehabilitation Sciences University of Jos After meeting the requirements of Faculty of Education to obtain Bachelor of Sciences Degree. --------------------------------DR. E.A. OWOBI (Project Supervisor) ----------------------DATE --------------------------------PROF. P.I. OSUORJI (Head of Department) ----------------------DATE -------------------------------Prof. Msgr. C.T GOTAN (Dean Faculty of Education) ----------------------DATE ---------------------------------External Examiner ----------------------DATE 2|P ag e DEDICATION I tenderly dedicate this project work to God Almighty, for His mercy, grace, wisdom, inspirations, love, blessing, favour, good health and strength to have completed this study. 3|P ag e ACKNOWLEDGMENT I honestly express my warmth gratitude to God Almighty for granting me this unmerited grace throughout the course of my study in the University of Jos. My most profound appreciation goes to my able and dynamic Supervisor; Dr. E.A. Owobi for his guide, understanding, patience and diligence in reading and approving this work despite his busy academic schedules. My warm hearted appreciation also goes to my level coordinator; Mr. L.J. Jikuka for his fatherly guide and untiring efforts to ensure that my results are found and computed timely and appropriately throughout my course of study in the University. And a heartfelt gratitude to all my lecturers too numerous to mention; who have worked so hard to impart knowledge and good moral in me. I am grateful to my beloved mother Mrs Benedicta Odoh for all her prayers, advice, encouragements, love and care from conception till now, especially for her untiring financial provision throughout my period of studying in the university of Jos. Mummy may God keep you in good health to eat the fruit of your labour. My deep appreciation goes to my Aunt; Augustina Otori through whom I got the admission to study in the university, and in whose house I spent most of my holidays. To Aunty Elizabeth Agah, I am very grateful for her untiring financial support, provision of special foreign materials for my study and frequent phone calls. I also appreciate Aunty Ada Ojile (MRS) for her financial support and words of encouragement. My warmth appreciation goes to uncle Sunday C. Otache for his regular financial assistance and frequent phone call, and other relatives who took all the pains and the challenges to cater for me throughout my years of study, may the good Lord increase your days to eat the fruits of your labour. 4|P ag e My warmest appreciation goes to my beloved friend Lilian Nnenna Onunze for been there to encourage me all the time. You are wonderful to me, may God bless you and grant all your heart desires. My warmth gratitude goes to my unique and lovely friends among them are Susan Itodo, Victoria Okereke, Rev. Yohana Ezekiel, Clement Ipuole, Afodia and many others. I cannot fail to remember every bit of time we spent to study together in large or small groups. I am also grateful to my special friends and spiritual directors; Mr. Anthony Ukaoha, Mrs Juliet Izedonmwen, Rev. Fr. Peter Agbogbo and Rev. Fr. Peter J. Ewaoche for their prayers, financial support and phone calls. You all are wonderful to me, words cannot express the content of my heart for you, but your indelible memories will always remain in my heart. I also cease this privilege to extend my profound gratitude to MTN foundation for her benevolent scholarship scheme which I benefited throughout my study in the university of Jos. My deepest appreciation goes to Francisca for her expert assistance in computation and analysis of data, Emmanuella for taking her time to read and edit this work, and to everybody that was instrumental to the successful ending of this research work. I love you all and may the Good Lord bless and keep you all. 5|P ag e TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE page - - - - - - - - - -i APPROVAL PAGE - - - - - - - - -ii DEDICATION - - - - - - - - -iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT - - - - - - - -iv TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - vii ABSTRACT - - xii CHAPTER ONE 1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY - - - - - -1 1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM - - - - - -3 1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY - - - - - - -4 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS - - - - - - -4 1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES - - - - - - -4 1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY - - - - - -5 1.7 THE DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY - - - - -6 1.8 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION Of TERMS - - - - -7 6|P ag e CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 CONCEPT OF BRAILLE READING/VISUAL IMPAIRMENT -8 2.2 IMPORTANCE OF BRAILLE TO STUDENTS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENT - -22 2.3 PROBLEMS OF BRAILLE READING AMONG STUDENTS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENT -24 2.4 STUDIES ON BRAILLE READING OF STUDENTS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENT -27 2.5 TYPES OF VISUAL IMPAIRMENT - 2.6 - -29 PREVALENCE OF VISUAL IMPAIRMENT IN NIGERIA - -32 2.7 CAUSES OF VISUAL IMPAIRMENT - - - - -37 2.8 PREVENTION OF VISUAL IMPAIRMENT - - - -40 2.9 - - - IDENTIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT OF STUDENTS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENT. 2.10 - - - - - - -41 PROBLEMS FACING STUDENTS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENT- 44 2.11 SUMMARY OF REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 7|P ag e - -46 CHAPTER THREE METHODS AND PROCEDURE 3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN - - - - - - - -48 3.2 POPULATION AND SAMPLE - - - - - - -48 3.3 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE - - - - - -49 3.4 INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION - - - -49 3.5 PROCEDURE FOR DATA COLLECTION - - - - -49 3.6 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS - - - -50 - - - CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 4.1 RESULTS - - - - - - - - - -51 4.2 DISCUSSION - - - - - - - - -52 CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATION, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY 5.1 SUMMARY - - - - - - - - -55 5.2 CONCLUSION - - - - - - - - -56 5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS - - - - - - - -56 5.4 SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER STUDY - - - - -58 REFERENCES - - - - - - - - -59 APPENDICES - - - - - - - -63 8|P ag e - ABSTRACT This research work focuses on the investigation of the impact of Braille reading and writing on the academic performance of students with visual impairment in Jos metropolis of Plateau State. The study covered two selected schools (Ganaka international school and Vocational training centre for the blind Zawan). The method used by the researcher for this study was causal comparative design, while the instrument used to collect data was students formative evaluation scores, the formative evaluation scores were collected for eight (8) students with visual impairment in the two schools which made up the sample population for this study. Information obtained were analyzed through the use of student t test for independent samples for all the hypotheses formulated for the study. The results of the finding show that inability to read and write Braille affects the academic performance of students with Visual Impairment, and also availability of Braille materials play a significant role in the performance of students with visual impairment in academic subjects. 9|P ag e CHAPTER ONE 1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Ability to read and write is the foundation of education, those who learn to read early in life read to learn well in life. Reading is the interpretation of prints or Braille, the writer has something to say on one hand and the reader uses his post about the topic to find out what the author has to say. When someone reads, the words are interpreted in his brain; the reader gets information and acquires knowledge or main message. Writing on the other hand, is a means of communication. We communicate in writing in different ways depending on the purpose, we write to narrate an event, describe a scene, and explain a process, and so on (Babuje, Opara, Mangvwatand Chigwong, 1998). All over the world today, educational processes are largely dependent upon printed words and how best one can reconstruct the messages that have been encoded by the writer. Research has shown that 80% of learning is by vision (Ozoji & Abozi, 1985). This means that persons with visual impairment only have 20% to be compensated with other senses. Perhaps attempt to educate the persons with visual impairment would have been a failure without the development and introduction of Braille as their major system of reading and writing. No wonder, Different people at different times made different attempts to enable this category of people to communicate with one another in 10 | P a g e writing (i.e. Braille). Notable of these attempts were those of Valentin Hauy, Charles Barbier and Lois Braille (Abang, 2005). Invariably, the beginning of formal education for persons with visual impairment could be traced to the founding of the first school for the blind in 1785 in Paris by Valentin Hauy. According to Maccuspie (2002) in Iroegbu (2010),Hauy believed that if he could teach those with visual impairment to read they will have an opportunity for employment and self sufficiency. Hauy’s effort was complemented by Charles Barbier when he developed a system of raised dots comprising 12-dots, this system was enthusiastically received by Lois Braille who was a student’s of the school for the blind Paris, Braille modified it to 6-dots, thus providing the means of reading and writing for persons with visual impairment. Braille remains the major and the most important means of communication for those who are both totally and partially blind. Even in most cases those who can manage to read large print prefer braille because facilities for large print are almost non existence In Nigerian Schools (Ozoji & Abozi, 1985). Despite the enormous significance of Braille to persons with visual impairment, inadequate supply of Braille materials in schools has called for dependence on acoustic materials and other assistive technology devices by students with visual impairment, this development poses a threat to the survival of braille as the major means of reading and writing for students with visual 11 | P a g e impairment. However, braille is believed to be a veritable means of conceptualisation and active participation in learning process for those living with visual impairment, thus an essential factor of academic success for students with visual impairment all over the world (Bidi, 1997). It is on this basis that the researcher seeks to examine the impact of braille reading and writing on the academic performance of students with visual impairment in Jos metropolis. 1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Personal experience and contacts with persons living with visual impairment by the researcher have reviewed that poor academic achievement of students with visual impairment is often traced to the problem of inability to read and write Braille. This problem is largely due to short supply of Braille materials in schools, which makes it difficult for students with visual impairment to acquire proficiency through constant practices. It has been observed by the researcher that inability of students with visual impairment to read and write Braille effectively constitutes major impediment to their academic performance in all school subjects. This study therefore intended to examine the impact of Braille reading and writing on academic performance of students with visual impairment in Jos metropolis. 12 | P a g e 1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The study intends to examine the impact of Braille reading and writing on the academic performance of students with visual impairment in Jos metropolis. The specific purpose of this study therefore includes the following: i. To find out if Braille reading and writing could enhance English language performance of students with visual impairment. ii. To find out if Braille reading and writing could enhance mathematics performance of students with visual impairment. iii. To examine if Braille reading and writing could improve social studies performance of students with visual impairment. 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS The researcher formulates the following research questions: 1. To what level can Braille reading and writing enhance English language performance of students with visual impairment? 2. To what extent in which Braille reading and writing can enhance mathematics performance of students with visual impairment? 3. To what extent Braille proficiency enhances social studies performance of students with visual impairment? 1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES The following hypotheses are formulated to test the above research questions: 13 | P a g e 1. There is no significant mean score difference in English language performance of students with visual impairment who are proficient in Braille and those who are not. 2. There is no significant mean score difference in mathematics performance of students with visual impairment who are proficient in braille and those who are not. 3. There is no significant mean score difference in social studies performance of students with visual impairment who are proficient in Braille and those who are not. 1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY This study when completed will benefit the following stake-holders: students with visual impairment, parents of students with visual impairment, teachers/school administrators, the government, departments of special education and other researchers. The findings of this study will help students with visual impairment understand that effective Braille reading and writing can facilitate their excellent performance in all academic subjects and makes it possible for them to compete favourably with their sighted counterparts. The result of this study will help parents/guidance of students with visual impairment realize the need to motivate their words to read and write braille 14 | P a g e effectively by providing basic writing materials such as Braille papers, slate and stylus for their children. Teachers of students with visual impairment will obtain useful information from this study that will help them see the need to teach Braille reading and writing professionally at all times. This study will also help school administrators to ensure that only Braille professionals are assigned to teach Braille in schools at all times. The finding of this study will benefit the government; ministry of education, agencies and organisations will obtain valuable information on the need to provide adequate Braille facilities in schools for optimal performance of students with visual impairment. The department of special education where Braille professionals are trained will also benefit from this study as appropriate recommendations will be made on how best future braile professionals should be trained to meet the demands of the changing world. Furthermore, this study will serve as a reference for other researchers who will undertake a similar study. 1.7 THE DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY This study will cover Jos metropolis of Plateau state: the study will specifically sample Ganaka international school in Jos North, and Government vocational training centre for the blind Zawan in Jos south local government area. The study is limited to only students with visual impairment; the study 15 | P a g e will examine the performance of students with visual impairment in all academic subjects. The study will focus on the impact of Braille reading and writing on the academic performance of students with visual impairment only. 1.8 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS The researcher will operationally define the following terms in this study: a. Braille: it refers to a tactile mode of reading and writing specially designed for persons with visual impairment. b. Braille Reading and Writing: this refers to ability of persons with visual impairment to read and write Braille effectively. c. Impact: Refers to powerful effect of Braille reading and writing on students with visual impairment especially the positive effects. d. Academic performance: it refers to positive and negative performance, i.e achievement of student with visual impairment. e. Visual impairment: this refers to a damage or malformation of the visual organ (eye). f. Students with visual impairment: Refer to those groups of students whose visions are so defected due to disease, accident or impairment to the extent that they need special education programmes/intervention order to succeed academically. 16 | P a g e in CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE The review of this study will be presented under these sub-topics for clarity of the variables under investigation. These include: The concept of Braille reading/visual impairment, Importance of Braille to students with visual impairment, Problems of Braille reading among students with visual impairment, Studies on Braille reading of students with visual impairment, Types of visual impairment, Causes of visual impairment, Prevalence of visual impairment in Nigeria, Prevention of visual impairment, Identification of children with visual impairment, Problems facing students with visual impairment and Summary of review of relevant literature. 2.1 CONCEPT OF BRAILLE READING/VISUAL IMPAIRMENT Braille is a system that enables people with visual impairment to read and write through touch. It was devised by Louis Braille in 1821 and consists of raised dots arranged in “cell”. Braille system is a method that is widely used by people with visual impairment to read and write, or revolutionalised written communication for people with visual impairment. Braille is named after his creator, Frenchman Louis Braille, who lost his eyesight due to a childhood accident. Braille characters are small rectangular blocks called cells that contain tiny palpable bumps called raised dots. The number and arrangement of these dots distinguish one character from another. 17 | P a g e The Royal National Institute for the Blind (1973) defined it as embossed signs with six dots vertically numbered 1-2-3 on the left hand side 4-5-6 on the right hand side. With the six dots, all the letters of the alphabet and the punctuation marks could be derived whether separately or in combination of the dots. Harley (1989) states that Braille system consists of six embossed dots that make it possible for those with visual impairment to read by using the sense of touch. The system is a representation of numbers, letters, scientific symbols and musical notations and it is composed of various dot patterns. It has acquired global recognition as the language of persons with visual impairment. According to Bishop (1988) Braille is the most consistent medium of reading for persons with visual impairment. As a tactical system, it has sixty-three combinations of raised dots which are arranged in a six-dot configuration known as “cells”. The American printing house for the blind (1987) described Braille as the best known medium of reading for people with visual impairment. Iroegbu (2010) referred to Braille as a tactile reading system based on 63 possible combinations of raised dots arranged in a six-dot configuration called cell. In another development, Braille could be referred to as tactile reading system based on 63 possible combinations of raised dots arranged in a six-dot configuration called cell (structure from which all Braille codes are composed). 18 | P a g e Gusen (1991) said the English language Braille has one hundred and eighty-nine (189) contractions and short-form words which ensure the abbreviation of numerous words. Lowenfeld (1987) posited that Braille consist of a system of embossed signs. The formation involves the utilization of numbers such as: 10 04 20 05 30 06 This is represented with dots 1-2-3 respectively and 4-5-6 vertically arranged left and right hand side of the cell respectively, these dots are read by means of touch. The formation of the first ten Roman alphabets [A-J] is accomplished by means of upper dots 1, 2 or 4, 5 or their combinations. The writing of Arabic numerals 0, 1-9 is adopted from the Roman alphabets. The next ten [10] Roman alphabets (K-T) are produced by the addition of the lower left bottom dot 3 to the first ten symbols in line 3. In summary, Braille is a method of reading and writing for persons with visual impairment with the use of raised dots. it involves the use of six dots which are vertically arranged 1-2-3 on the left and 4-5-6 on the right. A careful arrangement of these dots in various configurations makes up the six-three (63) Braille characters. 19 | P a g e 2.1.1 Visual impairment Impairment according to Abang (2005), is any deviation from the normal, which results in defective function, structure development of any part of the body including organs of the body such as eyes, ears, nose, brain, throat and so on. She further defined Visual Impairment as a term used by professionals in the field of Special Education to refer to persons with some amount of visual problems that deviated from normal. It includes; those who are partially sighted but does not include the blind. Blindness is a severe loss of visual acuity. Okeke, (2001) defined visually impaired as those who have difficulty with their vision, and that the visually impaired include the visually handicapped (the blind, low vision and partially sighted), the short-sighted, the long-sighted and those who suffer from astigmatism (an eye defect resulting in blurred vision). In their view Jatau, Uzo & Lere (2009), opined that there is no single definition of the visual impairment and that experts in the field however, have maintained that there are three general ways in which the definition of visual impairment can be approached namely; medically (legally), occupationally and educationally. They explained that medically a person is said to be blind if he has central visual acuity of more than 20/200 or less in the better eye with maximum 20 | P a g e correcting glass, or central visual acuity of more than 20/200. They recognized a person as blind if his field of vision is defective. They defined occupational visual impairment on the other hand as any person whose vision is so much impaired that he cannot perform the duties that involve the use of eyes. While educational definition of visual impairment according to them are persons with visual problems including the blind whose vision is limited (either through visual acuity, visual field, color or form discrimination) to such an extent that the person may require educational modifications and adaptations in order to benefit from learning activity that involves the use of sight. Educational definition here considers the extent to which a child’s vision affects his learning and makes special methods and materials necessary. Ozoji, (2005) defined visually impaired as children and adults whose sense of vision are defective and this could range from ability to see a little to total blindness. The children and adults cannot perform tasks that involve the use of vision or read printed materials. Visual impairment (or vision impairment) is a vision loss of a person to such a degree as to qualify as an additional support needed through a significant limitation of visual capability, resulting from either disease, trauma in congenital or degenerative conditions that cannot be corrected by conventional 21 | P a g e means such as refractive correction, medication, or surgery. This functional loss of vision is typically defined to manifest with;  Best corrected visual acuity of less than 20/60, or significant central field defect.  Significant peripheral field defect including homonymous or heteronymous bilateral visual field defect or generalized contraction or constriction of field, or  Reduced peak contrast sensitivity with either of the above conditions. In United States of America, the terms “partially sighted”, “low vision”, “legally blind” and “totally blind” are used by schools, colleges and other educational institutions to describe students’ visual impairments. They are defined as follows: 1. Partially sighted indicates some type of visual problem, with a need for the person to receive Special Education in some cases. 2. Low vision generally refers to a severe visual impairment, not necessarily limited to distance vision. Low vision applies to all individuals with sight who are unable to read the newspaper at a normal viewing distance, even with the aid of eye glasses or contact lenses. They use a combination of vision and other senses to learn, although they may require adaptations in lighting or the size of print and sometimes Braille; 22 | P a g e  Myopic: Inability to see distant objects clearly, commonly called short sightedness.  Hypermetropic: Unable to see close objects clearly, commonly referred to as far-sighted or long-sighted.  Legally blind indicates that a person has less than 20/200 vision in the better eye after best correction (contact lenses or glasses), or a field of vision of less than 20 degrees in the better eyes.  Totally blind students learn via Braille or other non-visual media. Visual impairment is the consequence of a functional loss of vision, rather than the eye disorder itself. Eye disorders which can lead to visual impairments include retinal degeneration, albinism, cataracts, and glaucoma, muscular problems that result in visual disturbances, corneal disorders, diabetic retinopathy, congenital disorders and infection. Visual impairment can also be caused by brain and nerve disorders, in which case it is usually termed Cortical Visual Impairment (CVI). The American Medical Association Guides towards the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment, attempts to provide “a standardized objective approach to evaluate medical impairment”. Visual impairments have considerable economic impact on even developed countries. A major proportion of global visual impairment is preventable (Owenta, 2012 citing Sheet, 2011). 23 | P a g e In summary, visual impairment can be seen as any loss of vision that serves as a limitation to the individual in performing visual task considered normal for his or her chronological age. 2.1.2 Braille reading/writing Braille reading and writing involve the conventional process of reading and writing like the sighted persons. Before a child or an individual (sighted) could read and write in any language such a child or an individual must have been exposed to; and/or must have mastered the letters of the alphabet in such language. By this knowledge, the child or individual must first and foremost be exposed to letters of the alphabet of any language. Braille as a conventional system of reading and writing for persons with visual impairment is a language of its own; and has its own letters of the alphabet (i.e. the basis of knowledge; and of any language). The mastery of these letters of the alphabet (simply known as the Braille alphabets) provides a leeway for any child or individual to read and write Braille. Braille is “written” either by hand with a “stylus” (a bicycle spoke-like thing) on a Braille paper in a frame or by Braille machine [Perkins Brailler] or by an embosser connected to a computer. It is read tactually by the tip of the fingers. The sixty-three (63) different Braille characters are formed by arranging the dots in different positions and combinations. The first ten (10) letters of the 24 | P a g e alphabet [A-J] are formed by using dots 1 or 4 or both. Adding dots 3 to the first ten (10) letters of the alphabet forms the next ten [10] letters [K-T]. While the last alphabets (U-Z) are formed by the addition of the bottom left and right lower dots. However, it should be noted that the letter “W” was initially omitted in the alphabetical arrangement because the French language (in which Braille originated) has no “W”, but was later adopted by the English-speaking countries. The lower cases (dots) are used mostly for punctuation marks. Composition signs such as “Italic, letter, capital, accent, mathematical, termination, ditto and other signs” exist in Braille as inn print (Iroegbu, 2010). 2.1.3 Reading Anderson and Lopp (2004) defined reading as the method by which we communicate to ourselves and sometime to others, using printed symbols. They also say reading is an interactive process between the reader and the writer of the text. Another definition offered by these two writers is the discourse that involves decoding (using skills or clue to help in reading or comprehending words). And one language meaning which includes changing what is seen in print in to meaningful sounds. Karlin (2005) defines reading as an act involving decoding of language symbol and understanding the meanings they convey. These symbols could represent a word of group of words or sentences. 25 | P a g e Linguists define reading as meaningful of prints. Harris and Smith (2005) reading is also the natural extension of the language environment (A.F.C an Cafet 1999). Reading can simply be defined as a means of acquiring experience through the knowledge of what other people have been taught and have been written down. It is simple form, reading can be seen as the interpretation and comprehension of printed and signed messages. It involves the evaluation of the writers mind from the reader’s background experience with a view to adding or subtracting from the writer’s opinion. According to Gowon, cited in Ojoade et al, [2005] reading comprehension is an interactive activity between the reader and a written text, with the aim of arriving at the writer’s intended meaning. Reading interactively with the text to make meaning involves the combination of knowledge from: a. The reader’s background, and b. The writer’s ideas and purpose. In their view, Babuje et al (1998) reading can be linked to a conversation between the reader and writer of a passage through the written or printed words. The reader is engaged in active dialogue with the passage being read and should be able to comprehend it. 26 | P a g e Based on these different definitions, it is clear that reading is made up of decoding and comprehension. But the ability to reconstruct meaning from printed page depends on reader’s previous experiences (Anderson and Lapp, 2004). On the other hand, writing is the use of language in its written form to express thoughts and emotions. Writing is a means of communicating to the reader whatever the writer wants to put across. Unogu, (1994) cited in Babuje et al (1998) defines writing as an assemblage of sentences in such a way as to produce a meaningful account of an object or an event. Writing is a means of communication. We communicate in writing in different ways depending on the purpose, we write to narrate an event, describe a scene, and explain a process, and so on. Writing should be explicit because the writer will not be with the reader to explain what is not clear (Babuje et al, 1998). Writing is a method of representing language in visual or tactile form. Writing system uses set of symbols to present the sounds of speech and may also have symbols for such things as punctuation and numerals. Coulmas, [1999 P.560] sees writing system as a set of visible or tactile signs use to represent units of language in a systematic way, with the purpose of recording messages which can be retrieved by everyone who knows the language in question and the rules by virtue of which its units are encoded in the writing system. All writing system use visible signs with the exception of 27 | P a g e the raised notation system used by people with visual impairment, such as Braille. In a history of writing, Steven Roger Fischer argues that no one definition of writing can cover all the writing systems that exist and have ever existed. Instead he states that a “complete writing” system should fulfil all the following criteria:  It must have as its purpose communication.  It must consist of artificial graphic marks on a durable or electronic surface.  It must use marks that relate conventionally to articulate speech [the systematic arrangement of significant vocal sounds] or electronic programming in such a way that communication is achieved [Fischer, 2001]. 2.1.4 Perkins Brailler Perkins Brailer is the most efficient device for producing Braille “by hand” (i.e., not generated by computer). The Perkins Brailer has nine keys: the six keys corresponding to the six dots, a space bar, a back space key and a paper advance/line feed key. In addition, it has a thumb-lever to move the typing head back to the beginning of the line. Brailer has the advantages of being fast, making clean dots, and being easy to use. Cells do not have to be invested as they are with the slate, and it is 28 | P a g e easy to read your Braille as it comes out of the brailer. The Perkins brailer in the 21st century, over 170 countries, individuals of all ages have made the Perkins brailler their product of choice for writing Braille. Almost sixty years after its unveiling, the Perkins Brailler remains at the forefront of international Braille literacy efforts, both in schools and daily living (The Shodor Education Foundation, INC 1996 -2015). 2.1.5 Slate and Stylus The slate is a rectangular plastic or metal frame for use in writing Braille while a stylus is a bicycle spoke-like for writing. Slate and stylus are tools used by persons with visual impairment to write text that they can read without assistance. Invented by Charles Barbier as the tool for writing night writing, the slate and stylus allow for a quick, easy, convenient and constant method of making embossed printing for Braille character encoding. According to Bishop (1988), the slate frame has some holes known as “cells”. Six dots are located in each cell. Brailing with slate and stylus involves briefly the following procedures: 1. The slate is opened towards the left to fix Braille paper. 2. The Braille paper is placed between the opened slate. 3. Slate is there after closed. 4. The edges of the slate are pressed to ensure that the paper is properly fitted. 29 | P a g e 5. In the process of brailing, the stylus is held and used in punching the Braille paper fixed in between the slate through the hollows of the Braille cells. 6. The writing is accomplished from right to left of the slate. 7. After writing the slate is opened again and the paper is removed. 8. The paper is turned over and read from left to right. 2.1.6 Computer Braille Embosser According to English encyclopaedia dictionary, (2004), computer is an electronic machine that can store information and do things with it according to a set of instruction called PROGRAMME. Wikimania (2010) refers to computer Braille embosser as a mechanism which raises the dots uses the piezo effect of some crystals, where the expand when a voltage is applied to them. Such a crystal is connected to a lever, which in turn raises the dots. The software that controls the display is called a screen reader. It gathers the content of the screen for the operating system. Converts it into Braille characters and sends it to display. Screen readers for graphical operating system are especially complex, because graphical elements like windows or slide bars have to be interpreted and described in text form. This is one of the significant new aids for persons with visual impairment. The use of computers makes life easy for many people with visual impairment in several fields of work. The price of this device is extremely high. 30 | P a g e 2.2 IMPORTANCE OF BRAILLE TO STUDENTS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENT Through Braille system, persons with visual impairment are recognised as individuals with feelings, desires and aspirations like their sighted counterparts. Bidi (1997) pointed out that the Braille system has giving those with visual impairment the opportunity to fully participate as their sighted counterparts in the educational system. Despite the increased accessibility of acoustic materials, Braille has remained the basic means of conceptualizing spellings, sentences, paragraphs, punctuation, numerical configurations and presentation of simple diagrams, charts, tables and graphs in tactile form by persons with visual impairment. Iroegbu (2010) outlines the following as specific importance of Braille in the education of persons with visual impairment: 1. Braille provides access to education, recreational, vocational and employment opportunities. 2. It provides opportunities for labelling and feeling of items, which are not in existence in acoustic materials. 3. Reading of technical or difficult materials like diagrams and tables is accessible through Braille. 31 | P a g e 4. Written communication such as memoranda, letters, examinations, assignments and all that stuff by persons with visual impairment could only be meaningful through Braille. 5. Communication, for instance, with a deaf-blind student is possible through Braille. 6. Reading and writing of Braille makes persons with visual impairment active. 7. The use of Braille maintains communication skills such as spellings, effective conversation and use of punctuation. This helps the students with visual impairment to remember, understand, store and recall information for future reference. 8. Braille is not dependant on electronic devices; this makes it readily accessible to students with visual impairment for their independent studies. 9. The format of Braille is an important aid to reading process for both visual and tactile cues, e.g. it is easier to find a page in a book than in recorded cassette (acoustic materials). 10. Braille serves as a means of livelihood for both persons with visual impairment and those who are interested in their education. Thus, one could be employed as a braillist, proof-reader, binder or transcriber in a 32 | P a g e Braille production centre, library, resource centre, programming or Braille computer centres for people with visual impairment. 2.3 PROBLEMS OF BRAILLE READING AMONG STUDENTS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENT Spunguin, (1989) identified the following as problems associated with Braille literacy among students with visual impairment: 1. The increase in the number of children who have visual impairment and have additional disabilities which frequently preclude them from formal literacy instruction. 2. Response to the work of Dr. Natalie Barraga which promote the utilization of vision where possible and the rejection of the formal practice of teaching Braille to most students regardless of the visual abilities of a given student. 3. A perception that the use of Braille is viewed negatively and that Braille users suffer the consequences of a stigma associated with Braille use. 4. University programmes which prepare teachers for students who have visual impairment are not emphasizing the importance of Braille and are not providing adequate instruction in Braille literacy. 5. The complexity of the Braille code excludes many from acquiring an adequate level of literacy. 33 | P a g e 6. The necessity of using Braille has been reduced by the increased student dependence on recorded materials and technology using speech. 7. Growing acceptance and implementation of inclusion of students with visual impairment has drastically increased the number of students served through the itinerant teacher model which is plagued with problems associated with large caseloads and limited time to work directly with students in such specialized areas as Braille instruction. 8. With school districts having much autonomy in the provision of specialized services provided are more likely to be associated with a good will of administrator and/or the resources available in the location than the actual needs of the child. Chapman, [1988] identified various problems that affect Braille reading among students with visual impairment as follows: 1. The use of contractions: the use of contraction in Braille can diminish reading skills. Contractions shorten words and also render reading difficult because the reader must search to understand what each contraction stand for. This makes reading less fluent and uninteresting. Comprehension is hindered because many words are contracted. 2. Different teaching methods: method of teaching Braille vary, there are different grade systems. Persons with visual impairment are confused 34 | P a g e when they encounter new methods which are different from the method they are accustomed to using. The effect is that they become less proficient in reading because of time spent in learning the new method. 3. Lack of equipment and materials: reading of Braille is hindered due to lack of equipment and materials. Braille machines are very important in brailing in addition to availability of slate and stylus. There are also few Braille books because of the high cost which limits the number of Braille reading materials at the disposal of students with visual impairment. 4. Lack of adequate curriculum: the school curriculum is inconsistence with Braille reading activities. Not much emphasis is placed on Braille reading. This diminishes the motivation of practice of Braille reading. Some programmes of persons with visual impairment place more emphasis on talking books and acoustic materials. What is needed is curriculum that focuses primarily on Braille reading as the medium for understanding other learning activities. 5. Lack of Braille library: a Braille library is often not available in some resource rooms. This deficiency no doubt, has adverse effect on Braille reading of this category of learners. Students with visual impairment need Braille library just like their sighted counterparts 35 | P a g e need library of printed books. The existence of library would enhance interest in reading and develop reading ability in students with visual impairment. 6. The use of unskilled Braille teachers: teachers who are poor brailists make Braille reading a difficult exercise for students with visual impairment and consequently cause them to experience reading failure. 2.4 STUDIES ON BRAILLE READING OF STUDENTS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENT Bateman (1988) studied the reading achievement of ninety-six (96) partially sighted children. The purpose of the study was to find out whether their error types were characterized by any special kind of reading errors. The findings showed that the reading achievement level of the children was generally similar to the level of achievement of sighted children. The partially sighted children scored lowest in oral reading examination based on a time factor, but scored higher in silent reading test. Analysis of the error showed that the partially sighted children made more reversal errors than the sighted children. Birch, Tisdall, Peabody and Sterrett (1986) investigated the school achievement of nine hundred and three (903) partially sighted children in the fifth and sixth grades to determine their level of educational achievement and to 36 | P a g e establish the appropriateness of type size of printed material. They found that the children were academically retarded as a result of poor reading skill. Nolan (1985) summarized the conclusions from studies on perceptual factors in recognizing Braille words. He concluded that children learn Braille not as words, wholes, but by the integration Okereke (1995) studied the problems affecting Braille reading and writing in the education of students with visual impairment in Oji river special education centre. The purpose of the study was to find out the availability of Braille materials and the attitudes of children with visual impairment towards Braille reading and writing. The sample was 35 students with visual impairment. The instruments of data collection were questionnaire, interview schedule and observation. Simple percentage was used for data analysis. It was found that the general Braille performance of students with visual impairment was poor and this affected their academic achievement. Gusen (1991) studied the teaching of Braille in selected schools in Plateau state. The purpose of the study was to find out the categories of Braille used in different schools, the mechanics, approaches and the miscue of Braille reading, and the effect of these variables on the Braille reading, writing and academic performance of students with visual impairment. The sample was made up of one hundred (100) students and service providers. Data collection was by means of questionnaires. The data were 37 | P a g e analyzed using simple percentage. It was found that students with visual impairment performed poorly in Braille reading, facilities for Braille reading was attributed to reversal of contractions and multiple use of Braille signs. The teacher employed different approaches in teaching Braille and some did not use all the five categories of Braille. In conclusion, the above studies have reviewed that students with visual impairment performed poorly in Braille reading and writing; their rate of reading is poor; lack of Braille materials for students with visual impairment affect their academic achievement. 2.5 TYPES OF VISUAL IMPAIRMENT Visual impairment according to Jatau et al, (2009) is classified into two major groups or types, which include: a. Legally Blind: This is a classification based on individuals who cannot read and write even with the most powerful corrective optical aids. And their education can only be done by the use of braille code machine and other assistive technology devices. b. Partially sighted: This classification according to them includes those whose eye problems have not degenerated to the extent that they can be classified under legally blind. This category of people fall under the following: i. Refractive errors (myopia or short-sightedness, hypermetropia or longsightedness, astigmatism). 38 | P a g e ii. Albinism (eyes sensitive to sun-rays or light). iii. Nystragmus (eye muscles defects that make the eye not to control involuntary movement). iv. Cataracts and low vision. Okeke (2001) classified Visual Impairment under the following: i. Visually handicapped (it includes the blind, the low vision and partially sighted). ii. Short-sighted (myopia). iii. Long-sighted (hyperopia/hypermetropia). iv. Astigmatism (blurred sight) and v. Presbyopia. She further summarized the classification as follows; a. Visually handicapped refer to persons who have difficulty in seeing which necessitate the use of special education methods or adaptation to materials and who need to use special aids and equipments for learning. b. Low vision: These are individuals who might have been certified blind but have some residual vision. They are individuals with limitations in distance vision but are able to see objects and materials in the near environment within a few inches or at most a few feet. These groups of people cannot benefit from teaching and learning in regular classroom without adequate attention on specialized materials and equipment. 39 | P a g e c. Partial Sightedness: It is a term used to refer to persons with poor sight but whose sight is not so poor as to call him blind. These people cannot follow ordinary curriculum without detriment to their sight or to their educational development but can be educated by specific methods that involve the use of sight. d. Myopia (short sightedness): It is an error of refraction as a result of alteration in the shape and size of the eye which causes eye defects known as errors of refraction. It results in poor vision and distant objects are out of focus. A person suffering from myopia finds it difficult to read materials from the black board and it can be corrected with a concave glass (optical lenses). e. Hyperopia/hypermetropia (long-sightedness): It is an error from the eyeball development which results in seeing far distant objects clearly while closer objects appear blurred. It occurs as a result of the changes in the shape of the eye-ball through which light rays enter the eye and focus behind the retina, causing a blurred vision. It is frequently associated with astigmatism and it is not progressive. It can be corrected by the use of spectacles with convex lens. f. Astigmatism: It is a problem caused by the cornea not being perfectly smooth and rounded. It is also caused by irregularity of the curvature of 40 | P a g e either the cornea or lens. It results in pictures or impressions that the eyes see but is not sharp, clear and exact. It can be corrected in most cases. g. Presbyopia: This is an eye impairment caused mostly by ageing that results into blurred vision, difficulty in reading, experience tired eyes, or aches while doing close work. It occurs mostly in people about the age of 40 years and above. 2.6 PREVALENCE OF VISUAL IMPAIRMENT IN NIGERIA A survey by the government health establishments in the United States of America (1977) estimated 114million persons as having some form of visual impairment. It implies that they have problems of seeing even with the use of corrective lenses. The survey revealed that more than one million persons are visually impaired rather than total blindness and that 70% are totally blind with the severe visually impaired persons 65years of age and above. The Low-Vision Association of Canada reports that 240,000 Canadians suffer low visions, the number 70,000 are legally blind. Blindness in the industrialized countries is of low incidence. There are 10million children and adults in the world today who are blind and majority are from developing countries found in Asia, Africa and South America. World Health Organization (WHO), PBD, data bank (1997) reported that 38million blind people in the world and 110Million with low vision sum up to total of 150million with some degree of visual impairment. In an effort to 41 | P a g e prevent and control these diseases, WHO made a grant of about $4,000 to University of Jos which the grant was used to establish post-graduate study programmes in 1994. In Africa, 7 million people are affected by filarial worms, Anchocerca volvulus. They result in 326,000 people who became blind by the disease. Out of this total, 120, 000 are Nigerians. A lot of assistance has been contributed by industrialized nations to halt the spread of the diseases. U.S.A alone, added additional sum of $150Million in order to combat the spread of the diseases until the end of the century. It has also been identified that lack of good water supply causes the spread of the diseases and the remedy for it is sinking of bore-holes in areas with inadequate water supply (Abang, 2005). In the latest development and studies in the field of visual impairment worldwide; 39 million are blind and 246 million have low vision.  About 90% of the world’s visually impaired live in developing countries.  Globally, uncorrected refractive errors are the main cause of visual impairment; cataracts remain the leading cause of blindness in middle and low-income countries.  The number of people with visual impairment from infectious diseases has greatly reduced in the last 20years.  80% of all visual impairment can be avoided or cured. 42 | P a g e There are four levels of visual function, according to the international classification of Disease-10 (update and revision, 2006):  Normal vision  Moderate visual impairment  Severe visual impairment  Totally blind (Total blindness) Moderate visual impairment combined with severe visual impairment are grouped under the term “low vision taken together with blindness represents all visual impairment”. It has been identified globally that the causes of visual impairment are;  Uncorrected refractive errors( Myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism), constituted about 43%  Cataracts constituted about 33%  Glaucoma constituted about 2%. Those who are at risk of these latest developments in visual impairment were approximated 90% usually from developing countries. People who are at the age of 50 and above are at the high risk. An estimate of 19million children is visually impaired. Of these, 12million children are visually impaired due to refractive errors, a condition that could be easily diagnosed and corrected. 1.4 million are irreversibly blind for the rest of their lives. 43 | P a g e The trend in visual impairment over the years has changed in the past 20years. Overall, visual impairment worldwide has decreased since the early 1990s. This is despite an aging global population. This decrease is principally the result of a reduction in visual impairment from infectious diseases through concerted health actions. The global response to prevention of blindness and visual impairment has it that 80% of all visual impairments can be prevented or cured. Areas of progress over the last 20years include;  Governments establishing national programmes and control of visual impairment.  Eye care services increasingly integrated into primary and secondary healthcare systems, with a focus on the provision of services that are available, affordable and high quality;  Campaigns to raise awareness, including school-based education  Stronger international partnerships, with engagement of the private sector and civil society. Data over the last 20years show that there has been significant progress in preventing and curing visual impairment in many countries. Furthermore, there has been significant reduction in the spread of the disease. This has been achieved through a number of successful international partnership programmes. 44 | P a g e Specific achievements were recorded: Ghana and Morocco, both of whom reported on the elimination of trachoma (2010 and 2007 respectively). Over the last decade, Brazil has been providing eye care services through the national security system. Since 2009, China has invested over 100million dollars in cataracts surgeries. Oman has completely integrated eye care service provision in the primary health care framework over the last decade and since 1995 India has made available funds for eye care service provision for the poorest at district level. World Health Organization (WHO) responded positively to its effort to coordinate the international reduction of visual impairments by playing the following roles that includes:  To develop policies and strategies to prevent blindness,  To give technical assistance to member states and partners,  To monitor and evaluate programmes  To coordinate international partnerships. World Health Assembly, 13 Action plan for prevention of avoidable blindness and visual impairment, a roadmap for member states, WHO Secretariat. WHO leads an international alliance of governments, private sector and civil society organizations aiming to eliminate blinding trachoma from the 45 | P a g e world by the year 2020. It works with International Agency for the prevention of blindness in the global initiative “Vision 2020; Right to Sight” Since 2004, WHO in partnership with Lions clubs International, have established a global network of 35 Childhood Blindness Centers in 30 countries with focus on preservation, restoration or rehabilitation of sight in children. In response to the increasing burden of chronic eye disease in developing countries, policies and guidelines for diabetic retinopathy, glaucoma, agerelated muscular degeneration and refractive errors have been drawn up. Finally, to support comprehensive eye care systems, WHO provides epidemiologic and public health technical support to its member states (World Health Assembly, 2009 in Owenta, 2012). 2.7 CAUSES OF VISUAL IMPAIRMENT There are no accurate statistics about causes of visual impairment in Nigeria. Some causes pointed out by Jatau et al (2009) are as follows; 2.7.1 Pre-Natal Causes: These include; heredity, diseases and drugs.  Heredity: Heredity is congenital if visually impaired persons marry the same status. There is high tendency for two couples that are visually impaired to give birth to a child of the same problem.  Diseases: Research works have shown that diseases such as, gonorrhea, syphilis and staphylococcus aureus are among the greatest causes as a result of low awareness level of Nigerians about sex. 46 | P a g e  Drugs: Too much smoking during pregnancy, unprescribed drugs (self medication) of pregnant women during pregnancy can result into visual impairment of a child most especially between the periods of 3 months of pregnancy (first trimester). 2.7.2 Causes During Birth (Perinatal Causes)  Prolonged labour: This is a situation whereby a woman takes almost 48 hours during labour, and can result into shortage or complete absence of oxygen (hypoxia and anoxia respectively) supplied to the child in the womb which usually affect the eye and other organs of the body if the child survives birth.  Accidents during birth/injuries. Complications traced from accidents have caused many children to lose their sense of sight. On the other hand, untrained specialist at birth delivery (quacks) leads to the wrong use of forceps equipment that damages the child’s fragile head and affects the eye. 2.7.3 Post-Natal Causes (After Birth): The cause of visual impairment after birth includes.  Poor nutrition especially vitamins/minerals that are responsible for good health of the body activities.  Drug abuse(self medication) 47 | P a g e  Old age, unhygienic environment, sharing of domestic facilities with people infected with eye problems. Abang (2005) also outlined the following as the causes of visual impairment:  Bacterial infection: when bacterial infections are not treated, they lead to atrophic degenerated eyes (phthisis bubi). In developing countries, the most common causative organisms are staphylococcus aureus and streptococci, staphylococcus and Neisseria gonorrhea are responsible for eye infections leading to blindness and also viral infection.  Muscular degeneration: this mostly happen as a result of ageing, most especially individuals of 60years and above, Visual degeneration progresses as human beings grow older. The retina which is responsible for fine vision is the muscular part of the eye, and when it degenerates, it causes impairment of the central vision but leaving peripheral vision intact.  Diabetic retinopathy: this is damage to the small blood vessel which is responsible for nourishing the retina. This occurs due to inadequate or insufficient insulin production caused by diabetes. This result into bleeding of blood nutrients to the eye and causes impairment. Other causes include cataract, glaucoma, malnutrition, trauma among others. 48 | P a g e 2.8 PREVENTION OF VISUAL IMPAIRMENT There are three general ways of preventing visual impairment which include: 2.8.1 Pre-Natal (Before Birth) PREVENTION  Pregnant women should attend antenatal clinics and checkups imperatively.  Pregnant woman should avoid self-medication (must use prescribed drugs by physicians).  Taking good nutrition by pregnant women during pregnancy. 2.8.2 Peri-Natal (During Birth or Delivery)  Mothers should ensure babies are protected from infection such as syphilis before delivery takes place.  Delivery of babies should be in hospitals aided by specialist doctors, nurses to avoid accidents caused by quack medical practitioners that can result into damage to the child’s organ of vision.  Suspected prolonged delivery should be cut-off through operation and the baby should be removed. 2.8.3 Post-Natal (After Birth)  Immunization of babies against diseases such as German measles, small pox among others.  Suspected visual problems should be handled by specialist of the eye (the ophthalmologist). 49 | P a g e  Balance diets should be taken to provide the necessary vitamins to prevent poor development of the eye.  Only qualified doctor’s prescription of eye drop and drug ointment should be put in eyes in an effort to cure eye problems. 2.9 IDENTIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT OF STUDENTS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENT. Identification of students with visual impairment involves both the parents, teachers, Counselors, Medical personnel among others. Identification is generally carried out to have an early intervention to prevent the visual problem on the student which may degenerate into serious visual impairment if not identified at early stage. Teachers and parents can identify student with visual problem through observation of some symptoms on the student such as; redness of eye, watery or inflamed eye, constant rubbing of eyes, excessive blinking, and so on. When all the symptoms above were observed by parents and teachers, the students may be tested or assessed for more conclusive evidence of visual impairment and the extent of the problem to intervene. Assessment in special education in general terms refer to process of gathering information through the use of appropriate tools and techniques in order to decide on the appropriate educational placement and programme for a student with either any forms of disabilities or impairment (Nkangwung and Adeniyi, 2004) in (T.C Obani, 2005. P.59). 50 | P a g e Nkangwung and Adeniyi (2004) further explained that assessment of visual impairment is carried out in two types such as;  Clinical assessment or evaluation carried out by an ophthalmologist or medical personnel to test for refractive errors, measure visual acuity, visual field, colour vision and other ophthalmologist test for purpose of medical treatment.  Functional Evaluation which is the most important to educational of student with visual impairment for educational purpose which test the students visual efficiency in his daily activities in classroom or school in order to identify and make early intervention programme for the student. Specific Assessment for students with low vision is one of the most important prerequisites in planning a student’s educational programme is assessing the student’s strengths and weakness. Assessment for student with visual impairment includes comprehensive evaluation by members of the student’s multidisciplinary team in areas of assessment summarized in the following:  Vision assessment  Expanded core curriculum assessments  Learning media assessments  Clinically low vision evaluations and  Ophthalmology/optometric evaluations 51 | P a g e These tests are specific to vision related field state tests and standards of learning for students with low vision. The evaluation materials to test the visual impairment must be validated and detailed to assess specific areas of educational need for individual students with visual impairment. Students must be assessed in all areas related to suspected disability.  Individualized Education Plan (IEP): Students with visual problems have unique educational needs. Research document shows that these students often require direct instructions by a teacher for students with visual impairment in areas that are not typically addressed for other students. IEP is used to place a child in the most appropriate educational setting. A thorough assessment for students with visual impairment is the key in creating an adequate IEP and the assessment process is an essential component in developing appropriate goals and objectives for the students. The following are the most common evaluations given to students with visual impairment to guide their programme planning;  Expanded core curriculum (ECC)  Compensatory modes. A teacher for visual impairment must assess each area before beginning a students’ educational plan to know areas of strengths and weaknesses. 52 | P a g e Expanded core curriculum can be approached differently for visual impairment for example in orientation and mobility instruction, a student who is blind would focus on auditory and tactile cues, while those with low vision would augment these cues with visual information obtained from the environment. The ECC area of vision efficiency for student with visual impairment may mean learning how to use optical devices correctly. However, student with no vision does not benefit from this training. Although, areas of ECC can be different for students with low vision and for students who are blind, assessment and instruction is equally important for both. The assessment of student with visual impairment can be done both clinically and educationally to meet the need of each student with visual impairment problems. It includes the classroom teachers, parents, doctors, and multi-disciplinary team and so on aiming as to find solution to the student with visual impairment. 2.10 PROBLEMS FACING STUDENTS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENT  Mobility Problem: Leonard, (1972) in Abang, (2005) defined mobility as the ability to walk along both familiar and unfamiliar routes efficiently with safety, comfortably, independently and with minimum stress. Visual impairment can have a significant impact on a student’s ability to keep track of his location in the environment (orientation) and ability to travel safely and efficiently in school and community environments 53 | P a g e (mobility). This is one of the problems the students with visual impairment suffer in both school and home. The students with visual impairment need a specialized training or orientation and mobility instruction (O & M) which can address the travel or movement challenges frequently associated with students with visual impairment.  Reading Problem: The learners have problem in reading printed materials at some distance. Learners with visual impairment who have difficulties in seeing distant objects avoid reading and copying from the board and textbooks. They frequently change learning materials too far or near in order to be able to focus well on reading tasks and objects. The learners with visual impairment are also faced with difficulties in completing long reading assignments or other school tasks involving extensive use of eyes. They, at times, confuse and reverse letters of similar shapes such as; p and q, b and d and so on (Jatau et al, 2009).  The learners with visual impairment also have problems of writing especially spacing. The spacing of letters by students with visual impairment during writing is generally poor and also writing on straight line is always affected due to poor hand and eye coordination. Accuracy of between eyes focus and hands to work in harmony is not there due to their vision problems. This poor coordination of eyes and hands greatly 54 | P a g e affect the learners with visual impairment on both writing and things that involve the use of both eyes and hands such as games, example; football, table tennis, and so on (Jatau et al, 2009).  In most cases, the students with visual impairment have some communication, psychological or social problems. However, very often, students who live in residential schools have problems that result from their way of life, the lack of privacy, strict regulations, stressful relationships with classmates can make a student too aggressive or too closed and negatively influence the student’s development and ability to communicate with people. 2.11 SUMMARY OF REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE In summary, this chapter elaborated on the concept of Braille reading/visual impairment, enumerated some importance of Braille reading and writing to students with visual impairment, the chapter also discussed some problems of Braille reading and writing among students with visual impairment such as lack of Braille materials in many schools, lack of Braille professionals in our schools among others. The chapter further outlined and explained different types of visual impairment such as low vision, total blindness and partial sightedness. The prevalence of visual impairment in Nigerian context was briefly discussed, some causes of visual impairment were explained, the chapter identified and discussed some steps that can be followed to prevent 55 | P a g e visual impairment such as contacting eye specialist (ophthalmologists) when problems of vision are encountered. Also, identification and assessment of learners with visual impairment were discussed, the chapter further explained some problems students with visual impairment face in life such as mobility/orientation, reading problem, writing and psychological problems and the chapter presented the summary of review of relevant literature. 56 | P a g e CHAPTER THREE METHODS AND PROCEDURE 3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN The research design that will be used for this study will be the causal comparative design. This design is chosen because of its relevance to the present study. The aim of comparative research is to discover the possible causes of a phenomenon by comparing a group of subjects in whom the phenomenon is present with another group of subjects in whom the phenomenon is not present. There is no manipulation of variables in causal comparative studies (Awotunde & Ugobulunwa, 2004). This design is therefore justifiable for this study. 3.2 POPULATION AND SAMPLE The target population of this study include all the students with visual impairment in Jos metropolis. Two schools were selected for this study, these are; Ganaka international school which has the total number of five (5) students with visual impairment and Government vocational training centre for the blind Zawan which has twenty-one (21) students with visual impairment. Therefore, the total population for this study was twenty-six (26) students with visual impairment. The sample for this study was four (4) students with visual impairment in Ganaka memorial and four (4) students from Vocational training centre for the blind Zawan. The total sample for this study therefore was eight 57 | P a g e (8) students with visual impairment. This was due to the small number of students with visual impairment in the selected schools especially in Ganaka memorial international school. 3.3 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE Simple random sampling technique will be used to obtain the sample for this study. Simple random sampling, according to Awotunde & Ugodulunwa (2004), “every element in the population has an equal chance of constituting the sample for the study, and every possible combination of numbers of elements in the population also has equal chance of being included in the sample”. 3.4 INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION The instruments for data collection for this study will be student formative evaluation scores of English language, Mathematics and Social studies. 3.5 PROCEDURE FOR DATA COLLECTION The procedure for data collection primarily focused on clearance from the relevant authorities to commence the fieldwork. An official letter of consent was obtained from the Department of Special Education and Rehabilitation Sciences. This letter introduced the researcher and subject of research to the selected schools for the study. Having obtained the permission from the authorities of the chosen institutions, the researcher proceeded to the relevant office where the student 58 | P a g e formative evaluation scores were obtained. The researcher was assisted by the class teachers in both schools in obtaining the student formative evaluation scores. 3.6 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS The statistic used was t-test of independent sample base on the design of this study. The formula is represented below: t= sp x1 – x2 1 + 1 n1 n2 Where: T= Students t-test x1 = Mean score of Group 1 students x2 = Mean score group 2 students Sp = Pooled estimate of standard error. 1/n1 + 1/n2 = Square root of degree of freedom (df) 59 | P a g e CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS This chapter presents the results and discussions of the findings of this study under the following: results and discussions. 4.1 RESULTS Summary table of student’s t-test hypothesis Schools Subject Mean Ganaka Zawan Ganaka Zawan Ganaka Zawan 66.83 40.09 54.83 33.33 75.92 10.98 English English Maths Maths Social Studies Social Studies Variance tcal 9.23 8.27 9.70 10.47 49.67 2.32 tcritical Level of df Decision significance 12.78 9.54 14.40 Reject 1.1943 0.05 6 Reject Reject 4.1.1 Analysis of hypotheses The first hypothesis of this study stated that; there is no mean score difference in English language performance of students with visual impairment who are proficient in Braille and those who are not. The table above indicated that students with visual impairment in Ganaka who are proficient in Braille have mean score of 66.83 in English language, while students from Zawan have the mean score of 40.09. this results show a significant difference in the mean score of the two groups in English language. This means, proficiency in Braille enhances performance in English language of students with visual impairment. 60 | P a g e The second hypothesis stated that; there is no mean score difference in mathematics performance of students with visual impairment who are proficient in Braille and those who are not. In the table above, student with visual impairment in Ganaka who are proficient in Braille have the mean score of 54.83 in mathematics while students in Zawan have the mean score of 33.33. again, this is a marked difference between the mean score of the two groups in mathematics performance,; it shows that proficiency in Braille reading and writing enhances mathematics performance of students with visual impairment. The third hypothesis of this study stated that; there is no mean score difference in social studies performance of students with visual impairment who are proficient in Braille and those who are not. From the table above, student with visual impairment in Ganaka have the mean score of 75.92 in social studies while students in Zawan have the mean score of 10.92. this is evident that proficiency in Braille improves social studies performance of students with visual impairment. 4.2 DISCUSSION The results of the present study clearly indicated that there is a serious need to improve Braille reading and writing among students with visual impairment in our schools. The study reviewed that Braille proficiency enables students with visual impairment to perform well in all school subjects such as demonstrated by students with visual impairment 61 | P a g e in Ganaka International School in the table above. emphasizing the importance of Braille in the education of persons with visual impairment, Abang (2005) observed that attempt to educate the persons with visual impairment would have been a failure without the development and introduction of braille as their major system of reading and writing. In agreement with this view, studies have reviewed that Braille serves as a means of conceptualization of spellings, words and punctuations for students with visual impairment (Spungin 1996, Bidi 1997 and Iroegbu 2010). The present study also identified short supply of Braille materials in schools as the major cause of inability of students with V.I to read and write Braille effectively: mastering of Braille requires constant practices especially for those who acquire visual impairment adventitiously (later in life). Where there are no adequate Braille materials for practices, it becomes difficult for the individual to read and write Braille effectively thus affecting academic performance in all the school subjects. The present study agrees with Ajuwon and Sykes (1984) in Emechebe (2010) and Chaman (1988) who found that reading of Braille is hindered by lack of equipment and materials; Braille materials such as Perkins brailer and computer embosser are very important in brailling in addition to availability of slate and stylus. There are also few Braille books because of the high cost which limits the number of Braille reading materials at the disposal of students with visual impairment. The lack 62 | P a g e of Braille reading materials narrows the reading interest of students with visual impairment. The study found that Braille proficiency enhances academic performance of students with visual impairment in all school subjects. The table above clearly showed a significant difference between the mean score in English language, mathematics and social studies of students with visual impairment in Ganaka International School who are proficient in Braille and students of Vocational Training Centre for the Blind Zawan who are not proficient in Braille reading and writing. Agreeing with this study; Birch, Tisdall, Peabody and Sterrett (1986), Gusen (1991), Okereke (1995) and Emechebe (2010) discovered that poor Braille reading ability of students with visual impairment affected their academic achievement. Finally, the table above shows a significant difference in the mean score in academic performance of gstudents with visual impairment who can read and write Braille effectively and students with visual impairment who cannot read and write Braille effectively. Therefore, it is obvious that despite the proliferation of computer assistive technology devices such as recorder, computer screen wreader and so on; Braille remains the most effective system of reading and writing for students with visual impairment, hence, all students with visual impairment require Braille proficiency to compete favourably with their sighted counterparts in all school subjects. 63 | P a g e CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATION, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY 5.1 SUMMARY The goal and objectives of this study were outlined in chapter one of this research work such as: background of the study, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, significance of the study, research questions and hypothesis, delimitation of the study and operational definition of terms. Chapter two reviewed relevant literature under the following subheadings: The Concept of Braille reading/visual impairment, Braille cell, Braille reading and writing, importance of Braille to students with visual impairment, problems of Braille reading among students with visual impairment, studies on Braille reading of students with visual impairment, Types/Classification of Visual Impairment, Prevalence of Visual Impairment in Nigeria, Causes of Visual Impairment, Prevention of Visual Impairment, Identification and Assessment of students with visual impairment and problems faced by students with visual impairment. Chapter three is all about research methodology which includes: research design, research population and sample, sampling technique, instrument of data collection, method of data collection and method of data analysis. Chapter four discussed about data analysis, presentation, and discussion of findings, while chapter five contains the summary of the main research. 64 | P a g e 5.2 CONCLUSION The findings of this study have revealed that Braille reading and writing enhances academic performance of students with visual impairment in all school subjects as follows: The study reviewed that Braille proficiency of students with visual impairment enhances their performance in English language. The findings of this study reviewed that students with visual impairment who have proficiency in Braille perform academically higher in mathematics than those students with visual impairment who are not proficient in Braille reading and writing. The study also reviewed that Braille proficiency of students with visual impairment enhances their performance in social studies. The study reviewed that inability of students with visual impairment to read and write Braille effectively have negative effect on their academic performance. Therefore, all students with visual impairment require Braille proficiency for meaningful learning. 5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS The following are the recommendations the researcher of this study suggested in relation to the findings and conclusion.  Parent should try and buy the basic Braille materials such as Braille papers, slate and stylus for their children with visual impairment in school. 65 | P a g e  Parents should also ensure that their children with visual impairment go to schools where there are Braille facilities to cater for their educational needs.  Department of special education in all tertiary institutions should improve in the area of practical Braille reading and writing in order to ensure that all graduates in the field of special education (V.H) can actually read and write Braille efficiently to meet the demand for qualified personnel who can teach Braille reading and writing effectively in our schools.  School administrators should ensure that only qualified Braille professionals are assigned to teach Braille reading and writing in schools at all times.  Students with visual impairment should be motivated to read and write Braille through the provision of Braille magazines and story books by the ministry of education, nongovernmental organizations and private individuals.  Government need to import more Braille materials and also subsidize the ones imported into the country by business men so that their market cost prices can be affordable to students with visual impairment in order to achieve the aim of special education; equal educational opportunity for 66 | P a g e students with disabilities including those with visual impairment (National Policy on Education, 2004 in Owenta, 2012). 5.4 SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER STUDY The following are suggested for further studies in order to replicate the findings of the present study: 1. The problems associated with Braille reading by students with visual impairment. 2. Attitudes of students with visual impairment towards Braille reading and writing. 3. Problems of teaching Braille reading and writing in schools. 4. A comparative study of the use of acoustic materials and Braille for academic activity by students with visual impairment. 5. Factors affecting the use of Braille in educating students with visual impairment. 67 | P a g e REFERENCES Abang, T.B. (2005). The exceptional child: Handbook of special education. Jos: Fab Anieh Nigeria Limited. Abosi, C.O. & Ozoji, E.D. (1985). Educating the blind: A descriptive approach. Ibadan: Spectrum Books. AFC7 cafet (1999). Treatment program and language and learning disabilities in children. Olumpia:U.S government printing office. American foundation for the Blind (2012) The Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness E-mail afbinfo@afbinet. 2nd Penn Plaza, suite 1102 New York, NY101 21. American Printing House for the Blind (1987). Serving visually impaired people since 1858. NewYork: APHB. Anderson, S.P. and Lapp, D. (2004). Language skills in elementary education. V.S.A macmillian publishing company. Awotunde, P.O and Ugodulunwa (2004). Research Methods in Education. Jos: Fab-Ameh (Nig) Ltd. Babuje, D., Opara, S.E. Mangvwat, S.E. & Chigwong, Y.B. (1998). Language and communication skills. Gindiri: wais printing press. Bateman, B. (1988). Visually impaired children. In Haring, N.& Scheifelbsch, R. (Eds.). methods in special education.NewYork: McGraw Hill Inc. Bidi, G.G. (1997). Problems of Braille reading and writing in special and integrated schools for the blind in Mangu local government area of Plateau state, Nigeria. B. ED. Project, University of Jos. Birch, J.; Tisdall, R.; Peabody, T. & Strarrett, J. (1986). School achievement and the effect of type size on reading in visually sighted children: comparative research project. Pittspurgh: Pittsburg university. Bishop, E. (1988). Braille mathematics notation parts one and two. Newyork: academic press. Chaman, M. & Stone, S. (1998). Visual impairment and the challenges. Sierra Leon: Opi Printing Press. 68 | P a g e Coulmas, F. (1999). The black well encyclopedia of writing systems. Oxford: Blackwell. Emechebe, A. (2010). Problems of Braille reading among integrated visually impaired students in Onisha urban local government area of Anambra state. B.Sc. (Ed). Project University of Jos. Fischer, S.R. (2001). The history of writing. London: reaction. Gusen, J. (1991). The teaching of Braille: a case study of selected schools in Plateau state. Unpublished B.Ed. Project, University of Jos. Harley, R. (1989). Verbalism among blind children. Newyork: American foundation for the blind. Harris, A.L. & Smith, B.c. (2005). Reading instruction diagnostic teaching in the classroom. Newyork: holt Rinehart and Winston. Hatlen, P. (1996). The core curriculum for blind and visually impaired students including those with additional disabilities. USA: University Press. Hoover (1957) The Encyclopedia of Blindness and Vision Impairment. Retrieved from www.scribd.com/doc/ 8573299/ The –ency……. https;//en,m.wikipedia.org/…/slate_ and_... https:/len.m.wikipedia.org/…/state-and:… Iroegbu, U.V. (2010). Introduction to Braille reading and writing. Jos; Deka publications Jatau, M.N., UZo, C.C, & Lere, M.M. (2009). Elements of Special education for prospective teachers [revised edition] . Jos: Deka Publications. Jurmang, I.J (2003) Children with Special needs in Niger Republic. The Journal of Special Education and Rehabilitation Sciences Vol. 6 No 1 page 66 Karlin, R. (2005). Teaching elementary reading principle and strategies. Newyork Chicago: Harcourt Bruce Jovinovich inc. Leonard (1972) Mobility and orientation in Abang T.B (2005 p.64). The Exceptional Child handbook of special Education. Jos: Fab- Anieb (Nig) Ltd. Lowenfeld, B. (1981). Blind and blind people. New York: American Foundation for the Blind. 69 | P a g e Mba, P.O. (1995). Handbook of special education. Ibadan: Codat Publication Co. nel.nih.gov/eye data/pbd-tables nel.nih.gov/eyedata/pbd-tables Nkangwung and Adeyemi (2004) in Obani T.C (2005 page 59) Educational placement and programme for students with Disabilities. Nolan, C. (1989). Perceptual factors in blind word recognition. Washington: American association of instructors for the blind. Obani, T.C (2004) Classroom Management Strategies for Special needs Children. Ibadan: Glory Land Publishing Company. Ojoade, J.O. Adeiyongo, J.A. & Musa, D.E. (2005). The use of English (revised edition). Jos: Deka enterprise. Okeke, B.A. (2001). Essentials of Special education. Nsukka: Afro-orbis Publications Ltd. Owenta, G.C. (2012). The impact of assistive technology devices on the academic performance of students with visual impairment in university of Jos. Unpublished project. BSc. Ed. University of Jos. United Nations (2000) Information Society Technologies (1st) for Special Educational Needs (SEN). Project Online: retrieved from http://131.246.30.23/ita/senistnet/csio.Php. Okeke- oti B.A (2005) Inclusive Education and alternative Assessment methods, Department of Educational Foundations University of Nigeria Nsukka. Journal of Special Education and Rehabilitation sciences. Volume (7) (page 89). Okereke, M. (1995). Problems affecting effective Braille reading and writing in the education of the visually impaired persons: a case study of Oji river special education centre. Unpublished B.Ed. project, university of Jos. Olomolaiye, F. (1986). Research method and statistic. Jos; Fan amieh press. Oxford Advance Learners Dictionary. (2008) 7th Edition. A Dictionary of excellence in research, scholarship and education worldwide. published in U.K. By Oxford University Press. Retrieved from www.Oup Com/elf/ould. 70 | P a g e Ozoji, E. D. (2005). Special needs education and rehabilitation for beginner professional (Revised Edition). Jos: Deka Publications. Royal National Institute for the Blind (1973). Braille mathematical notation parts one and two. London: RNIB publication. Spungin, S.J. (1996). Braille literacy: issues for blind persons, families, professionals, and producers of Braille. NewYork: AFB. UN Millenium Project (2005). Investing in Development: A Practical Plan to Achieving the Millenium Development Goals Available:retrieved from http;//www.undp.org/mdg/ United Nations (2000). Information Society Technologies (1st) for Special Educational Needs (SEN). Project Online: retrieved from http://131.246.30.23/ita/senistnet/csio.Php. WHO (2011) presentation of blindness and Visual Impairment. British Journal of opthmology online vol 1 P1-50 10.1136/bjopthalmol-2011-300539. World bank (2001). Building Capacity to deliver distance education in Nigeria’s Federal University. Available: http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE www.brl.org/intro/session02/Perkins.html www.braille Authority.org>Braille basic www.brl.org/intro/session02/perkins.html www.brailleauthority .org>braillebasic 71 | P a g e APPENDIX 1 Students Results From the Two Selected Schools (Zawan and Ganaka) ZAWAN 1. ENGLISH s/n 1st 2nd 3rd Average score 001 40.0 35.0 50.0 41.67 002 50.0 30.0 42.0 40.67 003 25.0 32.0 30.0 29.00 004 55.0 42.0 50.0 49.00 ∑x = 160.34 � = 40.085 2. Maths s/n 1st 2nd 3rd Average score 001 30.0 25.0 35.0 30.00 002 15.0 25.0 20.0 20.00 003 45.0 40.0 42.0 42.33 004 40.0 43.0 40.0 41.00 ∑x = 133.33 � = 40.085 3. Social studies s/n 1st 2nd 3rd Average score 001 50.0 49.0 55.0 51.33 002 45.0 50.0 52.0 49.00 003 50.0 55.0 50.0 51.67 004 55.0 40.0 45.0 46.67 ∑x = 198.67 72 | P a g e � = 49.667 Ganaka 1. English s/n 001 002 003 004 1st 70.0 55.0 60.0 80.0 2nd 60.0 60.0 75.0 82.0 3rd 68.0 50.0 72.0 70.0 Average score 66.00 55.00 69.00 77.33 ∑x = 267.33 � = 66.8325 2. Maths s/n 1st 2nd 3rd Average score 001 50.0 45.0 55.0 50.00 002 70.0 66.0 70.0 68.67 003 55.0 45.0 40.0 46.67 004 50.0 55.0 57.0 54.00 ∑x = 219.34 � = 54.835 3. Social studies s/n 1st 2nd 3rd Average score 001 90.0 89.0 92.0 90.33 002 85.0 70.0 58.0 71.00 003 80.0 68.0 85.0 77.67 004 65.0 59.0 70.0 64.67 ∑x = 303.67 � = 75.9175 73 | P a g e APPENDIX TWO Variance S= ∑�(�−� )2 �−1 Zawan English 1 (x - � ) 1.58 (x - � )2 2.4964 F (x - � )2 40.67 1 0.58 0.3364 0.3364 29.00 1 -11.09 122.9881 122.9881 49.00 1 8.91 79.3881 X F 41.67 2.4964 79.3881 ∑F (x - � )2 = 205.209 � = 40.09 Using the formula: S= S= S= ∑�(�−� )2 �−1 205.209 4−1 205.209 3 S = 68.403 S2 = 8.2706 S2 ≈ 8.27 74 | P a g e Maths 1 (x - � ) -3.33 (x - � )2 20.00 1 -13.33 177.6889 177.6889 42.33 1 9.00 81.0000 81.0000 41.00 1 7.67 58.8289 58.8289 X F 30.00 11.0889 F (x - � )2 11.0889 ∑ F (x - � )2 = 328.6067 � = 33.33 Using the formula: S= S= S= ∑�(�−� )2 �−1 328.6069 4−1 328.6069 3 S = 109.535 S2 = 10.4659 S2 ≈ 10.47 Social studies 1 (x - � ) 1.66 (x - � )2 2.7556 F (x - � )2 49.00 1 -0.67 0.4489 0.4489 51.67 1 2.00 4.0000 4.0000 46.67 1 -3.00 9.0000 9.0000 X F 51.33 ∑ F (x - � )2 = 16.2045 75 | P a g e � = 49.67 2.7556 Using the formula: S= S= S= ∑�(�−� )2 �−1 16.2045 4−1 16.2045 3 S = 5.4015 S2 = 2.3241 S2 ≈ 2.32 For Ganaka English 1 (x - � ) -0.83 (x - � )2 55.00 1 -11.83 139.9489 139.9489 69.00 1 2.17 4.7089 77.33 1 10.50 110.2500 110.2500 X F 66.00 0.6889 ∑ F (x - � )2 = 255.5967 � = 66.83 Using the formula: S= S= S= ∑�(�−� )2 �−1 255.5967 4−1 255.5967 3 S = 85.1989 S2 = 9.2303 S2 76 | P a g e 9.23 F (x - � )2 0.6889 4.7089 Maths 1 (x - � ) -4.83 (x - � )2 68.67 1 13.84 191.5456 191.5456 46.67 1 -8.16 66.5856 66.5856 54.00 1 -0.83 0.6889 0.6889 X F 50.00 23.3289 F (x - � )2 23.3289 ∑ F (x - � )2 = 2826.149 � = 54.83 Using the formula: S= S= S= ∑�(�−� )2 �−1 282.149 4−1 282.149 3 S = 94.0497 S2 = 9.6979 S2 9.70 Social studies 1 (x - � ) 14.41 (x - � )2 F (x - � )2 71.00 1 -4.92 24.2064 24.2064 76.67 1 1.75 3.0625 3.0625 64.67 1 -11.25 126.5625 126.5625 X F 90.33 207.6481 207.6481 ∑ F (x - � )2 = 361.4795 77 | P a g e � = 75.92 Using the formula: ∑�(�−� )2 S= �−1 361.4795 S= 4−1 361.4795 S= 3 S = 120.4932 S2 = 10.9769 S2 10.98 In testing the hypothesis t- test statistics for independent samples was used; Formula; �1 − �2 �12 �22 + �1 �2 Key �1 = mean score for sampled students with U.I in Ganaka �2 = mean score for sampled students with U.I in Zawan �12 = variance score for sampled students with V.I in Ganaka international schools. �22 = Variance score for sampled students with V.I in vocational training centre Zawan n1 = Number of sampled V.I student in Ganaka International school n1 = Number of sampled V.I student in Vocational Training Centre for the blind Zawan 78 | P a g e Null Hypothesis (1) There is no significant means score difference in English language performance of V.I students who are proficient in Braille and those who are not. � 1 −� 2 tcal = tcal = 2 �2 1 �2 + �1 �2 66.83−40.09 9.23 8.27 + 4 4 26.74 tcal = 2.3075+2.0675 26.74 tcal = tcal = 4.375 26.74 2.0917 tcal = 12.7839 12.78 tcal df = (4+4) – 2 =8–2 =6 Level of significance = 0.05 Decision: Since tcal > tcritical we reject the null hypothesis. Null hypothesis (2) There is no significance mean score difference in mathematics performance of visual impaired student who are proficient in Braille and those who are not. Formula: t= � 1 −� 2 2 �2 1 �2 + �1 �2 t= 54.83−33.33 9.70 10.47 + 4 4 79 | P a g e 21.5 tcal = 2.425+2.6175 21.5 tcal = tcal = 5.0425 21.5 2.2456 tcal = 9.5743 9.57 tcal df = (4+4) – 2 =8–2 =6 Level of significance = 0.05 tcritical = 1.1943 Decision: Since tcal > tcritical we reject the null hypothesis. Null hypothesis (3) There is no significant mean scores different in social studies performance of visual impaired students who are proficient in Braille and those who are not. Formula: �1 − �2 �12 �22 + �1 �2 tcal = tcal = tcal = tcal = 75.92−49.67 10.98 2.32 + 4 4 26.25 2.745+0.58 26.25 3.325 26.25 1.8235 tcal = 14.3954 tcal = 14.40 80 | P a g e df = (4+4) – 2 =8–2 =6 Level of significance = 0.05 tcritical= 1.1943 since t calculated > tcritical we reject the null hypothesis 81 | P a g e