[354-11]. Singh, Rana P.B. and Kumar, Devesh 2011. Bodh Gaya, a World Heritage Site: Tourists’ and Natives’ Perceptions of Heritage and its Value; in, Singh, Rana P.B. (ed.) Heritagescapes and Cultural Landscapes.

[354-11]. Singh, Rana P.B. and Kumar, Devesh 2011. Bodh Gaya, a World Heritage Site: Tourists‟ and Natives‟ Perceptions of Heritage and its Value; in, Singh, Rana P.B. (ed.) Heritagescapes and Cultural Landscapes. Planet Earth & Cultural Understanding Series, Pub. 6. Shubhi Publications, New Delhi: pp 255-286. Hb, ISBN (10): 81-8290-226-6. © Rana P.B. Singh. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Bodh Gaya, a World Heritage Site: Tourists’ and Natives’ Perceptions of Heritage and its Value Rana P.B. Singh & Devesh Kumar Banaras Hindu University, India ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Abstract. Bodh Gaya, the sacred town and pilgrimage centre for Buddhist, is wellknown for its Mahabodhi temple (a World Heritage Site, enlisted in 2002) that serves as nucleus for all events in the town. There are many temples and monasteries built by Buddhist Sanghas of different countries that attract a large number of tourists and pilgrims come here for worshipping, meditation and to attain peace of mind. This led to develop infrastructure to support the visitors, which further led to socio-economic changes. Of course, the inhabitants are mostly Hindus, but pilgrims are predominantly Buddhists. Based on field survey and participatory observa-tions the perception of people (both native and visitors) concerning heritages and their preservation are documented and analyzed; this clearly indicates negligence of local stakeholders, and complicated politics of management. If these issues solved, there will be a bright future. Key words: historical perspective, heritage valuation, perception, Buddhist tradition, development, renovation, future plan. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ The Blessed One having attained Buddhahood while resting under the shepherd‟s Nigrodha tree on the banks of the river Niranjara at Bodh Gaya, pronounced this solemn utterance: “… I have recognised the deepest truth, which is sublime and peace giving, but difficult to understand; for most men move in a sphere of worldly interests and find their delight in worldly desires”. ― The Mahavagga, 1, 3, ˜4. 1. Introduction: Historical Perspective, and Orientation Bodh Gaya, the most important Buddhist site for the world‟s 550 million Buddhists, is surrounded by a native population of different faiths, 256 8. Rana P.B. Singh & Devesh Kumar predominantly Hindus ― say it as Hindu India (Doyle 1997); of course there are Muslims too. The Buddhists‟ population consists of migrants, temporary visitors, pilgrims, refugees, shop-keepers and those living in monasteries. Bodh Gaya is probably all the more interesting a place by virtue of being much more of a working Buddhist centre than an archaeological site (Fig. 8.1). It is the most important Buddhist pilgrimage site in the world. Several inscriptions found there refer to Sri Lankan, Burmese and Chinese people who performed pilgrimage to this site in the historical past and patronised repairing and installing images of the Buddha. Bodh Gaya‟s special character is clearly emphasised in numerous texts and pilgrim records which designate it as the only place where Shakyamuni could have become a Buddha. The famous CE 7th century Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (Hsüan-tsang) described Shakyamuni‟s futile efforts to achieve enlightenment at nearby Pragbodhi Hill (now called Dhongra Hill). Afterwards Shakyamuni found that spot about 3km south of Pragbodhi Hill, where he was finally successful. And for centuries since, the Buddhist devotees have journeyed to pay homage to this sacred site of enlightenment. Hsüan-tsang ascribes the erection of the original Bodhi shrine to Emperor Ashoka. According to one of his rock edicts, Ashoka visited this place, which is called Sambodhi in the inscription, ten years after his consecration, and it is more than probable that the great emperor constructed a shrine on this holy spot. However, no vestige of such a shrine is found here. From the description of Hsüan-tsang it appears that the Mahabodhi temple (Bodhimanda Vihara in Pali), essentially in its present shape and appearance, existed already in the CE 7th century. Today this temple which was extensively restored in the late 16th century dominates Bodh Gaya. The Mahabodhi temple in Myanmar (Burma) is a prototype of this grand temple (cf. Singh 2003: 76). The vast majority of sculptures from Bodh Gaya date after the Gupta period and primarily belong to the Pala-Sena period (ca. CE 8th-12th centuries). The importance of this site after the 6th century is indicated by the fact that the Buddha in bhumisparsha mudra (earth-touching gesture) became the most common form for a Buddha image during the Pala period (see Fig. 8.2). Although it is a specific reference to Bodh Gaya and a symbol of the achievement of Buddhahood, this form seems to have originated elsewhere at an earlier time. Nonetheless, the first place in eastern India where it became prominent is at Bodh Gaya. Various kings, queens, patrons and visitors repaired, renovated and added to the already existing structures till the 12th century when floods silted the courtyard of the temple complex, which remained buried until 1811. Fig. 8.1. Bodh Gaya: Sacred Landscapes – Temples and Monasteries. Bodh Gaya, a World Heritage Site: Perceptions & Values 257 258 8. Rana P.B. Singh & Devesh Kumar Fig. 8.2. The Buddha in bhumisparsha mudra (Mahabodhi temple). Although the exact circumstances and date are not known, after the 13th century, despite centuries of activity, Buddhist practices at Bodh Gaya largely ceased. Francis Buchanan-Hamilton, who visited Bodh Gaya in 1811, reported that the temple was in a dilapidated condition and that much of the immediate area had been greatly disturbed by the extensive removal of bricks and other materials for local building projects. From the beginning of the 19th century, several Burmese missions also travelled to Bodh Gaya, first to find the site and make offerings, and then, in 1877, to renovate the dilapidated structures. In fact, it was the somewhat haphazard renovation by the Burmese that prompted the British Government to undertake a major restoration of the site in the 1880s. Unfortunately, the 19th century changes made at Bodh Gaya have greatly confused the record of earlier activity. Some structures were totally dismantled and many images were moved from their original locations. Bodh Gaya, a World Heritage Site: Perceptions & Values 259 In the late 19th century, along with the restoration of the site, attention was focussed on Bodh Gaya by the writings of Sir Edwin Arnold. His famous poem about Shakyamuni entitled „The Light of Asia‟ (1879) and an impassioned newspaper account of the sad neglect of this most sacred Buddhist site proved effective tools for reawakening an interest in Bodh Gaya throughout the world. In 1891 Sir Arnold‟s writings helped to inspire Anagarika Dharmapala from Sri Lanka to dedicate his life to the struggle to have Bodh Gaya and especially the Mahabodhi temple under Buddhist ownership rather than accepting the Hindu Mahant who was in control of the temple at that time. Since 1953, under an act passed by the Government of Bihar, the Bodh Gaya Temple Management Committee, whose members are both Buddhists and Hindus, administers this temple and has made vast improvements to both the temple and its grounds. Existing structures have been repaired and new stupas are being erected. With the reintroduction of gilded images in the niches of the Mahabodhi Temple, it begins to regain some of the splendour described by Hsüantsang. Traditions states that Buddha stayed in Bodh Gaya for seven weeks after his enlightenment. Each week was spent in a different part of the sacred place or complex. The 1st week was spent under the Bodhi Tree, the sacred fig tree (Ficus religiosa). For the 2nd week, he remained standing and gazing uninterruptedly at the tree for having helped him in his quest. Animeshalochana Stupa („unwinking gazing shrine‟) marks this spot in the northeast to the Mahabodhi temple, and houses a standing figure of the Buddha with his eyes fixed towards the tree. The 3rd week was spent in meditation, walking back and forth from the tree to the unblinking shrine spot, out of gratitude for giving him shelter. Lotus flowers are said to have sprung up in this place which came to be known as Chankramana Chaitya (jewel walk) and is marked by a recently made brick platform containing 18 lotus flowers representing the footsteps of the Buddha. The 4th week was devoted by the Buddha to attain higher modes of exposition, i.e. Abhi Dhamma Naya (deep meditation). The place where he performed meditation is called Ratanagraha Chaitya, which is incorporated in the Buddhist flag of white, yellow, blue, red and orange. The 5th week of enlightenment was again spent in meditation under another tree, called Ajapa Nigrodha, where Sujata had offered him a meal of rice pudding (khir). The 6th week takes us to Muchalinda Lake, ca. 50 m south of the main temple, where the serpent king Muchalinda, dwelling at the bottom of the lake, rose up to protect the Master from a severe storm created by Maya 260 8. Rana P.B. Singh & Devesh Kumar (the god of chaos) to disturb his meditation. There is a life-size image of the Buddha covered by a cobra at the centre of the Muchalinda Lake. In front of this lake are the remains of an Ashokan pillar, which is now about 6m high. The Rajayatana tree marks the 7th and last week, where the Buddha decided to preach and thus save human beings from further sufferings; here two merchants, Tapassu and Bliallika of Utkala (modern Orissa), who by chance had come there in the course of their travelling, offered him cakes of barley and honey as food. From the Rajyatana tree, the Buddha again returned to the Bodhi Tree and paid his finally reverential salute and bowed his head to the sacred Bo tree. After thus spending 49 days meditating, the Buddha left Bodh Gaya on foot to meet the five ascetics, his former associates, at Sarnath (Banaras) in order to turn the first wheel of Dhamma. The Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya fulfils the five criteria of the UNESCO WHL, and in view of those enlisted in the WHL on 26 June 2002. The criteria taken into consideration were: (i): The grand 50m high Mahabodhi Temple of the 5th-6th centuries is of immense importance, being one of the earliest temple constructions existing in the Indian sub-continent. It is one of the few representations of the architectural genius of the Indian people in constructing fully developed brick temples in that era. (ii): The Mahabodhi Temple, one of the few surviving examples of early brick structures in India, has had significant influence in the development of architecture over the centuries. (iii): The site of the Mahabodhi Temple provides exceptional records for the events associated with the life of Buddha and subsequent worship, particularly since Emperor Ashoka built the first temple, the balustrades, and the memorial column. (iv): The present Temple is one of the earliest and most imposing structures built entirely in brick from the late Gupta period. The sculpted stone balustrades are an outstanding early example of sculptural reliefs in stone. (vi): The Mahabodhi Temple Complex in Bodh Gaya has direct association with the life of the Lord Buddha, being the place where He attained the supreme and perfect insight. Ashoka had built the first chaitya (temple) in the 3rd century BCE near the Bodhi Tree. This temple was replaced in the 2nd century CE, which in turn went through several alterations. The present temple, which has been through layers and layers of restorations, dates from the 6th century CE. Burmese monks found the temple neglected and overrun by squatters, and Bodh Gaya, a World Heritage Site: Perceptions & Values 261 initiated much of the rescue work in 1882. It has been repaired as recently as early 1998 and 2008 (cf. Figs. 8.3 and 8.4). The original Mahabodhi Temple was destroyed by the Muslims during the 13th century. Parts of the intricately carved railings to the south and west of the temple are very old. Some of the railings are original and parts of the railings are reproductions. Over the last thirty years, many statues have been stolen from the temple‟s niches. The oldest structure left on the site is a stone railing built in the 1st century CE to keep out wild animals; however, a quarter of it has been whisked away to museums in London and Calcutta. The entrance to the Mahabodhi temple is through a torana, an ornamental archway, on the eastern side. The lotus pond where the Buddha may have bathed is to the south of the temple. To the north is the „Chankramana‟, a raised platform, 1m high and 18m long, dating from the 1st century with lotus flowers carved on it, which marks the consecrated promenade where the Buddha walked back and forth while meditating on whether he should reveal his Message to the world. This appears to have been later converted into a covered passage with pillars, of which only one survives. The Mahabodhi temple (cf. Figs. 8.3 and 8.4), resting on a high and broad plinth, with a soaring 54 m high pyramidal spire with a square crosssection and 4 smaller spires, houses a gilded image of the Buddha, kept behind glass, in the bhumisparsha mudra (earth-touching gesture). This classical gesture, in which the Buddha‟s right hand touches the ground while the left rests in his lap, signifies enlightenment. In the centre of the temple there is also a Shiva linga that was installed in about 860 CE. The temple is also sacred to Hindus, as they accept the Buddha as the 9th incarnation of Vishnu, the preserver in the Hindu pantheon. The smaller spires in the temple appear to have been added to the original when Burmese Buddhists attempted extensive rebuilding in the 14th century. Among the column images, tree worship, especially the Bodhi Tree (Holy Ficus, Ficus Religiosa), and relic casket are the prominent scenes. Geary (2009: 9) has rightly remarked that “given the long historical breadth and scope of inter-Asian influence at Bodh Gaya over the centuries, it is tempting to discern that Bodh Gaya has always been a place of global connection and transnational influence. As the „navel of the earth‟ and the geographic centre of the Buddhist world, the place of enlightenment has long existed in the spiritual itineraries and religious imagination of Buddhist‟s prior to the history of nation-states” (also cf. Geary 2008). 262 8. Rana P.B. Singh & Devesh Kumar Fig. 8.3. Mahabodhi temple, Bodh Gaya: the present scene. Bodh Gaya, a World Heritage Site: Perceptions & Values 263 Fig. 8.4. Mahabodhi temple, Bodh Gaya (after A. Cunningham, 1892). Being the most important Buddhist pilgrimage centre Bodh Gaya attracts pilgrims, tourists, and supporting shopkeepers and stockholders, all together they result in making distinct sacredscapes and heritagescapes. Of course the overall scenario is dominated by Buddhists; however the economic landscapes are functionally run by majority of Hindus. 264 8. Rana P.B. Singh & Devesh Kumar Fig. 8.5. Mahabodhi temple and surroundings, the contemporary scene. 2. Orientation and Respondents’ background As one of major areas of research in heritage studies people‟s towards the past and the heritage related attributes and interviewing people for this purpose has received common attention in the contemporary researches (Sørensen 2009: 164). So far, it has been common practice for studies of socio-economic landscape and infrastructural facilities to focus on selected and specific aspects, however attitudinal and perceptual survey of visitors and the stakeholders is a recent orientation. Of course all the standard methods proved useful for collecting statistical information and factual „surface‟ phenomena, they fail to reflect upon the „insideness‟ of thought and life philosophy people possess and practice in daily life that results in making their lifeways. Sørensen (2009: 168) felt that „it is pertinent and Bodh Gaya, a World Heritage Site: Perceptions & Values 265 useful to gain idea about how people relate to the past and what that relationship is about‟. She conclusively suggests (ibid.: 175-176) that “sustained discursive reflection about the aims of the heritage interview is necessary. …. We also need to develop more sensitive ways of incorporating and analysing responses that do not match our expectations and to listen for stylistic changes and ruptures in the narrations”. This type of research is predicated on the participation and contribution of the stakeholder public and may be used to develop a more rational policy concerning cultural property and heritagescapes (Kersel 2009: 192). Heritage awareness is conceptualised using a combined measure of heritage awareness and residents‟ visits to heritage sites. Taking these two measures, a study based on a recent study of 600 participants proposed a four-cell matrix that represents: 1) aware/visited, 2) aware/not visited, 3) unaware/visited, and 4) unaware/not visited. When the four types of residents were compared against demographic variables, attitudes toward preservation, preservation criteria, and importance of feature and facilities, most of these variables were found significant. The results indicate that the aware/visited group members had more positive attitudes toward heritage preservation than other groups (Nyaupane and Timothy 2010: 225, 276). Smith (2006) relocates heritage away from its crude delineations of objectorientation, inherent value and reification, replacing this with the idea of heritage as an essentially cultural process. As well, Webb (2009) revisits the idea of representation as culturally mediated, where she interrogates representations that appear natural, revealing them to be products of discourse. In this context, similar study was also conducted at Bodh Gaya. The city of Bodh Gaya, recording a settlement continuity spanning over 2500 years, exists at 24° 41‟ 43.008” north of latitudes and 84° 59‟ 38.004” east of longitudes, at a distance of 560km from Kolkata in the east, and 230km from Varanasi, in the central part of the state of Bihar at the bank of a seasonal river Niranajana (popularly called the Phalgu). The town surrounding Mahabodhi temple, by contrast, is dusty, noisy and somewhat polluted, due in large part to the large numbers of pilgrims and tourists who visit there (cf. Pick 2009). A new development plan has been proposed to “ensure a sustainable and prosperous future” for Bodh Gaya, but has become controversial because such a plan may require the relocation of whole neighbourhoods (Amar et al. 2007). This study has been carried out initially to understand peoples‟ overall perceptual and awareness levels about the city and related facets of life, societal concerns to heritage, and the people‟s vision about the future in terms of preservation, management and realisation of moral duties of stakeholders. For detailed investigation in this context 100 respondents 8. Rana P.B. Singh & Devesh Kumar 266 from Bodh Gaya were surveyed through questionnaires (April 2009) and their viewpoints are analyzed. Of course the respondents were selected without context of any prefixed frame, but attempt were made that their number may properly represent the share in accordance to the existing social structure (cf. Table 8.1). Table 8.1. Bodh Gaya. Respondents‟ Basic information. Nationality No. Religion No. Hindu (Caste) No. Occupation No. Indian 80 Hindu 66 Brahmin 18 Business 24 Tibetan 12 Buddhism 22 Rajput 16 Students 18 Thai 6 Muslim 10 Yadava 16 Monk 16 German 2 Others 2 SC 8 Teaching 12 ---- ----Others 8 Others 30 TOTAL 100 100 66 100 Source: Personal survey, April 2009; No. , Number of Persons, and same as %. The statistics (cf. Table 8.1) concerning nationality of respondents indicate predominance of locality (Indian), followed by the neighbouring countries/areas of Tibet and Thailand as there predominantly exist the Buddhist adherents. Many of the Tibetan refugees have taken shelter in Buddhist places like Dharmashala, Sarnath and Bodh Gaya, and maintaining good interaction with the local society reciprocally. There were only two respondents having German nationality, representing educational tourists paid visit to have direct experience of the sacred place. In accordance to the overall dominancy of Hindu adherents, the majority of respondents were Hindus. Of course two Muslims also were interviews; however they are insignificant in this whole region. The region is dominated by Hindus, mainly consisting of priestly caste Brahmin, landlord Rajput and farmer-cum-milkmen Yadava. Scheduled castes and such allied communities represent the lower (downtrodden) social strata of Indian society, and are mostly engaged in menial jobs. The idea of economic status of the respondents can be gained from their occupations. Because of industries and handicrafts supporting good mass of national and international tourists, there appeared varieties and specialised type of shops. Like other small size cities surrounded by countryside and have major sustenance on tourism, the respondents in Bodh Gaya also refer their occupation as multifunctional (recording 30), followed with a broad group of „business‟ (24). In descending order, students of Buddhism (18) and the monks (16), together with the previous ones shared 93 per cent of respondents. The structure of occupations Bodh Gaya, a World Heritage Site: Perceptions & Values 267 clearly indicates dependency and transaction based on the heritagescapes that has special role due to status of Unesco WHS. In fact, most of the established monasteries, Buddhist institutions and other schools are running courses in Buddhist philosophy, meditation and vipasana. Majority of respondents were below 45-years of age (70), representing their active involvement and control in the economy. These people are relatively well educated, possessing post-graduate and professional degrees, which help them manage their jobs efficiently (cf. Table 8.2). Those engaged in lower categories of jobs (receptions, shop keepers, vendors, transport, etc), naturally record low educational training. Table 8.2. Bodh Gaya. Respondents‟ Age group, and Educational status. Age Group No. Educational Status No. Less than 30 36 Below 10th Standard 10 31 - 45 34 10th and 12th 12 46 - 60 26 Graduation 18 More than 60 4 Post-graduation 38 ------Professional 22 Total 100 Total 100 Source: Personal survey, April 2009; No. , Number of Persons, and same as %. Table 8.3. Bodh Gaya. Respondents‟ Duration of stay. Duration of stay No./ Percentage Less than 1 year 22 2 - 15 28 16 - 30 20 31 - 45 18 above 45 12 TOTAL 100 Source: Personal survey, April 2009. Concerning period of stay at Bodh Gaya around one-third have recorded duration of more than 30-years, indicating their ancestral nativity at this place or nearby and also span of one generation; such people are more localised and not having ambition to go out of locality because they feel happy and satisfied with their job and livelihood. Such people own their own residences and made space arrangement in way that the house serves as residence-cum-shop, and sometimes even paying guest house. Altogether that helps to make the family economy strong. Half of the respondents were young and migrated here from nearby areas to test their destiny in business and also working in the monasteries (cf. Table 8.3). Students, educational or religious tourists stay here less than a year. 268 8. Rana P.B. Singh & Devesh Kumar 3. Respondents’ views on Representation of Heritage Heritage as multi-faceted, multi-visioned, inherently possessed, externally exposed, and value-oriented resource for marketing has essentially a visual representation. Watson and Waterton (2010: 2) empathetically opine that “The processes that constitute meaning, that frame, reveal and construct the past that we see around us, are essentially visual. Our connections with the past are largely tangible, or have a materiality upon which they depend that makes them objects of heritage, and it is visual culture that lends these objects the means of representation and achievement of meaning”. A visitor‟s narration gives an idea about the experiences of visuality and valuation: “Though Tibetan monks and nuns are predominant, the complex is open to people and practices from all traditions, and its not uncommon to see Hindu yogis, Indian tourists and Jesuit priests among the crowds there, all drawn to this “navel of the earth”, this centre-place of remarkable spiritual insight and attainment. To the vexation of many visitors, the surrounding town is noisy and polluted, like many in India, though at Bodh Gaya this is actually due in large part to the number of pilgrims and tourists who travel there” (Pick 2009). In Indian condition, the contents and attributes of heritage are so complex in terms of historicity, cultural connotation, disparate meanings, different claims and blames― and above altogether making a „wholeness‟, i.e. mosaicness that respondents most commonly give answer in multiple choices and even within that frame of reference no way they could give intensity of degrees or status in hierarchy, thus the multiple choice responses gone about three times higher (292) than the actual number, i.e. 100 (cf. Table 8.4). Concerning the question of such multiplicity Indian identity, linguist Ramanujan (1990: 41) has rightly remarked: “There is no single Indian way of thinking; there are Great and Little Traditions, ancient and modern, rural and urban, classical and folk. Each language, caste and region has its specific worldview. So, under the apparent diversity, there is really a unity of viewpoint, a single super system”. This is the unique pattern where various colours meet and make „mosaicness‟ (chitrakut). Table: 8.4. Heritage Valuation: Respondents‟ view (multiple choices) Heritage valuation Cultural Landscapes Tangible (architectural grandeur) Historical memories/ artefacts Intangible (rituals and performance) Cumulative No. 84 80 70 30 Percentage 28.8 27.4 24.0 10.2 Bodh Gaya, a World Heritage Site: Perceptions & Values Traditional Mixed (Historical + Traditional) Natural heritage TOTAL Source: Personal survey, April 2009. 20 4 4 292 269 6.8 1.4 1.4 100.0 The multiplicity is well marked in our field survey, with a clear perceptual representation of cultural landscape, architectural grandeur and artefacts that together recording 80 per cent of the responses (Table 8.4). The rituals and performances (intangible resources) had also given independent choice, and together with traditions the group‟s share reached to 7 per cent, which is befitting representation of the Indian culture. In strict sense of „heritage‟ as conceptualised in Eurocentric thought, people are mostly unaware, mostly due to their strong sense and feeling for the continuance of cultural traditions that evolved in the remote past and successfully transferred from one generation to another leading to maintenance and existence in spite of merger and imposition of several traditions in different periods of time. The average multiple choice that each respondent had informed, i.e. 2.92, is itself is indication of the mosaicness. Table: 8.5. Bodh Gaya. Respondent‟s perception of the heritage Perceptual view No. Overall good scene 40 Traditional/ Ancient 24 Serene Environment 16 Sense of proud for glorious past 8 Pride of the Buddha 8 Preserved site 4 TOTAL 100 Source: Personal survey, April 2009; No. , Number of Persons, and same as %. Having a common mental setup for loving sacrosanct and serene environment as it promotes spiritual healing, the respondents gave preference of such connotation, marking together 66 per cent (Table 8.5). The sense of historicity and traditions are so strong in beliefs and life philosophy that it has always given distinct place, representing 24 per cent. Table: 8.6. Buddha‟s related Sites: Respondents‟ awareness. Sites From Bodh Gaya, direction, and ca. distance, km No. of People (multiple answers) %age (each group) 270 8. Rana P.B. Singh & Devesh Kumar Sujata Kuti/Garh [environs] E, 2.5 Sarnath (U.P.) W, 227.0 Lumbini (Nepal) NW, 282.0 Kushinagar (U.P.) NW, 193.0 Dungeshvari hill [environs] NE, 7.0 Rajgir (Bihar) NE, 92.0 Vaishali (Bihar) N, 121.0 Muchalinda [environs] S, 0.40 Nalanda (Bihar) NE, 105.0 Shravsati (U.P.) NW, 315.0 Brahmayoni Hill [environs] N, 9.0 TOTAL ----Source: Personal survey, April 2009. 52 40 38 32 28 18 14 10 10 4 4 250 20.8 16.0 15.2 12.8 11.2 8.2 5.6 4.0 4.0 1.6 1.6 100.0 Awareness of people about sites related of the Buddha indicates that people are well acquainted with the four main sites related directly to his life, viz. Lumbini (birth), Bodh Gaya (enlightenment), Sarnath (preaching) and Kushinagar (nirvana); thus respondents‟ responses having multiple choices, on average every person recording 2.5. By such multiple choices the cumulative frequency reached to 250 (Table 8.6). Nearness to the sacred city, a natural attraction through a small hill, dominancy and propagation by the local Hindus, the recent advertisement by a local NGO, and as alternative new site to attract more visitors, Sujata Kuti (hermitage of Sujata) has received prominence. It is believed that at this site Sujata had offered a meal of rice pudding (khir) to the Buddha (Singh 2003: 79). The other local sites preferred include Dungeshvari hill/caves where once Buddha did a severe penance as an ascetic for six long years after his renunciation of all worldly pleasures. This resulted in the familiar image of him as a skeletal, emaciated figure (Singh 2003: 99). Muchalinda Lake is the other local choice, where the Buddha passed his the 6th week; here the serpent king Muchalinda, dwelling at the bottom of the lake, rose up to protect the Master from a severe storm created by Maya (the god of chaos) to disturb his meditation. Brahmayoni hill is the place where the Buddha delivered his celebrated Fire Sermon, the Adittapariyana Sutta, to the thousands newly ordained monks (cf. Vinaya IV.34; see ibid.: 115). The other sites respondents referred associated to the miracles of the Buddha are Rajgir (where the Buddha converted Saripttta and Mogallana), Vaishali (where the Buddha was offered honey), Nalanda (the seat of a great monastic university), and Shravasti (where the Buddha performed great miracles). Awareness of respondents with reference to the local sites can further be purveyed in the frame of five-tier hierarchy of spatial taxonomy (international, national, regional, sub-regional, and local). Here too the Bodh Gaya, a World Heritage Site: Perceptions & Values 271 multiple choices were expressed that results to 2.24 choices/per person; thus the cumulative frequency reached to 224 (Table 8.7). Table: 8.7. Status of Sites: Respondents‟ view (multiple answers) National Reginal Subregional Local Mahabodhi Temple 58 --Sujata Kuti/ Garh 8 6 Monasteries --12 Jagananath temple --14 Dunghesvari hills --8 Giant Buddha statue --4 Magadh University --4 Vishnupad Temple --8 Mahant Samadhi 4 4 Niranjana river ----Kalachakra Maidan ----Maya Sarovar ----Barabar cave --4 Jaiprakash park ----Meditation park ----ASI Museum --2 TOTAL 70 66 %age 31.3 29.5 Source: Personal survey, April 2009. --8 8 2 4 6 10 4 --8 --4 --------54 24.0 --6 ----4 4 ----2 --2 ----4 2 --24 10.7 --4 4 --------------2 ----------10 4.5 Sites International Cumulative Total (each group) 58 32 24 16 16 14 14 12 10 8 4 4 4 4 2 2 224 100.0 25.9 14.3 10.7 7.1 7.1 6.2 6.2 5.4 4.5 3.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 0.9 0.9 100.0 --- %age Quite natural, for international visitors Mahabodhi temple, and for national and local people Sujata Kuti are the main attractions; together recoding 40 per cent of responses (Table 8.7). This clearly indicates as to how „locality‟ is projected in the frame of „universality‟ with pride, dissemination of mythology (seduction of history) and media projection to promote marketing and alternative choices by such process of placemaking. Both of these places are not only varied and multivocal, they are often ambiguous or sometimes contradictory that results to contestation, tension and even conflicts where Buddhists and Hindu adherents interfere and cross their boundaries to show their power and control. Over half of the respondents (52) feel that there appeared group conflict and tension constantly, but only 18 in this group indicated their personal affiliation and inflict. This reflects to non-seriousness of people, which sometimes turns to create tension leading to politics and social crises, however in general 272 8. Rana P.B. Singh & Devesh Kumar people think the overall heritagescapes of the area as harmonious (frequency was 88). Of course, the tourism economy attempts to make harmonious relationship among the contrasting groups and maintaining order, which would be beneficial in economic returns. In spite of such contradiction, the dominance of Buddhist sites in terms of common awareness is close to three-fourths of total responses; this further justifies the overall juxtaposition of Buddhist cultural landscapes. After passage of time many new models, sets and choices are introduced, of which degree of awareness varies according to their status in the spatial hierarchy, e.g. Magadh University, Archaeological Survey of India museum (ASI), Jaiprakash Park, Kalachakra Maidan, Maya Sarovar, and Mahant Samadhi have been recently added in the list. Among the natural heritage still the Niranjana river has been given reverence and choice of attraction, of course this is a dry-bedded seasonal stream (Table 8.7). The latest addition to this list of attractive sites is the Giant Buddha statue, which is like an icon of tourist image. This, the tallest statue of Buddha in India was installed by the Daijokyo Sect, Japan. The temple area spreads over one hectare of land acquired from the Government of Bihar. This image, in the Japanese Kamakura style, is 24.25m high and is 18.25m wide. Built of pink and yellow Chunar sandstone, the image is seated on a lotus in the meditation pose with eyes half-closed (Fig. 8.6). Built on a solid concrete pedestal, the statue is hollow, and has a spiral staircase going from the ground floor to the chest, which makes four storeys. Wooden shelves have been provided in the interior walls in the three storeys of the statue wherein 16,300 small Buddha images from Japan made of bronze have been enshrined. The construction of the statue took more than five years from 1984 onwards. It was „opened‟ by H.H. the 14th Dalai Lama Tenzin Gyatso in 1989. The 10th Anniversary of the Daijokyo Buddhist Temple was held on 9 November 1993, when the statues of the two chief disciples of the Buddha, Sariputta and Moggallana, on the two sides of the Great Buddha, were also unveiled. Bodh Gaya, a World Heritage Site: Perceptions & Values 273 Fig. 8.6. Giant Buddha (Daijokyo), representing Kamakura‟s image. Respondents‟ awareness about the dating and dynasty related to heritage objects has contrasting results (Table 8.8). In general, people are well aware (recording around 89 per cent) that this area surrounding Bodh Gaya and its environs are credited to the Great Mauryan Emperor Ashoka (268- 233 BCE), however with respect to the historical span of time, they are confused and having misconception as in terms of dynasty only 15 percent had shown accurate dates, even about that they were not sure. This is an indication of lagging historical sense in our teaching and common knowledge. Table: 8.8. Respondents‟ awareness about dating of heritage objects. Dynasty Freq. % Time (of construction) Freq. % 8. Rana P.B. Singh & Devesh Kumar 274 Ashoka 62 88.7 268- 233 BCE 6 15.0 Shung, Kanishka 2 2.8 185- 73 BCE 16 40.0 Kumaragupta 4 5.7 CE 415- 455 12 30.0 Harsha 2 2.8 CE 606- 647 6 15.0 TOTAL 70 100.0 TOTAL 40 100.0 Source: Personal survey, April 2009. Freq., frequency of respondents. The Mahabodhi temple and other ancient shrines represent superimposition of various structures, which have always been subject of debate in the academic arena and public understanding together with many controversial opinions in the colonial period, therefore the sense of various periods, their visual icons and related mythologies become issue of contestation and problematic. Every heritage record a history of growth, maintenance and conservation. All such processes and activities have been witnessed by the people, and their stories of success and failures are passed from one general to another, from one community to another, which helped in shaping the awareness and conscience to participate and monitor for its sustainable transfer to the coming generation. The respondents are well familiar to such activities happened after India‟s independence in 1947, but especially since 1955 when five-year based development plan was introduced since (cf. Table 8.9). Generally respondents expose to what happened, and never had been critical to the quality, intensity and gradation of the repairing and renovations took place. Very commonly they say that “at least something done, therefore let us accept this and hopefully expect for better. With this attitude rarely public revolt and agitation happened in past concerning saving heritage and the cultural landscapes. In stead they prefer to have individual benefits, in the form of competition, or just to follow others those achieved monetary gain. Sorry to say that this is a clear sign of increasing pace of materialism, individualism and consumerism in the spiritual landscape of Bodh Gaya! In fact, “in the recent past, we have lost the demarcation line of existence between right and wrong, moral and immoral, and also the realisation of the basic dhamma (right action)” (Singh 2009: 415). Table: 8.9. Respondents‟ awareness to Renovations undertaken. Date CE What happens Through 1955 -57 1980 to save from flood improvement, Raising heights of the wall Repairing, wall, Status of Renovation Total Mn. int. Mn. ext. Mj. int. Mj. ext. -- 4 -- 4 8 -- -- 4 8 12 Bodh Gaya, a World Heritage Site: Perceptions & Values protection 1994 2000 2004 -05 2007 2008 Total toilet, meditation park protection Repairing World Developing internal Heritage, temple, repairing, development, lightning, park, beautification, tank cleaning decoration amenities, Construction, water beautification, supply, chemical protection, washing, lightning maintenance red stone, plan of the HUDCO beautification, Donation money, protection, repairing, garden, decoration paint old form, Lightning, toilet, decoration, repairing, paint beautification ---- 275 -8 4 8 --- -12 4 28 4 4 8 8 24 8 8 8 -- 24 8 8 8 -- 24 28 36 28 32 124 Source: Personal survey (Individual & multiple choices); Mn., Minor, Mj. Major, int. internal, ext. external. * There are 24 multiple choices. Since 2000 the degree of involvement and also public awakening become stronger, because of the fact that preparation for making dossier to get enlisted Mahabodhi temple in the UNESCO WHL was in process that successively resulted finally into its inclusion on 26 June 2002. In the succeeding years on the line of heritage planning and directives from the government and UNESCO several development and conservation plans started, with addition of opening the Buddhist monasteries from different countries, especially the East Asia and the Southeast, including Bangladesh. The followed up works include beautification, landscape gardening, maintenance of environmental sensitivity, etc. The year 2008 marked the 2552nd birth anniversary of the Buddha, resulting to performing various development and conservation programmes and festive performances. The respondents also took care to be acquainted about such activities. Beautification together with maintenance of the old form of Mahabodhi Temple was given priority in the renovation works; additionally amenities like lightning, toilet facility, and painting were also taken care of. It is obvious from the responses that renovation works have constantly been in operation, of course at different levels and 276 8. Rana P.B. Singh & Devesh Kumar various degrees as scheduled and guided by the committees and governmental authorities. People have strong memory of deserted and destroyed history in the past. The Buddhist monastery and temple (Mahabodhi) at Bodh Gaya was built by the king Ashoka in ca 232 BCE and remained an active site till 1192 CE when Muslim invaders destroyed it. Some of the railings are dated to 150 BCE. During the rule of Mughal King Akbar, from 1590, the temple was under the control of a Shaiva Hindu priest who managed to set Shiva Linga in the inner sanctum, which after passage of time turned into religious conflicts. Even in the British regime attempts were made to resolve the conflicts between Hindus and Buddhists for possession and ownership. In 1872 under the patronage of Burmese king the temple was renovated and re-built. After independence, since 1949 through an Act both Hindus and Buddhists got authority for worship and joint control. But Buddhist have not accepted this arrangement, thus a continuous movement to liberate this temple from the interference of Hindus is noticed, including peaceful march of around half-million Buddhists from all parts of the world in October 1992 and November 1995. This contestation is still in continuance (cf. Singh 2008: 132). Every year, at Mahabodhi Temple one can witness magnificent „Prayer Festivals‟ attended by thousands of devotees. Here, His Holiness the Dalai Lama, His Holiness the Karmapa as well as a number of other outstanding Buddhist Teachers sit from the early hours of the morning till noon, and again from mid-afternoon till dusk, for a number of days in continuity, chanting or delivering discourses. During the Shaiva Hindu control it has been recorded that some of the original statues of the Buddha have been defiled and stolen from the Mahabodhi temple, idols of some of the Hindu Gods have been smuggled inside the temple including Shiva linga to dilute and defame Buddhism, and all sorts of Hindu rituals and rites are being followed inside Mahabodhi temple to defame and bring impurity in Buddhism. In the present century, the Buddhists are peacefully raising their voice to get their possession nationally and internationally. While having conversation with respondents and commoners it is also noted that they are familiar to issues of controversy and contestation concerning the supremacy and control over the Mahabodhi temple and the Bodhi Tree. The existence of Shiva Linga in the inner sanctum of the temple, and the footprints of Buddha (also assumed to be of Hindu deity Vishnu) in the vicinity of Bodhi tree have been issues of dispute; of course the common masses are well familiar but rarely they come forward in search of mutually agreed solutions. Some respondents opine that political involvement in heritage care and management is required; moreover, it Bodh Gaya, a World Heritage Site: Perceptions & Values 277 should not be for individual gain or vested interest. There are also alleged cases of cutting the branches of the Bodhi Tree, which hurt the Buddhist adherents. 4. Respondents’ views on other uses, issues and planning The uses of heritage have multiple levels, layering and contexts that vary from one place to another, and from one culture to another, varying from man to men. Maximum of people says that the economic purposes of heritage is more important then any factor. After this the people said, to remember our ancestor through heritage is also a purpose of heritage. Some advocated that this place is the enlightenment place of the Buddha and it is teaching us till today, so the purpose of heritage is achieved. Buddhist people see this heritage as philosophically, ideologically and life related an inspirational attachment is the purpose of their heritage. A local person looks this as world fame through heritage valuation. Heritage is the conservational and preservation approach of old monuments called by some people. Majority of people think that development of tourism and related infrastructure (all sort of amenities and facilities) will be boon for the overall development; however they always feel shame that the major benefit of return will go to outsiders, and also luxury tourism is threatening the small businessman and the local people. People also strongly opine that unplanned growth and expansion of buildings and interference of mafias are deteriorating the serene environment of this sacred land. Some opines that the area surrounding Mahabodhi temple should be declared as pilgrimage zone where touristic or entrainment activities to be completely prohibited, including use of alcohol, meat, smoking and any form of drug. Also, the current infrastructure is no way fulfilling the demand of heavy influx of visitors; in fact now viability and carrying capacity are threatened, therefore immediate remedies and strategies to be implied. People are suspicious about the Master Plan 2021 where rarely emphasis is laid on the issues of heritage-based tourism and pilgrimages. The City Development Plan, CDP, prepared by HUDCO in 2006 for the year 2031, visualising Bodh Gaya as a „World Buddhist Centre‟ ― a pilgrim destination and a green and healthy place, narrates the ground story that was taken in the background: The economic prosperity of this small town is linked with the commerce it supports. Commercial establishments form an inherent part of a pilgrim town. In the case of Bodh Gaya, its status as a tourist and pilgrimage centre has governed the nature of the commerce activities operating in the town. . . . In 278 8. Rana P.B. Singh & Devesh Kumar Bodh Gaya commercial establishments are concentrated along the central town road (Domuha road) and near the Mahabodhi Temple Complex. Considerable commercial activities including informal and formal shops have come up along the Mahabodhi temple and the intersection of the central spine and riverside road. The local Bodh Gaya bazaar located close to the Mahabodhi temple is the makeshift CBD (Central Business District) serving the commercial needs of the town and outlying areas. A vegetable market is also located in the same area, which causes considerable nuisance in the area. Most of the development is highly organic and haphazard in nature. A number of hawkers also add to the confusion and disorder in the area (CDP 2006: 48). This is surprisingly noted that no active participation from the local people, stakeholders and intellectuals (say from Magadh University) was taken while preparing Master Plan or CDP; this results to develop a plan from outside and get it imposed upon the people. Such happening create chaos and crises among the dwellers. Also such development plans should be flexible and constantly to be revised and updated according to the situations prevail that time. the respondents also warn that this place to be developed in the frame of a „holy city‟ and the life philosophy related to preserve the environmental sensitivity, serenity of place – where the spirit of place speak of itself. This is not the place for amusement, entertainment or merely leisure and tourism. Following the line of reminder by Massey (1994: 171) that “instead of looking back with nostalgia to some identity of place which already exists, the past has to be constructed”, Greary (2009: 227) suggests that “heritage spaces like Bodh Gaya are not “inherently valuable” due to their physicality but rather reflect the cultural processes and activities that are undertaken to attribute meaning to places of remembrance. Pasts are made meaningful through social practice.” Rituals and religious ceremonies should be performed not for the sake of celebrations, in stead to awaken the inner spirit of humankindness and the deeper understanding and messages to serve the humanity. On the hand environmental cleanliness and aesthetics also to be taken care off. There should be a heritage and sacred trail linking all the places where once the Buddha meditated and have discourses. One can easily find predominance of male visitors, and quite frequently find cases of humiliating females as reported in the newspapers. The hard truth, whatever painful it may be, should be accepted and realised in a good sense to get ourselves out of it. People feel that the development plans prepared under the auspices of JNNURM or HUDCO are mere theoretical exercise, of course emphasis is laid on housing, health/hygiene, transport (road), culture, administration, tourism pressure, and maintenance of the main temple complex. Discour- Bodh Gaya, a World Heritage Site: Perceptions & Values 279 ses and interviews of respondents indicate that every person had multiple choices to explain the problems, and they are rarely sure about the priority and intensity of the problems in terms of spaces and time. Thus their cumulative frequency reached to 700, categorised into three categories, viz. aware to the problem, not aware to the problem, and not sure to explain (cf. Table 8.10). Table: 8.10. Respondents‟ Perceptions of the problems: multiple choices Problems Yes Health /Hygiene 88 Roads and lanes 80 Administrative 74 Housing 40 Tourism Pressure 20 Maintenance 14 Cultural 12 TOTAL 328 Source: Personal survey (%) 28.00 24.39 22.56 12.19 6.00 4.21 3.65 100.00 No 4 10 12 50 62 66 64 268 (%) 1.50 3.73 4.47 18.65 23.13 24.62 23.90 100.00 Can‟t say 8 10 14 10 18 20 24 104 (%) 8.69 9.62 13.46 9.62 18.31 19.23 23.08 100.00 Only 47 per cent of the total responses (700) indicate awareness about the problems together with suggestions and ideas about solutions, while 38 per cent are not aware or not sure, and the rest 15 per cent no way understand at all. In a traditional country and less developed area like Bodh Gaya, where exists a big gap between rich and the poor this is a common pattern. The issues of health/hygiene and related environmental pollution, including infectious food items, have received high attention. While walking in the lanes one always passes with open pits, drains and ditches filled in with sewerage, garbage, plastic bags, traces, solid wastes, which altogether create obnoxious smell. Lack of dispensaries, proper hospital, toilet facilities, supply of drinking water are the other related problems. Similarly the conditions of roads and interlinking lanes are victims of encroachments, scattered mud and pieces of bricks and piles of garbage all along. There are no proper parking spaces. There in fact no institutional and administrative infrastructure that may facilitates the visitors to have feeling of soothing and serene environments. The open spaces are encroached by the shopkeepers, who are master of spatial infilling and manoeuvring for the purpose to improve their economic gain. The lust of this aim is so high that cheating, manhandling, humiliation, charging drastically high prices for objects and souvenirs, selling leaves of Boddhi tree (sometime false and fake), and all such malpractices are common. The poor devout pilgrims and visitors 280 8. Rana P.B. Singh & Devesh Kumar have to offer themselves to be victim of all such nuances. Moreover the luxuriant rich tourists by their gifts, giving bakshish (donation), chocolate, cookies and souvenirs further add to corrupt the low class shopkeepers and poor masses. Such activities are good means of amusement and recreation for many of them; in return they get photographs and feel that they contributed to promote exotic, excite and under-privileged poor masses – the so called the other side of India, which is subject of side-show and quite attractive for the western mind. The quick receipt and return of some economic benefit encourage young students of primary and high school to learn a little bit of spoken English, Japanese, Korean or Vietnamese and as side job do the work of guiding tourists and convincing them that how poor they are and how their parents survive through beggary. Such convictions persuade innocent foreign tourists who on the help and support give money to such young girls and boys. These malpractices further generate other malpractices, including sometimes sexual relationship! This is one of the stories of the worst impact of tourism. There are some stories of marriages with Indian girls or vice versa; of course some people say this is an example of crosscultural discourses and interrelationships. The issues of housing are subject of various categories (residential, commercial, shops, shop-cum-residence, vendors, hutments, rest-houses, hotels, high class luxury hotels, monasteries, temples, etc.) and problems associated with them. Neither these houses had followed some layout or plan, nor the rules and regulations are in operation to get control over them. There is no any social/voluntary organisation or cooperative that can promote strategic plans with common consensus. Non-implementation of the residential planning under CDP or JNNURM also turns to promote confusion. Everybody knows that using bribery as „grease money‟ anything can be done, then why to worry about rules and communitybased comprehensive plans! The middle and low-income classes of people know that using „money‟ rich people get their work done even, illegal and unplanned structures would be certified legal and declared the well suited part of the neighbourhood. Removal or shifting of the people who settled in the vicinity of or along the wall of Mahabodhi temple would not be an easy task! The existence of beggars in masses surrounding the main temple and other temples shows an example of social pollution and indicate societal negligence. The people are so habituated and accustomed that they never realise such problems as black spots on the humanity. As was already realised in 2006 when the UNESCO team visited the place, still no way international standard for maintenance of World Heritage Site is followed; in fact this problem persists and its degree is Bodh Gaya, a World Heritage Site: Perceptions & Values 281 increasing! If this tendency will continue UNESCO will take back the honour of enlisting in the WHL! Bribery, robbery, theft and insecurity are the common scenes! People say that even police also support such malpractices, and the victims avoid seeking their help with a fear that their help will be more torturing that tolerance of the bad happenings. Some respondents mentioned that „there is no administration al all. Neither there appears civic sense, nor control; but the common masses have to suffer. Some people feel that we lack the real ethical-valued based education, and also heritage planning, which should start at the lower level. Unfortunately there does not exist any courses related to or centre like Buddhist Studies, Heritage studies, Urban planning or hotel management in Magadh University, or any private institution. There should be enough institutes and organisation that may promote reverential (spiritual) frame of development and prepare cadets for preserving, conserving and maintaining the spirit of place on the line of the Buddha‟s message. This is difficult and challenging, but not impossible (compare the case of Shirakawa-mura, a World Heritage Site in Japan, cf. Singh and Fukunaga 2011: 141). Introducing heritage walk on the Buddhist trail and celebration of heritage week will also be helpful in this respect. The aspect of cultural performances like the Buddha Mahotsava that started in 1997 has not yet received attention by the local people and middle-class shopkeepers. They feel that intense involvement of the government authorities and foreign-based institutions make it a big touristic-show for their own economic gain through event tourism. The celebration of Kalachakra Puja attracts a great mass of visitors that ultimately turns to chaos in lack of infrastructural facilities. 5. The Memorandum: Public opinion The three researchers (cf. Amar, Krishna and Geary 2007), based on their participatory observations, personal experiences and taking in view the public opinions, have made the following rational and viable suggestions which were submitted as „Memorandum‟ to the Hon‟ble Chief Minister of the State of Bihar, and given here as the heritage and sustainable development strategy: • A need for transparency including a suggestion box. • Proper linkage of railways to Bodh Gaya. • Publication of annual financial report and minutes that is to be reviewed by State and Central bodies. 282 8. Rana P.B. Singh & Devesh Kumar • Implementation of land cap and no exchange for ownership without permission from specialized body. • Public institutions including: hospital, women‟s college, vet clinic and research institute that includes a Centre for Dialogue and Peace and a Centre for Buddhist Studies of international standards. For example the Centre for Buddhist Studies can liaise with various academic institutions of the world which organize annual training programmes at Bodh Gaya. It should also provide research facilities for visiting scholars. • Greater initiatives for local employment such as availability of foreign languages, tourism-management courses to the local youth which can generate employment opportunities and also sensitize locals towards the needs of the trans-national visitors. • Local spaces such as auditorium and lecture theatres for organizing cultural and academic activities in Bodhgaya. • Heritage trails and connectivity of other Buddhist sites involving a pilgrimage map [not golf courses, and rope ways]. An appropriate vision of the landscape that takes into account of its living and ritual component. • The heritage zone/trails should establish and include green spaces and parks in the surrounding environs of Bodh Gaya. Also heritage week to be celebrated. • The planned Golf-Course should be abandoned. At present the current Master Plan that involves the construction of an 18 Hole Golf course and 1km Ropeway neither reflects the interests of Buddhist pilgrims, visitors and impoverished residents nor suits the religious and aesthetic values. • Tibet culture centre area should be established where annual Tibetan festivals and ritual-ceremonies can be organized. • No revenue extracted from meditation areas and parks and should be freely accessible. • Preservation of sculptures should include measures such as ensuring no gold polish to the sculptures of historic value installed within the templeprecincts, relocation of historical sculptures from the Mahant‟s math to Bodhgaya museum. Votive stupas with inscriptions are lying in awkward positions at relatively unsafe place within the Math and hence should be relocated to the museum as well. • Locals need to be sensitized to the value of heritage and needs of the site. 6. Concluding Remarks Like in case of Lumbini, the birthplace of Buddha, in Bodh Gaya also differences in values, interests, expectations and priorities among stakeholders, a major source of dissonance, may create conflict in heritage and Bodh Gaya, a World Heritage Site: Perceptions & Values 283 can be a challenge for its preservation and management. Similar to Lumbini, Bodh Gaya is also currently experiencing “latent dissonance,” which can be reduced through communication, cooperation and collaboration among various stakeholders (cf. Nyaupane 2009: 157). Let us hope that Geary‟s prophecy will turn to be a reality in coming future: “Unlike the shining model and success of Kerala to the south, Bihar‟s position of alterity and marginality is consistently reproduced in nation-wide surveys as an example of “backwardness.” While for some, Bihar remains a site of perpetual backwardness and Bihar-bashing a nationwide obsession, for others, Bihar is a place of cultural pride in the heart of India where backward looking views towards Bihar‟s glorious civilizational legacy provides the inspiration for a vibrant and prosperous future. If Bodh Gaya is to be the “Light of Asia” in the twenty-first century and a “splendid opportunity” in the words of Sir Edwin Arnold, it will likely depend more on its relationship with other Asian Buddhist countries” (Geary 2009: 240). If the twenty-first century will be an urban century and more significantly, a century of Asian urbanization where the age long traditions meet hand-to-hand with modernity making a development model of sustainable integrity, most likely Bodh Gaya might serve as a model in this dynamic context of aspiring cities (cf. ibid.). The increasing pace of infrastructural growth through masses of pilgrims and sensitive tourists coming from China, Taiwan, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Japan and Singapore are already carrying the most significant economic influence at this World Heritage site today. The enlisting of Mahabodhi temple as WHS and consequently flow of tourist and capital from many Asian and European countries supports Ong‟s (1999) argument that transnationality induced by accelerated flows of capital, people, cultures, and knowledge does not reduce state power, but instead stimulates a new, more flexible, and complex relationship between people, capital, and governments (cf. Chan 2005: 78). It becomes now the moral duty (dhamma) for everybody to contribute in making serenity and spirit of the place alive and useful in getting realise and revealed the message of the Buddha through compassion, love and peace. Remember, while addressing a gathering of over 30,000 people, including 10,000 Westerners, at Bodh Gaya on 6 January 2010 what 74year old H.H. the 14th Dalai Lama Tenzin Gyatso said: “Einstein and several other contemporary scientists have found the Buddhist way of living as more scientific for it is an exercise to cure and pure the mind rather than indulging in prayer and recitation. … You should never forget 8. Rana P.B. Singh & Devesh Kumar 284 your original culture and ethos which offer a panacea from the stress and strain caused by materialistic craving and chaos.” Let Bodh Gaya not be transformed into a Buddhist theme-park, a kind of spiritual Disneyland for mass tourism consumption! Let UNESCO and the recently launched JNNRUM City Development Plan serve as the glue that holds the culture of peace, compassion and global humanism, together recognizing the needs of local communities and other interest groups in a more harmonious way! 7. References Amar, Abhisek; Krishna, Prabhat and Geary, David 2007 (October). Memorandum: regarding Bodh Gaya; to the Chief Minister of Bihar. Web: http:// www.bodhgayanews.net/pdf/BodhgayaMemorandum.pdf Chan, Selina Ching 2005. Temple-Building and Heritage in China. Ethnology, Vol. 44 (1), Winter: 65-79. Doyle, Tara N. 1997. Bodh Gaya: Journeys to the Diamond Throne and the Feet of Gayasur. Unpublished doctoral dissertation in Religious Studies. Harvard University, Cambridge. ―. 2003. „Liberate the Mahabodhi Temple!‟: Socially engaged Buddhism, Dalit-Style; in, Heine, S. and Prebish, C. (eds.) Buddhism in the Modern World: Adaptations of an Ancient Tradition. Oxford University Press, Oxford: 249-280. Geary, David 2008. Destination Enlightenment: Branding Buddhism and Spiritual Tourism in Bodhgaya, Bihar. Anthropology Today, 24 (3), June: 11-14. ―. 2009. Destination Enlightenment: Buddhism and the Global Bazaar in Bodh Gaya, Bihar. Unpublished doctoral dissertation in Anthropology, the University of British Columbia, Vancouver. HUDCO 2006. Bodh Gaya, City Development Plan for 2031. HUDCO and Government of Bihar, Dept. of Urban Planning, Patna. JNNURM 2007. Bodh Gaya: City Development Plan, An Appraisal. Web: http://jnnurm.nic.in/nurmudweb/cdp_apprep_pdf/CDP_Appraisals_CEPT /Bodhgaya_CEPT.pdf <accessed on 17 May 2010>, Kersel, Morag M. 2009. Walking a fine line: Obtaining sensitive information using a valid methodology; in, Sørensen, Marie L. Stig and Carman, John (eds.) Heritage Studies: Methods and Approaches. Routledge, London: 178-200. Massey, Dorren 1994. Space, Place and Gender. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. Nyaupane, Gyan P. 2009. Heritage complexity and tourism: the case of Lumbini, Nepal. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 4 (2), May: 157-172. Bodh Gaya, a World Heritage Site: Perceptions & Values 285 Nyaupane, Gyan P. and Timothy, Dallen J. 2010. Heritage awareness and appreciation among community residents: perspectives from Arizona, USA. International Journal of Heritage Studies, 16 (3): 225 - 239. Ong, Aihwa 1999. Flexible Citizenship: The Cultural Logics of Transnationality. Duke University Press, Durham NC. Pick, Austin R. 2009 (Feb.). Aboard the Mahabodhi Express. Northern India: Along Pilgrim‟s Paths. Web: http://www.fudomouth.net/intert ext/ap_subcontinent05.htm <retrieved on 15 May 2010> Ramanujan. A. K. 1990. Is there an Indian way of thinking? An informal essay; in, Marriott, McKim (ed.) Indian Through Hindu Categories. Sage, New Delhi: 41-58. Singh, Rana P.B. 2003. Where the Buddha Walked: A Companion to the Buddhist Places of India. Indica Books, Varanasi. Reprinted 2009. ―. 2008. The Contestation of Heritage: The enduring importance of Religion; in, Graham, Brian and Howard, Peter (eds.) Ashgate Research Companion to Heritage & Identity. Ashgate Publishing, Aldershot Hamp. & London: 125-141 ―. 2009. Development in India: Appraising Self Retrospection; in, his: Geographical Thoughts in India: Snapshots and Vision for the 21st Century. Planet Earth & Cultural Understanding Series, Pub. 2. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne. U.K.: 394-422. Singh, Rana P.B. and Fukunaga, Masaaki 2011. The World Heritage Villages of Shirakawa-gō and Gokayama, Japan: Continuing Culture and Meeting Modernity; in Singh, Rana P.B. (ed.) Heritagescape and Cultural Landscapes. Planet Earth & Cultural Understanding Series, Pub. 6. Shubhi Publications, Gurgaon & New Delhi: 129-150. Smith, Laurajane 2006. Uses of Heritage. Routledge, London and New York. Sørensen, Marie L. Stig 2009. Between the lines and the margins: interviewing people about attitudes to heritage and identity; in, Sørensen, Marie L. Stig and Carman, John (eds.) Heritage Studies: Methods and Approaches. Routledge, London: 164-178. Waterton, Emma and Watson, Steve 2010. Culture, Heritage and Representation: Introduction; in, their (eds.) Culture, Heritage and Representation. Perspectives on Visuality and the Past. Ashgate Publishing Ltd., Hampshire UK: 1-16. Webb, Jen 2009. Understanding Representation. Sage Publications, London. ---------------------------------------Prof. Rana P.B. Singh Professor of Cultural Geography & Heritage Studies, Banaras Hindu University, New F - 7 Jodhpur Colony, Varanasi, UP 221005. INDIA. Email: ranapbs@gmail.com 286 8. Rana P.B. Singh & Devesh Kumar § Rana has been involved in studying, performing and promoting the heritage planning and spiritual tourism in the Varanasi region for the last over three decades as promoter, collaborator and organiser. On these topics he has given lectures and seminars at various centres in Australia, Austria, Belgium, China PR, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Italy, Japan, Malaysia, Nepal, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Philippines, Singapore, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, USA (& Hawaii), USSR. His publications include over two hundred research papers and thirty eight books and two regional guidebooks for cultural tourism, like Banaras (Varanasi), Cosmic Order, Sacred City, Hindu Traditions (1993), Environmental Ethics (1993), The Spirit and Power of Place (1994), Banaras Region: A Spiritual & Cultural Guide (2002, with P.S. Rana), Towards pilgrimage Archetypes: Panchakroshi Yatra of Kashi (2002), Where the Buddha Walked (2003), The Cultural Landscape and the Lifeworld: The Literary Images of Banaras (2004), Banaras, the City Revealed (2005, with George Michell), Banaras, the Heritage City: Geography, History, Bibliography (2009), and the eight books under „Planet Earth & Cultural Understanding Series‟: ‒ five from Cambridge Scholars Publishing UK: Uprooting Geographic Thoughts in India (2009), Geographical Thoughts in India: Snapshots and Vision for the 21st Century (2009), Cosmic Order & Cultural Astronomy (2009), Banaras, Making of India’s Heritage City (2009), Sacred Geography of Goddesses in South Asia (2010), and ‒ three from Shubhi Publications (New Delhi): Heritagescapes and Cultural Landscapes (2011), Sacredscapes and Pilgrimage Systems (2011), and Holy Places and Pilgrimages: Essays on India (2011). Mr. Devesh Kumar UGC Research Fellow, Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, UP 221005. INDIA. Email: devesh.sitamarhi@gmail.com § Mr. Devesh is a UGC Junior Research fellow, and working for doctoral degree on the dissertation entitled “The Buddhist Heritage Sites: A Geographical Analysis of Sacred Landscapes” since August 2008. He has prepared a review report and presented a few research papers in various national seminars.