diversity
Article
The Taurus Mountains, the Hotspot of Western Palearctic
Biodiversity, Is in Danger: Marble Quarries Affect Wildlife
Tamer Albayrak 1,2, *
and Tamer Yılmaz 3
1
2
3
*
Citation: Albayrak, T.; Yılmaz, T. The
Taurus Mountains, the Hotspot of
Western Palearctic Biodiversity, Is in
Danger: Marble Quarries Affect
Wildlife. Diversity 2024, 16, 267.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
d16050267
Academic Editor: Luc Legal
Lab of Ornithology, Department of Biology, Science and Art Faculty, Burdur Mehmet Akif Ersoy University,
Burdur 15030, Turkey
Department of Mathematics and Science Education, Buca Faculty of Education, Dokuz Eylül University,
İzmir 35390, Turkey
Institude of Science, Burdur Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Burdur 15030, Turkey; tameryilmaz15@gmail.com
Correspondence: tamer.albayrak@deu.edu.tr
Abstract: The Taurus Mountains in the Mediterranean Coastal Basin, considered a biodiversity
hotspot, have a rich biodiversity in the Western Palearctic. The number of marble quarries in the
Taurus Mountains has dramatically expanded over the past ten years. The objectives of this study
are to (i) determine the impacts of quarrying on wildlife and (ii) determine the potential impacts
of quarrying on the future of Taurus. A total of 57,547 photos and video images were analyzed on
5447 photo-trap days in two areas, the marble quarries and the control areas. Using 97 randomly
selected marble quarries, the area they cover and their annual growth rates were determined. The
most commonly seen animals were the wolf (Canis lupus), fox (Vulpes vulpes), lynx (Lynx lynx), and
wild boar (Sus scrofa) in the control area, and the jackal (Canis aureus) and hare (Lepus europaeus) in
the marble quarries (p < 0.001). Additionally, we found a significant positive correlation between
the distance from the geographical center of the marble quarries and the number of dates of wolf,
fox and wild boar sightings, with a significant negative correlation for hares (p < 0.05). A positive
correlation was found between the area of marble quarries and the duration of operation (R = 0.89,
p < 0.00). The waste from quarries, which makes up 79.7% of the total land used for this purpose,
is the greatest cause of habitat degradation. According to calculations, even if no new marble
quarries are built as of right now, 7.14% of the Taurus Mountains may have disappeared by the
year 2027, and by the year 2032, 8.25% of the Taurus ecosystems may have disappeared completely.
The Taurus Mountains, a center of Western Palearctic biodiversity, are being threatened by marble
quarries. This study advances our knowledge of how marble quarries may affect wildlife. New
strategies must be developed as soon as possible to protect the Taurus Mountains, the hotspot of the
Mediterranean basin.
Keywords: wolf; Canis lupus; jackal; Canis aureus; fox; Vulpes vulpes; lynx; Lynx lynx; wild boar; Sus
scrofa; hare; Lepus europaeus; photo trap; conservation
Received: 28 March 2024
Revised: 24 April 2024
Accepted: 29 April 2024
Published: 30 April 2024
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
1. Introduction
The diversity of its plants and animals makes Anatolia one of the Western Palearctic’s
(WP) high-biodiversity zones. Anatolia was a key refuge for many WP species during the
last Ice Age and includes a variety of habitats from sea level to 5000 m above sea level.
The animals and plants of the northern regions of the WP, which are not part of Anatolia,
moved to the Anatolian refuges during the Ice Age. They evolved there; some of them
stayed in Anatolia, and some of them moved to Europe to recolonize the European fauna
after the Ice Age [1]. Due to these kinds of influences, Anatolian biodiversity has reached
169 mammal [2], 491–512 bird [3], 139 reptile [4], 35 amphibian [5], 33,820 insect [6], and
12,000 plant [7] species. A large proportion of them live in the Taurus Mountains, which
extend along the Mediterranean coast in the WP [8–10]. In addition, there are unique
Diversity 2024, 16, 267. https://doi.org/10.3390/d16050267
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/diversity
Diversity 2024, 16, 267
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endemic species in the Taurus Mountains [7] and Taurus-specific genetic structures of
widespread populations, e.g., mammals [11], birds [12], amphibians [13], and relict species
from the last glacial period, e.g., Orthoptera, [14]. In addition, newly discovered plants [15]
and animals [16] are found in Taurus.
Recently, a significant amount of biodiversity has been lost due to various reasons such
as industrialization and the rapid increase in the human population [17]. In recent decades,
some species such as the Falklands wolf (Dusicyon australis) [18] and Pinta Giant Tortoise
(Chelonoidis abingdonii) [19] have disappeared from the wild. According to IUCN, 26% of
mammals, 14% of birds, and 41% of amphibians are considered threatened species [20].
Anthropological impacts in rainforests and Mediterranean basins, which are hotspots of
the world’s biodiversity, threaten many species, including potential species we have yet
to discover. Habitat destruction and fragmentation and agricultural monocultures are
causing natural habitat collapse and population decline. Marble quarries have the same
effect, causing habitat destruction and fragmentation. Over time, this situation leads to the
extinction of species. Therefore, monitoring wildlife is extremely important for biodiversity
conservation, and the photo-trapping method is extremely useful for this purpose.
The photo-trapping method is useful for detecting wildlife, especially cryptic species
such as Caracal (Caracal caracal [21]), wolf, (Canis lupus [22]), and Monk Seal, (Monachus
monachus [23]). In addition to detecting species with a systematic photo-trapping study,
daily and seasonal activity times can also be determined [24]. To identify wildlife in
Anatolia, photo-trapping studies were conducted in Beydağları [10], Yenice Forest [25], and
deciduous forests [26].
Marble quarries cause habitat destruction by removing the soil layer and exposing
the stone layer. It is not precisely known whether the number of marble quarries in
Turkey has increased in the last decade, but exports amounted to USD 4.6 million in
2000 (about 500 quarries) and increased 370-fold to USD 1.7 billion in 2020 (about 1500 quarries) [27]. Marble quarries showed a very serious increase of 891.44% (from 148.41 hectares
to 1577.52 hectares) between 1995 and 2020 in a local area of the Taurus Mountains [28].
These marble quarries operate with low productivity due to the rock structure of the Taurus Mountains. In addition to the irreversible destruction of the habitats where marble
quarries are operated, wildlife is expected to be affected by human activity and noise
pollution caused by the 24/7 operation of these quarries. The Taurus Mountains, one of
the most important areas of the Mediterranean region, which is considered a hotspot of
Western Palearctic biodiversity, may be threatened by the rapid increase in marble quarries,
and wildlife can be affected by these activities. Unfortunately, to the best of the authors’
knowledge, there are no studies investigating the influence of marble quarries on wildlife.
Therefore, the objectives of this study are to (i) determine the impacts of quarrying on
wildlife and (ii) determine the potential impacts of quarrying on the future of Taurus. To
achieve these objectives, we first determined the number of current marble quarries and
then examined the impact of these quarries on wildlife. More than 50,000 photo-trap images
were analyzed in the area where the quarries are located and the adjacent control area to
determine if the quarries are affecting wildlife.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area and Design
This study was conducted in the western Taurus Mountains (Taurus). To determine the
effects of marble quarries on wildlife, two adjacent areas, each approximately 120 km2 and
with the same habitat type and elevation, were selected as the marble quarry area (MQA)
and control area (CA). The MQA is located in the Dumlu Mountains, where 51 marble
quarries are active, and the CA is located in the Söğüt Mountains, where there are no
marble quarries (Figure 1). The occupied areas of the randomly selected 97 active marble
quarries were calculated using Google Earth for currently covered areas, and Google Earth
Timelapse to find out how much area was occupied in prior years and the year in which
operations started in the western Taurus Mountains.
Diversity 2024, 16, 267
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Figure 1. Western Taurus is the study area and the areas where the photo-trapping study will be
conducted. (a): Study area location; red star (b): yellow dots are randomly selected marble quarries
in western Taurus; (c): areas where the photo-trap study is conducted; red dots are marble quarries in
MQA, green line is the control area, and plus signs are the photo-trap locations.
2.2. Photo Trap and Target Species
To determine photo-trap locations, each study area was divided into 30 quadrats of
4 km2 , and ten quadrats were selected to represent the entire study area on the map. A
total of 20 Bushnell Trophycams and Reconyx UXR6 photo traps, ten each, were placed
on animal track transit routes in the MQA and CA. The photo traps, two photos and ten
seconds of video per trigger, were operated over 399 days between 1 December 2015 and
2 January 2017.
A total of 57,547 photos/video pictures were taken during 5447 photo-trap days. If
there were numerous photographs of what appeared to be the same animal in a series,
they were counted as a single sighting, which refers to a single datum. With these single
sightings, 16995 mammal data were obtained, and these data were used in the analysis.
Six target species were evaluated in this study, including wolf (Canis lupus), jackal
(Canis aureus), fox (Vulpes vulpes), lynx (Lynx lynx), wild boar (Sus scrofa), and hare (Lepus
europaeus).
2.3. Data Analyses
The average annual growth rate of the marble quarry is calculated by dividing the
area covered by the quarry by the year of its operation. The areas that will be covered
after 5 and 10 years were calculated using the average annual growth rate (n = 97). To
determine the differences in the prevalence of target species between the marble quarries
ff control areas, a t-test was performed. The central location was determined using
and the
the coordinates of the 51 quarries in the MQA. To understand the impact of the quarries on
wildlife, a correlation analysis was conducted between the prevalence of target species and
their distance from the central location.
A correlation analysis was also conducted to determine the relationship among the
target species. The numbers reported in the analyses are the total number of data collected
in a day, indicating the frequency of target species activity, not the total number of individuals in the field. All statistics were generated in R Studio v.2021.09.2 [29] and SPSS 17
software [30].
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3. Results
3.1. Marble Quarries
In general, there were few marble quarries in Taurus in 2005, but the number of
quarries increased rapidly after 2008. The first of the 97 selected marble quarries started
operation in 2005. Ninety-one of them were in operation in 2011; in 2016, all quarries
were in operation and used a total of 1868 hectares, and a total area of 3164 hectares was
calculated to be used by the 97 marble quarries in April 2021. It was found that only
20.3 ± 6.6% of the total area where the quarries caused habitat destruction was the area
where the marble blocks were quarried, while 79.7 ± 6.6% was the area where the waste
produced during the quarrying of these blocks was disposed of.
It was calculated that the average area of a marble quarry from the first year of activity
of the 97 selected marble quarries from western Taurus in the 5th, 10th, and 15th years is
13.34 ± 15.89 (n = 97), 24.88 ± 29.66 (n = 91), and 49.20 (n = 1) hectares, respectively. A
statistically significant positive correlation was found between each year of operation and
the covered area of these years, which were determined using Google Earth Timelapse
(R = 0.89, p < 0.01; Figure 2 left). Also, a non-significant but positive correlation was found
between the year in which activity started and the currently covered area of the quarries
(R = 0.18, p = 0.07; Figure 2 right).
< 0.001
Figure 2. Growth rate of marble quarries (n = 97); correlation analysis between each year of operation and covered area of these years, which were determined using Google Earth Timelapse
(left). Correlation analysis between the first year of activity and the currently covered area of the
quarries (right).
3.2. Photo Traps
To determine the impact of marble quarries on wildlife, we analyzed a total of
57,547 photo and video images from a total of 5447 photo-trap days in the MQA and
CA. We identified 12 mammal species from 16995 data. Of these data, 13441 included
the target species wolf (Canis lupus), jackal (Canis aureus), fox (Vulpes vulpes), lynx (Lynx
lynx), wild boar (Sus scrofa), and hare (Lepus europaeus). In addition to the target species,
Beech Marten (Martes foina), Pygmy Weasel (Mustela nivalis), European Badger (Meles meles),
Southern White-breasted Hedgehog (Erinaceus concolor), Anatolian Tree Squirrel (Sciurus
anomalus) and Williams’ Jerboa (Allactaga williamsi), the latter of which was recorded for
the first time in Burdur province, were also recorded.
Looking at the monthly maximum numbers of the target species in the MQA and CA,
tt
we find that their abundance varies depending
on the month. During the summer months,
the abundance of the target species generally decreased, with the exception of feral hogs. It
can be seen that seasonal densities are similar between wolves and wild boars and between
lynxes and hares (Figure 3).
ff
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200
90
150
60
100
30
50
125
20
100
15
75
10
50
5
25
150
600
100
400
50
200
Figure 3. Monthly total number of daily recorded individuals of the target species associated with
areas. Y axis: total numbers; X axis: months.
When examining the daily activity times of the target species in relation to the areas,
it was found that the species were generally active at night and had low activity between
10:00 and 15:00 (Figure 4). Wolves, foxes, and jackals appeared to be more active during
the day in the control area, but no statistical difference was found between the two areas
(p > 0.05).
Wolf
Wild Boar
Hare
Lynx
Fox
Jackal
Wolf
Figure 4. Daily activity times of target species, depending on area.
1
0.8
0.6
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Four predators and two prey species compared based on the total number of individuals recorded in a day are listed in Table 1 and Figure 3. Wolves, foxes, lynxes, and wild boars
were more abundant in the control areas; these differences were statistically significant
for wolves and foxes (p < 0.001). Hares and jackals were statistically more common in the
marble quarry area (p < 0.001; Table 1). A positive correlation was found between some
target species, while a negative correlation was found between wolves and hares when the
two areas were evaluated together (Figure 5).
Table 1. Statistical comparison of total individuals recorded in the two areas on a daily basis. n:
number of days the species were recorded.
Control Area
n
Daily Mean ± SD
Max
p
105
45
264
319
213
380
1.78 ± 1.19
1.47 ± 0.84
2.06 ± 1.23
3.62 ± 2.49
4.80 ± 6.06
14.29 ± 8.69
8
4
8
15
31
50
186
65
311
259
207
391
3.16 ± 3.76
1.51 ± 1.03
2.63 ± 1.59
2.34 ± 1.77
5.75 ± 8.52
10.81 ± 8.77
25
7
10
12
45
55
0.000
0.826
0.000
0.000
0.187
0.000
Lynx
Wolf
Wild Boar
Max
Hare
Daily Mean ± SD
Fox
n
Jackal
Wolf
Lynx
Fox
Jackal
Wild boar
Hare
Marble Quarry Area
Wolf
Species
1
0.8
0.6
Jackal
0.4
0.2
Fox
0
Lynx
−0.2
Hare
−0.4
−0.6
Wild Boar
−0.8
−1
Figure 5. Pearson correlation between target species. The color indicates the R value, the size of the
circle indicates the p-value, and the cross indicates non-significant values (p > 0.05).
We found a positive correlation between the distance of the photo-trap site from the
center of the quarries and their daily total individuals of wolves, foxes, and wild boars.
The wolves (R = 0.21, p < 0.01), foxes (R = 0.09, p < 0.01), and wild boars (R = 0.09, p < 0.05)
were affected by the marble quarries and were found at a greater distance from the quarry
center (Figure 6). While there was no statistical correlation for jackals and lynxes, a negative
correlation was found for hares (Figure 6).
ff
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Figure 6. Correlation analysis between distance (m) of target species to quarry center (y axis) and
daily total number of individuals captured by each camera (x axis).
4. Discussion
4.1. Habitat Destruction by Marble Quarries
Marble activities have attracted the attention of people in Turkey from the Roman
Empire period until today [31]. Since the rock structure of the Taurus Mountains (Taurus)
consists of limestone suitable for marble quarrying, marble quarries, which are open-pit
mines, have become the focus of these activities [27]. In order to mine marble blocks, the
surface layers, soil and vegetation, must be removed and the unbroken rocks on the ground
must be cut. Due to the fragmented rock structure of the Taurus Mountains, marble quarries
operate at low productivity and produce too much waste. More habitats are destroyed due
to the methods of waste disposal. It was found that only one-fifth (20.3 ± 6.6%) of the total
area was the area where marble blocks were quarried, while four-fifths (79.7 ± 6.6%) was
the waste produced during the quarrying of these blocks. The operation of marble quarries
produces too much waste, which is indiscriminately disposed of from the slopes due to the
low productivity of the quarries. Habitat destruction in quarries increases significantly with
the number of years of operation in western Taurus (Figure 2 left; R = 0.89 p < 0.01). If this
increase (18% per year) continues with this correlation rate, the selected 97 marble quarries
might cover 8541 hectares in 2027 after five years and 19540 hectares 10 years later in 2032.
A non-statistically significant (Figure 2 right; R = 0.18 p = 0.077) but positive correlation
was found between the currently covered area and the first year of activity. This correlation
shows that newly opened marble quarries occupy more area than the old quarries.
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4.2. Impact of Marble Quarries on Wildlife
Species have been found to be negatively affected by the alteration of an area’s natural
habitat by changing species diversity [32,33] and the populations of mammals [34,35],
birds [34,35], reptiles [36,37], and amphibians [34,35]. The community changes when a
habitat is altered, but nearly all species disappear in the area when a habitat is destroyed.
Marble quarries destroy habitats and lead to habitat fragmentation. In this context, we
found that the area covered by marble quarries is equivalent to the habitat fragmentation
caused by quarries, but much larger.
We took 57,547 photos and video images on 5447 photo-trap days for a full year in
the quarry area and in the control area without quarries, which has a similar habitat and
elevation, to determine the impact of the marble quarries on wildlife. Although the target
species wolf, jackal, fox, lynx, wild boar, and hare were detected in both the marble quarries
and the control area, wolves, foxes (statistically significant p < 0.05), lynxes, and wild boars
were more abundant in the control area (Table 1). In addition, the occurrence of wolves,
foxes, and wild boars increased statistically the farther they were from the geographic
center of the marble quarries (p < 0.05; Figure 6). Our results show that habitat destruction
and fragmentation caused by marble quarries harms wildlife and the species move as far
away from quarries as possible, except jackals and hares.
Jackals and hares were found to be more abundant in the marble quarries than in the
control area. It is thought that this is due to the fact that jackals usually feed on human
waste caused by human activities. Ćirović et al. [38] found that 71.8% of the jackal’s diet
was human waste. The fact that the jackal was more abundant in the marble quarry area is
probably due to the fact that its predators, wolf, fox, and lynx, are less abundant in this area
compared to the control area, as well as to the absence of illegal hunters, since the marble
quarries are in operation around the clock.
4.3. Potential Impact of Marble Quarries on the Wider Taurus, the Hotspot of
Mediterranean Biodiversity
The Mediterranean Coastal Basin is a region of high biodiversity in the Western
Palearctic [39]; within this region, the Taurus Mountains form the Western Palearctic
hotspot. The Taurus Mountains are a biodiversity hotspot because they are a mountain
range that rises up to 3000 m above sea level, as well as due to its unique microclimate and
its habitats that range from scrub to alpine zones. Moreover, the southern part of the Taurus
served as a vital refuge for many animal species during the last Ice Age. They evolved,
and after the Ice Age, the species expanded their range from this refuge and restored
European biogeography. The Taurus Mountains harbor not only endemic species [13]
under the influence of the Ice Age, but also specific genetic structures of some widespread
species such as Fallow deer (Dama dama) [40] and Krüper’s Nuthatch (Sitta krueperi) [12].
The presence of newly identified plant and animal species is an important indication that
the biodiversity of Taurus is not yet fully known. This could be due to the deep valleys
and difficult-to-access cliffs of Taurus. The existence of orchid species living only in a
single valley of Taurus [41,42]—seven species and twenty-one subspecies of the genus
Lyciasalamandra from southern Taurus [43,44]—as well as a specific clade of populations
due to refugium effects on the population [12,45] are important examples of how specific
species and genetic structures have evolved in Taurus.
Taurus’ unique limestone habitats are being destroyed by rapidly increasing marble
quarries in the last decade. Our study found that target mammal species are being impacted
by direct marble quarries and are moving as far away as possible from the geographic
center of the quarries. While the lower and southern parts of Taurus are already under
severe pressure from tourism and human settlement, the northern and higher parts are also
under severe pressure from marble quarries. The main reason for habitat destruction is the
indiscriminate burial of waste from the quarries. Tercan and Dereli [28] found that forest
and semi-natural areas are generally allocated to marble quarries, which take up 4.69%
of the total area and showed a serious increase of 891.44% (average 164.48% in five years)
Diversity 2024, 16, 267
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between 1995 and 2020 in Burdur province. According to our calculations using the growth
rates of Tercan and Dereli [28] (R n = 0.98 p < 0.01 between percentage of MQA based
on total area and year), it is expected that even if no new marble quarries are established
as of today, because the marble quarries have been established throughout the Taurus
Mountains, 7.14% of Taurus habitats in 2027 (and 8.25% by 2032) may have disappeared.
This situation will lead to both the extinction of locally endemic species and the extinction
of the genetic structures of many species specific to the Taurus Mountains.
4.4. Recommendations
When issuing operating permits for the marble quarries, new methods should be
created. We have found that the main problem of habitat destruction is the waste produced
from the quarries, which accounts for 79.7% of the total area used for this purpose. To
protect Taurus, the hotspot of Mediterranean biodiversity, marble quarries with low productivity should not be allowed, and quarry waste should not be allowed to be dumped
indiscriminately on the slopes. The waste should be collected in a designated area. When
issuing and controlling licenses for quarries, scientific studies should be conducted that
take into account the biodiversity of the region. New strategies must be developed as soon
as possible to protect the Taurus Mountains.
5. Conclusions
Habitat destruction and the fragmentation of marble quarries were found to negatively
impact wildlife. Our hypothesis was confirmed by the target species, with the exception of
the jackal, which feeds mainly on human waste. Marble quarries, which have multiplied
like cancer cells that have metastasized in the last decade, pose a significant threat to the
Taurus Mountains, the hotspot of Western Palearctic biodiversity.
Author Contributions: T.Y. conducted fieldwork, edited data, and assisted in article writing; T.A.
analyzed data and wrote the article. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in the study are included in the article, further raw
data inquiries are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgments: The experiments comply with the current laws of the country in which they
were performed. We thank Yusuf Çınar who determined the marble quarry areas in Google Earth.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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