buildings
Systematic Review
A Systematic Review on the Risk of Overheating in Passive Houses
Ensiyeh Farrokhirad
, Yun Gao
, Adrian Pitts *
and Guo Chen
School of Arts and Humanities, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield HD1 3DH, UK;
e.farrokhirad@hud.ac.uk (E.F.); y.gao@hud.ac.uk (Y.G.); guo.chen@hud.ac.uk (G.C.)
* Correspondence: a.pitts@hud.ac.uk
Abstract: The rise in energy-efficient building strategies, driven by the intensifying energy crisis,
has encouraged the development of the passive house (PH) approach. However, existing research
highlights a potential downside, the perception of the overheating risk in hot periods, particularly
when design and construction methods fail to incorporate adequate mitigation strategies. This study
examines the pressing necessity of addressing overheating risks in PHs through a systematic review.
The aim is to identify key factors reported as contributing to overheating, to evaluate recommended
solutions across diverse global regions, and to identify methods to reduce the risk. This review
indicates that PHs are considered at risk of overheating in the hot periods of the year across many
climatic regions, exacerbated by the impacts of climate change. Architectural features, climate
conditions, inhabitants’ behaviors, and perceptions of the quality of indoor spaces are important
factors affecting PH overheating and should be considered at the design stage. It is concluded that the
urban context, building envelope characteristics, and their impacts require greater attention. Based
on the knowledge gaps identified, green walls are proposed as a nature-based solution with good
potential for mitigating overheating in PHs. More integrated consideration of all factors and solutions
can minimize current and future risks.
Keywords: passive houses; overheating risk; indoor air temperature; thermal comfort
1. Introduction
Citation: Farrokhirad, E.; Gao, Y.;
Pitts, A.; Chen, G. A Systematic
Review on the Risk of Overheating in
Passive Houses. Buildings 2024, 14,
2501. https://doi.org/10.3390/
buildings14082501
Academic Editor: Rafik Belarbi
Received: 24 June 2024
Revised: 1 August 2024
Accepted: 5 August 2024
Published: 13 August 2024
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
Extreme weather and warming trends have resulted from global climate change [1];
subsequently, people are more frequently subjected to heat stress due to growing urbanization and climate change [2]. Buildings are required to meet more stringent and advanced
standards: specifically, hey should be sustainable, consume no more than zero net energy,
create comfortable and healthy surroundings for residents, and be grid-compatible while
being affordable to build and maintain [3]. Accordingly, due to the need for high thermal
comfort and low energy consumption, architects and researchers across the globe are increasingly favoring passive house (PH) design [4]. The purpose of this paper is to draw
together and review extant information relating to a specific concern sometimes associated
with passive house buildings: the potential to cause overheating. The authors believe this
review will be of value to the wider research and practitioner community, especially as
PH buildings are being increasingly promoted for use in hot climates. It thus provides a
suitable collation of material for those planning future developments of PHs. At the same
time, it should be noted that the use of PH design approaches does not preclude the use
of cooling systems if required by the climate, but it does attempt to minimize the need to
match an adjusted cooling energy criterion.
In cold climates, PH design aims to reduce heat loss and optimize potential to use
solar and other heat gains through a focus on the building envelope. In regions with
higher ambient temperatures, the insulation standards also need to be high to minimize
conduction heat gains from windows, walls, and roofs. In regions with hot and humid
weather, the humidity level should be controlled. The design principles for PHs differ
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https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings
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according to the climate zone. In both cold and hot regions, it is better to have a compact
building shape that maximizes the ratio of exterior surface area to living space [4].
Providing “an adequate and even enhanced interior environment concerning indoor
air quality and thermal comfort” is one of the goals of the PH concept [5]. Although several
standards that use adaptive comfort models would suggest that the sense of overheating
in buildings is not as extreme as in other models, there are ambiguities regarding how
these standards will be used [6]. It is crucial to have the right tools to foresee this risk
during the design process to create comfortable, healthy homes that can survive both the
current climate and hotter ones in the future [7]. The passive house or passive building
design approach might be summarized as an approach to constructing buildings that utilize
natural energy sources and passive techniques to achieve energy efficiency, comfort, and
sustainability, taking into consideration climatic conditions in both summer and winter
seasons. Initially, there was a focus on minimizing heat losses [5], but over a number of
years, there have been examples showing dissatisfaction with internal thermal comfort
during hot periods, prompting this review [7,8].
It should be noted that the terms “Passivhaus” and “Passive House” are interchangeable in the literature; in this study, PH replaces both for efficiency. A rising number of
studies demonstrate that, given the current climatic circumstances, overheating during hot
periods is becoming a significant issue in both new and existing homes [7,9]. Consequently,
achieving high energy efficiency in PHs whilst simultaneously offering appropriate thermal
comfort in all locations and seasons is becoming more complex [10]. In addition to the
threats to health and thermal comfort, overheating can also result in higher electricity
consumption due to an increased use of air conditioning [11]. New buildings need to be
constructed to adapt to a warmer environment, as the risk of hot period overheating may
increase [12]. If policymakers quickly implement adaptation actions, the risk of overheating
in new and existing buildings can be reduced [6]. Otherwise, passive modifications cannot
completely prevent overheating; therefore, by the 2080s, active cooling will probably be
needed to keep a pleasant temperature inside a PH, not only in warm regions but also in
more moderate climate areas.
The energy-efficient passive house concept also needs review and/or modification
due to dynamic climate changes in different regions. Whilst PH design calculations already
incorporate some of these concerns, this study aims to review research studies relating to
the overheating risk in PHs to identify the primary factors, address the gaps, and propose a
new strategy to minimize this risk. We therefore conduct a review and analysis of previous
research on the overheating risk in PHs across diverse global regions. By examining the
timeline of existing research, this study emphasizes the critical need to integrate overheating
risk considerations into PH design. The main aims are as follows:
-
-
Highlight the potential problems and the need to address these in a timely manner
and quantify the impact of the overheating risk and its potential consequences.
Highlight regional variations in overheated PHs considering the regional diversity of
the risk associated with overheating PHs.
Identify influencing factors and explore the numerous factors that contribute to the
frequency and intensity of overheating in PHs.
Identify and evaluate the effectiveness of existing solutions for the overheating risk
in PHs and conduct a comprehensive overview of currently available strategies,
analyzing the influence and effectiveness of each solution in addressing thermal
comfort challenges within PHs.
Identify knowledge gaps and highlight areas where further research and development
are needed.
Through a multifaceted approach, this systematic review paper can provide a novel
contribution to the knowledge of the risk of overheating in PHs. This study uses a stagebased development trajectory to identify three aspects of research on the risk of overheating
in PHs. It assesses studies based on relevance and reliability, highlighting gaps in the
existing literature and the time-dependent nature of climate change. The analysis iden-
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tifies significant areas of knowledge and provides recommendations for future research.
This knowledge will be valuable to various stakeholders including designers and can be
incorporated into strategies to mitigate overheating risks during the initial design phase.
Occupants can gain a deeper understanding of their important role in maintaining thermal
comfort. Also, other stakeholders like policymakers and industry professionals can utilize
the findings to develop guidelines and implement solutions. It is not, however, designed to
be a review of PH design manuals or the Passive House Planning Package in detail (though
the latter is referred to in Section 3).
2. Materials and Methods
This study reviewed the research on the overheating risk in PHs by emphasizing
the timeline over which this occurred and investigating the number of studies based on
the time and issues addressed across several geographical regions. By focusing on the
cases considering climate factors, building design and construction, and the degree of the
overheating risk, features associated with this issue have been categorized. Sources and
references were categorized through searching the keywords ‘Passive House’, ‘Passivhaus’,
‘overheating risk’, and ‘post-occupancy evaluation’, along with related fields such as
‘energy performance’ and ‘thermal comfort.’ This study extracted what could be classified
as reliable data from ISI Web of Science, ScienceDirect, Scopus, and PubMed digital libraries.
In addition, related research theses, conferences, government documents, reports, and items
from passive house institutions and trusts were also collected. The strategy for the searching
of information was based on the publication date from 1988 to 2024, language, study type,
including reviews, experimental studies, observational studies, simulation studies, survey
studies, case studies, comparative studies, policy analysis studies, technical reports, and
intervention studies, and full-text availability. Data were extracted and categorized based
on climate factors, building design and construction, and overheating risk factors. European
studies are classified into three stages due to the number of studies and methodologies
applied in each phase.
2.1. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
The PH concept originated in Germany and subsequently gained traction in Austria,
Sweden, and Switzerland. This review focuses primarily on research published in English
with readily available full text. To broaden the scope, a limited number of relevant studies
were included after translation from German, Swedish, Dutch, Norwegian, and Chinese. It
should be noted that this study excludes documents in native languages due to the diversity
of local sources, which may limit the comprehensiveness of this review. Additionally, as
the primary focus of this study is on passive houses (PHs), the overheating risk in common
buildings and energy-efficient buildings is only considered in comparative studies. The
conceptual framework of this study is illustrated in Figure 1.
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Figure 1. Conceptual framework of study.
2.2. Study Selection
The study selection process adhered to the PRISMA 2020 guidelines for assessing the
overheating risk in PHs. Initially, 1984 records were identified through database searches,
with an additional 55 records identified from other sources, totaling 2039 records. After
removing duplicates, 1966 records remained. These were then screened, resulting in
312 records. Out of these, 114 records were excluded based on the initial screening criteria.
The remaining 198 full-text articles were assessed for eligibility, and 18 were excluded
for several reasons. Ultimately, 75 studies were included in the qualitative synthesis, and
105 studies were included in the quantitative synthesis (meta-analysis), as depicted in the
PRISMA flow diagram in Figure 2.
Main Study Characteristics: Studies are categorized based on geographical region,
time period, and methodological approaches. This review highlights three distinct stages
of research from 1991 to 2024.
Main Limitations: this review acknowledges limitations in the study methodologies, the
impact of technological advancements, and language barriers in accessing relevant studies.
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Figure 2. Database diagram constructed according to PRISMA approach (used under terms of CC BY
4.0 License) [13].
3. Overheating Risk in Passive Houses
The PH standard employs a predetermined threshold temperature that remains constant regardless of the weather outside and the vulnerability of the building’s occupants to
assess the risk of overheating. According to the guidelines, dwelling spaces cannot have
temperatures above 25 ◦ C for more than 10% of the time they are occupied [14]. Planning
for less than 5% overheating is encouraged, according to the Passive House Institute, taking
future climate changes into account [15]. In some countries, such as Belgium, the Passive
House Platform standard sets 5% over a year as the allowable limit for PHs [16]. The
overheating evaluation uses the same PHPP inputs as those used to calculate the building’s thermal envelope, such as insulated opaque elements, thermal mass, glazing system
performance, and ventilation systems [8]. Heat stress directly affects human thermoregulation, which is determined by the interaction of two independent variables, clothing
and metabolic rate, with four external parameters, ff
including the effects of air temperature,
radiant temperature, humidity, and air speed, and the body when coupled [17].
3.1. Overheating Prediction Tools
ff
It is crucial to have the right tools to foresee the overheating risk during the design
process to create livable, healthy homes that can withstand both the current climate and
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warmer ones in the future [18]. To simulate the performance of a specified PH, the PH Institute developed a conformance tool called PHPP. It was carefully created using contrasting
dynamic simulations to validate measurements in finished passive house projects, so it
is considered an accurate tool in the PH community [19]. Although there are simulation
tools to anticipate the overheating risk of dwelling in hot periods, the choice of the airflow
modeling strategy is crucial for PH buildings to predict overheating accurately. Goncalves
et al. stated that the method of BEM airflow modeling is unlikely to appropriately predict
the extent and frequency of overheating incidence for PHs in warmer climates [20].
On the other hand, PHPP’s overheating frequency evaluation has limitations, although
its capability for overheating risk prediction was confirmed by Ridley et al. [21]. However,
the limitation of PHPP for estimating the overheating risk in hot periods has been addressed
in numerous studies; for instance, Hopfe and McLeod [22] declared that although PHPP
is a reliable and well-validated tool, it is insufficient to determine the total amount of
overheating danger. Similarly, Morgan et al., [23] concluded that popular prediction
systems do not seem to be able to predict overheating with sufficient accuracy. The energy
performance gap through the simulation and monitoring of PHs in the North of England
was proved [8]. This study showed inaccurate predictions of indoor temperatures by
PHPP. Finegan et al. [24] determined the precise difference between the measured indoor
temperature and PHPP simulations by comparing the PHPP simulated annual overheating
frequency with that measured through a comparative study. In addition, the study on
certified PHs of Australian student accommodation revealed the inaccuracy of PHPP’s
ability to predict potential overeating frequency [25]. Through post-occupation evaluation,
inadequate simulation reality results were identified [26].
3.2. Three Stages of Studies in Europe on PHs
In this study, taking account of the time dependency of climate change and climateresilient strategies, the timeline illustrates the occurrence of the overheating process in the
first certified PHs in Germany in 1988. Not surprisingly, as this concept was started in
Germany and then accepted in Sweden and Austria in the early-stage studies that span
1991–2007, most of the studies have been conducted in central and northern European
countries. During this time, studies were scarce and primarily presented in German,
Swedish, Norwegian, and Dutch. It was the first stage of the post-occupancy evaluation
that highlighted occupancy satisfaction in most of the case studies. Since PHs were still
a novel idea for cold regions, residents were more concerned about their inability to heat
than their need for cooling [27]. The research on overheating in PHs has seen a steady rise,
particularly during three distinct stages:
•
•
•
Stage 1 (1991–2007): this initial stage witnessed a moderate increase in research, primarily concentrated in northern Europe, and the instances of overheating are minimal.
Stage 2 (2008–2012): Notably, the first UK study on overheating emerged just three
years after the UK’s first PH construction. Climate change was also recognized as a
contributing factor. The number of overheated case studies increased in this stage.
Stage 3 (2013–2024): This period marked a significant expansion in research, with a
growing body of studies conducted across diverse regions including Europe, Australia,
and Asia. Importantly, UK-based research joined the global effort during this stage.
3.2.1. The Early Stage of Studies in Europe between 1991 and 2007
In a preliminary study conducted in Stadtwerke Hannover from October 2000 to May
2001, a socio-scientific assessment of the PH “Lummerlund”, built in 1999, was performed.
High indoor temperatures and the lack of room temperature control were reported in the
bedroom [28]. Ebel et al. [29] compared PHs and low-energy buildings in Germany and
concluded that the temperature conditions in hot periods were rated worse on average than
those in winter. A slightly higher frequency of overheating was measured in low-energy
homes (on average, 7.5% of the time above 25 ◦ C) than in the PH dwellings (6.5%).
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A study on the first multi-storey PH, located in Kassel, Germany, in 2003, showed
a high satisfaction of tenants during hot periods [30]. However, in 2005, another study
on PH dwellings conducted by Berndgen-Kaiser [31] in Aachen (Germany) showed that
thermal comfort is negatively rated in the hot period due to overheating. This was often
due to a lack of sun-shading devices, and 38% of residents complained of excessively high
temperatures in the hot period.
The row of houses in Lindås, which was completed in 2001, was the first Swedish
project [27] to be investigated. The mean internal temperature for the four PHs in Lindås,
analyzed by the Technical Research Institute of Sweden in a study of 20 terraced PHs, was
25.2 ◦ C in the hot period [32]. Moreover, Schnieders [33] indicated that the majority of
residents (88%) expressed satisfaction or extreme satisfaction with the hot period indoor
air quality through an evaluation of 11 PH projects within the EU-funded demonstration
project CEPHEUS (Cost Efficient Passive Houses as European Standards) [33,34]. Likewise,
in a post-occupancy study by Feist et al. in 2005, great satisfaction with the hot period indoor
climate was observed [5]. A PH survey in Hamburg–Lurup, Germany [31], established in
2005 found that 33% of the respondents were delighted with their housing after regulated
winter operations, although 36% of the apartments experienced hot period overheating.
3.2.2. The Second Stage of Studies in Europe between 2008 and 2012
In the second stage, the number of overheating studies increased remarkably in Europe,
with southern European cases reported for the first time based on the first PH constructed.
A brief version of the PH study was provided as part of the 8th Vienna Housing Research
Days on 17 November 2009, with a focus on “Energy Efficiency in Residential Construction”,
and the significance of the total energy efficiency consideration was heavily debated for the
hot period.
Samuelsson and Lüddeckens [27] studied the indoor climate in PHs in their master’s
thesis. They surveyed three PHs in Frillesås, Oxtorget, and Gumsløv in Sweden to investigate user satisfaction, employing a questionnaire about temperature variations, draughts,
and perceived indoor climate. More than half of the residents complained that it was too
cold in the winter and extremely hot in the hot period, especially in one of the three projects.
The POE in Vienna discovered that issues with humidity and temperature were
comparable to those in older buildings, but they were becoming more obvious. Since
the first large passive residential buildings were built, such issues have increasingly been
considered. Any high-rise building is believed to have some weaknesses in terms of
controlling temperature and moisture, especially during the first winter after moving in
(the “drying phase”). Still, PHs draw attention because their residents concentrate on this
area (“priming”), which makes deviations more obvious and negatively viewed [35].
With the necessary modifications, a building idea based on the Darmstadt Passivhaus
Standard, such as the PH in Bronzolo, was claimed to be usable in warmer European
climes [36]. Noticeably, hot period overheating has been reported in a two-story PH
in Lidköping, Sweden [37]. In Mühlweg in Vienna, Austria, Wagner et al. [38] tested
multifamily buildings, including four houses and 70 apartments, and the duration in
hours of defined overheating. Larsen and Jensen [39] conducted research on the interior
environments of 10 PHs in Skibet, Denmark, in the same year. Overheating indicators such
as CO2 levels, relative humidity, and dry-bulb temperature were examined. The results
revealed that in July 2009, 40% of the limits were exceeded, whereas in 2010, they were
exceeded 60% of the time [39].
Rising global temperatures were a concern at 15 international PH conferences in 2011.
An international shift toward energy efficiency was also noted [40]. And a report published
by the Bundesministerium für Verkehr, Innovation und Technologies in Austria [41] compared the results from measurements carried out in five PH homes in Austria. Some projects
have also highlighted the overheating risk that occurs in the hot period. A simulation
study showed that the hot period temperature exceeded that in the Swedish PHs in the
Lambohov neighborhood of Linköping [42]. Meanwhile, a literature review on PH indoor
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air quality written by Thomsen and Berge [43] in Norwegian declared (based on findings
from the studies) that there was little evidence to suggest that the indoor climate in PHs
was worse than in conventional houses. They concluded that measurements and the users’
experiences of the indoor climate were mainly positive.
During this period, most studies were conducted and presented in native languages,
including theses, regional reports, and PH documents. Comparing the current stage to
the previous one, the applied methodology was clearly lacking, and the studies’ advice
on development was only partially useful. For example, obtaining professional sensors
that could measure all environmental components and their fluctuations was difficult.
The details of the examined cases were also not described very well, and additionally,
the quantity and functionality of the simulation software were restricted. For this reason,
unlike in the third stage, the results are not very accurate or comparable.
3.2.3. The Third Stage of Studies in Europe between 2013 and 2024
Indoor thermal environments in nine passive dwellings in Sweden were evaluated by
Rohdin et al. [44]. They discovered that the PHs generally had good indoor thermal comfort;
however, they also discovered several complaints about the high hot period temperatures.
Eleven units of Vienna’s PH Utendorfgasse have individual temperature controls, and 90%
of those polled expressed satisfaction with the living room temperature. To maintain the
ideal room temperature, 14.3% of people with individual room temperature preferences
chose to continuously ventilate their bedrooms [45].
POE analysis in PH office buildings was used in studies in the hot period of 2013 in
Romania; the results showed good indoor air quality and comfort [46]. In the same year,
overheating was reported in several PH studies in subtropical climates in Europe [47]. However, even in regions with temperate climates, overheating was frequently reported [48].
A one-year study on PHs in Cesena, Italy, an area with high precipitation, revealed that
overheating occurred in the hot period [49]. Dynamic simulations of tall PHs in northern
Spain identified overheating on hot days; this study examined various strategies to cool
the indoor environment and concluded that the best course of action depended on the
building’s location, use, orientation, activity, climate, and form [50].
To predict the overheating risk in hot periods, Goncalves et al. [20] investigated by
comparative analysis several airflow modeling methodologies with PHs relying on natural
ventilation and concluded that PH overheating in a temperate or colder climate is of lower
risk, but in a warmer climate, it is underestimated and needs more attention. Even Horner
et al. [51] stated that to maintain comparable hot period comfort in Germany with a cold
climate over the longer term, more efforts to deal with hot period overheating and more
comprehensive cooling measures would also be required [51].
Studies have been conducted to support the application of the standards in warmer
regions, even though the PH standard was originally established for cold weather situations,
representative of Central and Northern Europe [52]. Overheating during the warm season
is found when using PH concept implementation in southern Europe [53,54]. A recent
study on the indoor air quality of PHs conducted on 15 PHs in Hungary concluded that
relative humidity, overheating, and improper particle filters in the mechanical ventilation
system were found to be common issues pertaining to the building features [55]. The
research that has been conducted in Europe on the risk of overheating in PHs is collated in
Table 1.
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Table 1. Studies on overheating risk in passive houses in Europe.
Author
Year
Region/
Climate Class
Building
Type
Methodology
Mlakar and
Štrancar
2011
Slovenia, Cfb
Single-family house
Simulation
2015
Spain, Cfb
Single-family
house
2016
Portugal,
Csa/Csb
Detached house
Fokaides et al.
2016
Cyprus, Csa, and
BSh
Detached residential
building
Dynamic simulation
Heracleous and
Michael
2018
Cyprus, Csa, and
BSh
Educational building
Dynamic simulation
Living room
Hidalgo et al.
Figueiredo et al.
Monitoring
Specified Risk Area
Kitchen, living room,
and dining room
Dynamic simulation
Classrooms
Type of
Construction
Results
N
Without measures like night-purge ventilation and
outdoor shade, the building would experience
inside temperatures much above 26 ◦ C [56].
R
Overheating was observed because the period over
25 ◦ C exceeded 11.8%.
The home does not adhere to Passivhaus
standards [57].
N
Long durations of overheating throughout the
summer (from 13 to 43%) and long times of
thermal discomfort during the heating season
(from 60 to 92%) were both recorded [58]
N
Adaptive thermal comfort levels are met during
the hot period, with relatively few instances when
the temperature deviates from the ±3 ◦ C threshold
specified by the standard [47].
N
During 4% of the occupied hours, classrooms
facing east and west experience temperatures that
surpass the CIBSE standards [59].
Different areas of the building were at risk of
overheating, particularly the living room where 8%
of the time is thought to be overheated
annually [60].
Abrahams et al.
2019
Belgium, Cfb
Dwelling
Monitoring,
simulation, and
quantitative method
Finegan et al.
2020
Ireland, Cfb
Dwelling
Monitoring and
simulation
Bedroom
N
The output average housing temperature shows a
significant difference between overheating that is
simulated and reality [24].
Tian and
Hrynyszyn
2020
Norway, Dfb
Dwelling
Simulation
Bedrooms
R
Under the current condition, the 2050s, and the
2080s, it was discovered how many hours in the
studied rooms were unacceptable [61].
Figueroa-Lopez
et al.
2021
Spain, Cfb
Residential tower
Dynamic simulation
N
Overheating on warm days was reported and a
mix of strategies was suggested to minimize the
risk [50].
N: new construction; R: retrofitted.
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3.3. UK-Based Studies
Although the first official PH in the UK was constructed only in 2010 [21], 200 PHs
had been completed by 2014 [62]. This energy-efficient concept has been widely accepted
in the UK in recent times, and the number of buildings is growing. Dengel and Swainson
conducted a detailed review of the data regarding overheating in UK houses and found that
the evidence supporting the claims that homeowners overheat is growing [63]. According
to McLeod et al. [64], despite confirmed claims of overheating, the UK and neighboring
Ireland did not give the issue of overheating any consideration in the scientific literature on
PH dwellings until 2012.
Monitoring of the first certified PH in the UK by Ridley et al. [21] demonstrated that
for a quarter of a year, the living room in the Camden house exceeded 25 ◦ C in the hot
period 22.5% of the time, and the living room was warmer than 25 ◦ C. A comprehensive
study across the UK assessed the risk of overheating during the cooling season in social
housing flats constructed according to the PH standard. With more than two-thirds of
dwellings exceeding the standard, there was a high risk of hot period overheating. Even
though overheating levels in different flats vary significantly, a thorough investigation
shows that this is more a function of occupant behavior rather than structure [65]. Zhao and
Carter [66] used the Passivhaus Trust database to identify 34 residential projects completed
and inhabited in the UK between 2011 and 2015.
Through “perceived comfort” assessments considering social elements that affect
comfort, the meaningful relationship between assessments and occupants’ individual
experiences was excluded. Another study in the UK revealed that by analyzing individual
rooms, only 60% of bedrooms in houses satisfy the PH standard. It is recommended that to
boost trust in the PH application during the design phase and gain a deeper comprehension
of the overheating risk, it is essential to compare two different tools and their techniques,
referring to collected in-use data [7]. A PhD thesis in the UK focused on indoor air quality
in winter, spring, and the hot period in five PHs and four conventional houses, using
qualitative (interviews and diaries) and quantitative (monitoring) methods. The results
proved that in the hot period, high indoor temperatures can negatively affect the health of
occupants [67].
A comparison of five Scottish PHs demonstrated overheating issues at maximum
temperatures above 30 ◦ C; systems with unbalanced MVHR and an insufficient IAQ were
discovered due to inadequate ventilation in 80% of the houses [68]. In another study [69],
various inclined façades were evaluated using dynamic simulation modeling software to
understand how well they reduced the risk of overheating. According to the research,
installing a tilted façade may reduce the chance of overheating in the UK climate; however,
it would have some adverse effects on daylighting and natural ventilation. Nevertheless, by
the 2080s, such geometric considerations would not eradicate the risk of thermal discomfort
and overheating. Table 2 presents the findings of research conducted in the UK regarding
the potential for overheating in PHs.
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Table 2. Studies completed on overheating risk in passive houses in the UK.
Author
McLeod et al.
Ridley et al.
Ridley et al.,
Ridley and Stamp
Ingham
Mackintosh
Leeds Beckett
University for the
Gentoo Group
Year
Region and Climate
Class
2013
London,
Cfb
2013
London,
Cfb
2014
Camden,
Cfb
2014
Wimbish,
Cfb
2015
2015
Lockerbie,
Cfb
Houghton-le-Spring,
Cfb
Building Type
Terrace dwelling
Small family
dwelling
Methodology
Dynamic simulation
Monitoring
Detached house
Monitoring
Terrace dwelling
Interview and
monitoring
4 semi-detached
houses
Monitoring and
Simulation
Terraced bungalows
Thermographic
survey; Fabric
testing; and surveys
Place under
Risk
Orientation
Bedrooms
Living room
and bedroom
Bedrooms
West and
south
South
Bedrooms
Bedrooms
East–west
South–north
Type of
Construction
Results
N
Evidence reveals that Passivhaus
buildings and super-insulated homes
are already at risk of
overheating [64].
N
For 123 h (about 10 days), the
operating temperature in the living
room surpassed the 28 ◦ C threshold
set by (CIBSE) Guide A (2006), while
for 43 h (about 4 days), the operating
temperature in the bedroom
exceeded 26 ◦ C [21].
N
15% of the time, the living room’s
temperature exceeded 25 ◦ C,
breaking the PH limit. In the
bedroom, the CIBSE TM52 criterion
was not fulfilled.
Occupant survey results, however,
indicated that this is not a
concern [21,70].
N
Higher internal gains and the
absence of hot period bypass in the
MVHR contribute to
overheating [71].
N
By having no hot period bypass on
the MVHR and little hot period
shade, warm interior gains were
generated by uninsulated pipes in
the hot period [72].
N
29% of people indicated that the heat
of hot periods was bothersome.
Overheating is said to be made
worse by the MVHR’s boost function
and a lack of overnight cooling [73].
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Table 2. Cont.
Author
Tabatabaei Sameni
et al.
Foster et al.
Fletcher et al.
Botti
Morgan et al.
Mitchell and
Natarajan
Jang et al.
Year
Region and Climate
Class
2015
West Midlands,
Cfb
2016
Southwest and west
Scotland,
Cfb
Building Type
Social housing
Four semi-detached
homes and one
end-of-terrace house
Methodology
Monitoring
Monitoring,
interviews, and
behavior profiling
2017
UK,
Cfb
End-of-terrace
bungalow dwelling
Monitoring
2017
Edinburgh,
Cfb
51 dwelling flats
and terraced houses
Monitoring and
survey
2017
Barrhead, Livingston,
and Glasgow,
Cfb
21 low-energy
houses and 5 PH
dwelling
Monitoring
and survey
2019
Various cities,
Cfb
82 homes
82 dwellings, and 62
houses and
remaining flats
2022
UK,
Cfb
A comparative
study (typical
residential and PHs)
N: new construction.
Monitoring
Monitoring
Place under
Risk
Orientation
Living room
Bedrooms
Kitchen and
bedroom
Bedrooms and
living room
East–west
South
Type of
Construction
Results
N
There is a significant chance of hot
period overheating because almost
two-thirds of apartments are larger
than average [65].
N
With maxima over 30 ◦ C, there is
overheating. In 80% of the homes,
improper mechanical ventilation
with heat recovery (MVHR)
systems led to unsatisfactory
indoor air quality [68].
N
There is significant night-time
overheating and apparent
overheating during the cooler
months that might put vulnerable
people in danger [8].
N
The investigations revealed
frequent overheating, with the
number of users and ventilation
specified as the main factors [74].
N
The data gathered over a year
showed that Scotland’s PHs are
experiencing worryingly important
levels of overheating [23].
Bedrooms
Instead of considering overheating
throughout the house, Passivhaus
buildings should take specific
rooms into consideration [7].
Bedrooms
Although the chance of an entire
home overheating is low, bedrooms
in highly insulated homes may
carry an overheating risk [75].
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3.4. Studies in Asia
The simulation study conducted by Jayasinghe and Priyanvada [76] in multi-storey
dwelling PHs in Sri Lanka found that this strategy could not provide thermally comfortable
quality in the hot period due to high indoor temperatures. China’s first certified PH
appeared at the Shanghai World Expo in 2010 with the “Hamburg House” [77]. The
simulation study demonstrated that in hot periods and cold winters in China, without
active cooling, the PH cannot achieve the ideal indoor thermal environment [77].
The Zaishuiyifang community is the first residential PH dwelling in China, located
in the north-east of the country, which is classified as a cold climate zone. The maximum
bedroom temperature was 28.9 ◦ C, and the minimum level of temperature was 26.8 ◦ C
in the hot period, slightly higher than the standard requirement [78,79]. Shu Zhiyong’s
team monitored a PH building in Jiangsu Province. The indoor temperature reached above
28 ◦ C for part of the time, and the humidity reached a maximum of over 90%, with an
average value of 72.5%, resulting in overheating and humidity discomfort [80]. Zhou Bin’s
simulation study showed that more active cooling equipment was needed in the hot period
to achieve indoor comfort standards for PHs [81].
In a study conducted in northern China on PH overheating, window openings were
found to be required. Perceived discomfort was mainly reported in the hot period and in
winter in certain rooms for a short period. However, overheating occurrences during the
cooling season (July to August) were recorded almost 28% of the time [82]. Zhao et al. [83]
compared two PHs in cold areas in Beijing and Shijiazhuang, China, through simulation
and on-site measurements, showing that in Beijing, the primary method for enhancing
performance in the winter was to use an attached sunspace, but this also introduced
the issue of overheating in the hot period. The Beijing test example experiences hot
period overheating.
In another study, two PHs during a hot period and cold winter climate were simulated
to understand the effects of insulation and airtight buildings. The results show a hot period
overheating risk. Although the hot periods in many of China’s areas are hot and humid,
proper passive cooling and dehumidification technologies that provide indoor thermal
comfort were not completely considered [84]. Korean PHs demonstrated a minimized heating demand but with overheating during the cooling season [85]. The research conducted
on the potential for overheating in PHs in Asia is summarized in Table 3.
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Table 3. Studies completed on overheating risk in passive houses in Asia.
Author
Year
Region
Köppen–Geiger
Classification
Building Type
Methodology
Place under
Risk
Construction
Type
Results
Hu and Zhao
2014
China,
Qinghuangdao
Cfa
Residential
apartment
Monitoring
Bedroom
N
The bedroom temperature is between 26.8
and 28.9 ◦ C (1 July–31 August 2014), slightly
higher than the standard requirements [78].
N
It does not meet the energy-saving standards
of German passive buildings. In the hot
period, more active cooling equipment is
needed to achieve indoor comfort standards
for passive buildings [81].
N
The measured indoor temperature reaches
above 28 ◦ C part of the time, and the
humidity comes to a maximum of over 90%,
with an average value of 72.5%, and there
will be overheating and humidity for part of
the time [80].
Zhou and
Zhang
Shu et al.
2015
2019
China, Hefei
China, Jiangsu
Cfa
Cfa
Office and school
buildings
Office building
Simulation
Monitoring
Office room
Office room
Fu
2019
China, Hangzhou
Cfa
Office building
Simulation
Office room
N
The simulation results show that when there
is no active cooling, the indoor temperature
and humidity detected are comfortable for
70% of the time [77].
Zhao et al.
2020
China, Beijing and
Shijiazhuang
Dwa and
BSk
Dwelling
Simulation
Living rooms
and bedrooms
N
This study mentioned the overheating issues
in the hot period but did not prove
them [83].
BSk
High-rise
commercial and
residential
buildings
N
The highest temperature reached 37.88 ◦ C.
The average temperature in Apartment No.
1 was about 26 ◦ C. 35–45% dissatisfaction in
the hot period was reported [86].
N
Overheating occurrences during the cooling
season (July to August) were recorded,
almost 28% of the time. 60% of end-users felt
thermal neutral, while 26% felt slightly
warm to hot [82].
Zhang
He et al.
2020
2023
China, Ürümqi
China, Qingdao
N: new construction.
Cwa
Office building
Monitoring
Monitoring and
survey
Bedroom
Office room
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3.5. Studies in the Americas and Australia
The underestimation of the overheating risk by PHPP through dynamic simulation of
an Australian PH has been identified [87]. The study investigated the performance of the
first student residence in Melbourne, Australia, built according to PH standards, which
was evaluated by Kang et al. [88]. The case study building is concerned with overheating
and energy utilization, according to a long-term measuring and monitoring effort focusing
on thermal comfort conditions. The first USA PH was built in Wisconsin in 2010, and
an occupant analysis in 2011 showed users’ satisfaction during the hot period [4]. In the
first study conducting a thermal comfort analysis on a Latin American PH in Mexico,
measurements of humidity and indoor air temperature showed temperatures over 25 ◦ C
being recorded in the living room (8.03%), the kitchen (8.20%), and the bedroom (7.53%)
for a portion of the year [89]. There was evidence of overheating in the kitchen and
bedroom. The building failed all three criteria in both cities, indicating an elevated risk
of overheating [90]. In a typical single-family home in Canada that has been modified
to meet PH requirements, it was recognized that under free-running conditions, the risk
of overheating for a typical Canadian house converted to the PH standard will increase
dramatically starting in 2020 [91]. Table 4 presents the findings of the research.
Table 4. Studies completed on overheating risk in passive houses in Australia and the Americas.
Author
Year
Region and
Climate Class
Building Type
Methodology
MorenoRangel et al.
2021
Mexico, Cwb
Dwelling
Monitoring
Kang et al.
2022
Australia,
Melbourne, Cfb
Student accommodation
Simulation
Gnecco et al.
2022
Brazil
São Paulo, and
Manaus, Cfa
and Af
Elementary
school
Dynamic
simulation
Place under
Risk
Construction
Type
Results
N
For 7.53% of the year, the
bedroom had temperatures
above 25 ◦ C, and this
temperature was exceeded
for 8.03% and 8.20% of the
year, respectively, in the
living room and
kitchen [89].
N
The case study building has
issues with overheating
and energy use [88].
Bedroom
and kitchen
Classroom
There was a risk of
overheating reported due to
the lack of sun shading [90].
N: new construction.
4. The Main Factors Affecting the Overheating Risk
4.1. Building Characteristics
4.1.1. Materials
One of the most efficient passive measures to improve inside temperature, reduce
temperature fluctuations, and decrease overheating is thermal mass, which is using a
material’s capacity to capture, retain, and release heat [92]. A simulation study on a superinsulated and energy-efficient Nottingham house showed that thermal mass can reduce
overheating throughout the year [93]. Another study by Zune et al. [94] in tropical climates
revealed that 3.6% hours of over-warming time per year could be avoided by utilizing
shade in conjunction with the high thermal mass of the PH building envelope. Ozarisoy
and Elsharkawy [95] studied the overheating risks and thermal comfort in UK prototype
dwellings. It was concluded that the super-insulated and airtight buildings had insufficient
ventilation in the living areas, and the high heat gains through the composite cladding
material were the main causes of the unsatisfactory thermal performance. Conversely,
the general intensity of urban overheating is determined by the materials used in the
outside envelope of buildings [96]. The use of phase change material storage is an extra
technique for delivering space cooling. It absorbs energy from its surroundings during
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the melting phase, and when it solidifies, it releases the same amount of latent heat to its
surroundings [42].
Reducing the U-values can cause hot period overheating, a problem observed in Romania, which has higher temperatures compared to central European countries experiencing
colder weather, such as Germany [97]. According to a study on PH dwellings in Korea,
some societies have tailored their methods to address specific needs arising from unique
local contexts. Modifying the prototype’s U-values prevents overheating risks brought on
by using ‘Ondol,’ a conventional underfloor heating system that runs on water [85].
4.1.2. Thermal Insulation
Several post-occupancy studies have found that improved insulation and airtightness
increase the risk of overheating [98]. Recently, increased airtightness has raised the risk
of the building overheating. Higher insulation modestly reduces the amount of time
that bedrooms overheat in this investigation [61]. Using computer modeling, the Zero
Carbon Hub [99] examined many UK locations in 2010 and discovered that high insulation
levels and minimal air leakage, combined with increased solar gain, increased hot period
discomfort. Similarly, overheating risk enhancement associated with more insulation and
decreased airtightness was identified by Mulville and Stravoravdis [100]. Meanwhile,
another study has the opposite view when analyzing poorly and very well-insulated
buildings; the results indicated that insulation had a negligible impact on overheating.
Insulation is therefore responsible for decreasing and increasing overheating, depending
on the impact of additional factors, particularly at night, such as proper ventilation and
solar shading. The parameter ranking reveals that insulation accounts for up to 5% of the
overall overheating [101]. Further, Blight and Coley [102] stated that insulation is most
effective between 0.25 and 0.30 m; thicker insulation may not significantly reduce energy
use and may increase the need for cooling.
The first multifamily-certified PH in Bronzolo, Italy, concluded that while the highest
level insulation is a crucial component of a PH in Northern and Central Europe, less
stringent insulation standards can be developed for warmer regions [36]. Similarly, another
study, through a dynamic simulation study on the energy performance of PHs in Italy,
showed that unlike in a continental climate, many south-facing windows in this area had
an increased need for cooling in the hot period. Bruno et al. [103] confirmed that the correct
insulation thickness on the ground floor must be found to balance keeping heat in during the
winter and letting heat out during the hot period. The negative effects of super-insulation
during hot days were highlighted when a southern Italian flat in a warm Mediterranean
climate was retrofitted according to PH principles. The envelope prevents heat from
being adequately transferred outdoors during the hot period, especially at night [104].
The results from an analysis of a typical building in the hot and dry climate of Algeria
revealed that despite the passive house standard’s recommendation to super-insulate the
building envelope with a thermal transmittance of 0.10–0.15 W/m2 K, a cooling-dominated
climate may not need this amount of insulation [105]. Another study was conducted in
the Singapore region where the need is predominantly cooling; here the insulation of the
floor raised the cooling demand and stopped heat leakage from the structure. Therefore, it
was beneficial to remove the floor insulation to lower the need for cooling. Additionally,
it was observed that although night cooling decreased the need for cooling, the higher
humidity created an unfavorable indoor climate [106]. An investigation in regions in China
with a hot period and a cold winter demonstrates that improving airtightness and thermal
insulation leads to a rise in cooling energy use throughout the hot period and transition
season, which is related to overheating [107].
4.1.3. Number of Windows and Glazing Ratio
Lightweight, airtight homes with little opportunity for cross ventilation, such as singleaspect apartments, are highly vulnerable to the risk of overheating [63]. As an example, in
the UK, a PH must have optimum glazing on the south façade and fewer windows on the
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north façade to take advantage of the beneficial solar effects. A study showed that excessive
glazing might increase the chance of hot period overheating [108], and another declared
that a PH dwelling with a higher glazing ratio and a south orientation experienced more
elevated overheating on summer days [70]. In the Wiesbaden–Lummerlund terraced house
project (22 passive houses, 8 low-energy houses), satisfaction with living conditions was
high despite the noise level and subjectively low efficiency of the ventilation system [35].
A study conducted by Carletti et al. in Italy [109], investigating the problem of passive
buildings overheating in the hot period, they suggested minimizing the hot period solar
gain through reducing the glazing ratio. Kalamees [110] conducted a recent study on the
thermal comfort and hygrothermal performance of the building envelope of Estonia’s first
certified passive single-family detached house. The results primarily attribute the high
room temperatures to the large south-facing windows and the minimal heat loss of the
building envelope. An evolutionary algorithm was used to analyze three single-family
PHs located in distinct climatic zones in southern Brazil. The study indicated that a welldesigned combination of shading features and windows has a considerable positive impact
on internal thermal comfort [111].
4.1.4. Form, Configuration, and Orientation
Rodrigues et al. [93], in a simulation study on a super-insulated Nottingham house,
showed that the living room, kitchen, and south bedroom experienced the highest level of
overheating, while in the north bedroom, it was negligible. Similarly, it was found that the
risk of overheating frequency above 25 ◦ C was strongly influenced by the south façade’s
window-to-wall ratio and the solar transmission reduction offered by an entire external
shading mechanism [64]. An end-user study in the Netherlands on PHs showed that south
orientation and a lack of shading lead to high temperatures in the hot period. A total of 29
respondents thought the living room overheated during the hot period, and 49% of the 88
respondents thought the bedroom was too hot [112]. The relationship between a building’s
internal volume and its external surface area has a significant impact on its overall energy
demand. The surface area-to-volume (A/V) ratio indicates the compactness of the building.
A desirable compactness ratio is one where the A/V ratio is less than 0.7 m2 /m3 [108].
The building characteristics and urban heat island (UHI) impacts on overheating
risks in London dwellings were investigated by Mavrogianni et al. [113]; they found
that building form, orientation, and characteristics and surrounding buildings were more
significant predictors of variation in high indoor temperatures than a building’s position
inside London’s UHI. Although this study did not focus on PHs, it can provide a vision
for overheating variations in the urban context. Controlling the radiative qualities of a
building’s exterior surface will significantly impact the need for space heating and cooling,
according to Ascione et al. [114]. The indoor thermal performance will be impacted by
the building’s size. For instance, in a tropical climate study comparing a passive house in
a cold setting, significant parts of the building envelope functioned slightly better in the
free-running mode than others [94].
A study on a replica Victorian end-of-terrace house in Manchester, UK, accurately
predicted the overheating risk in bedrooms occurring as early as the 2020s [115], while
the impact of thermal mass on the future overheating risk was assessed for semi-detached
houses in south-east England. The findings verified that problems would occur after
2050 [116], and incidental gains are another factor that cause overheating [117]. Although
these studies did not focus on PHs, the results can be used for environmental analysis. In
retrofitted case studies that were awarded PH certification, building typologies and their
capacity to overheat must be considered. This suggests that designers should be more
cautious about the risk of overheating associated with upcoming climate change.
4.2. Occupants’ Behavior
Utilizing the full potential of low-energy dwellings requires post-occupancy engagement with occupants, both from a technical point of view to ensure proper operation of
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the residence and through training of the residents to ensure they fully take advantage
of the design features [118]. However, Hasselaar [119] stated that the complexity of PH
design is considered a design with absolute rules, and with increasing occupant awareness
of the benefits, they are more likely to adapt their lifestyle. To fully unlock the potential
of PHs, occupants can play a crucial role by adjusting their daily routines and behaviors.
A higher level of satisfaction requires pre-occupancy training and adjustment time [120].
The frequency of overheating is significantly influenced by occupant behavior, including
their vulnerability to high temperatures and how they manage the indoor climate [48]. The
occupants’ behavior and preferences significantly affect the overheating risk in PHs [70].
Emery and Kippenhan [121] found after a 15-year study on home energy consumption
that occupant behavior had a more significant influence on total household energy use
than the construction of the buildings and the use of insulation. By investigating a PH
in Jiangsu Province, Shu Zhiyong’s team concluded that human factors are one of the
primary causes of indoor temperature changes [80]. A hot period survey in July 2013 in an
office PH in Bragadiru, Romania, without an additional cooling system, concluded that
the occupants showed adaptive behavior, and it is recommended that an adaptive thermal
comfort assessment be conducted [46]. User experiences should be increasingly considered
in PH design. Assumptions about user behavior consistent with existing norms are to be
reconsidered [122]. Occupants’ behavior in terms of appliance control [70,123] and the way
in which occupants use PHs, particularly the selected temperature in the room and the
window opening frequency due to indoor thermal comfort, significantly impact energy
efficiency [124]. Dianshu et al. [125] demonstrated how internal heat loads are rising in
homes due to the increased use of appliances and electronic gadgets in China. To build
a successful PH, precise mechanical and architectural planning must be combined with
community rules that establish social standards and allow occupants to engage with the
PH concept. The PH concept will benefit significantly from habitation as it spreads to more
people and reaches its total capacity for sustainable housing [66].
4.2.1. Density of Occupation
By examining the possibility of overheating in a current structure, Vellei et al. [126]
discovered proof of overheating in 10 of the 86 rooms in nine residences. Regarding
the monitored places, bedrooms and kitchens appeared to have the greatest overheating
risk. Notably, the number of inhabitants was highlighted as an influential factor. A postoccupancy survey on affordable PHs in Edinburgh in the hot period of 2015 revealed the
essential factors that influence overheating risk. Examples were increased internal heat
gains brought on by the rising number of occupants and the use of domestic appliances,
as well as, in some situations, a dependence on inadequate natural ventilation to expel
excess heat [74]. Due to the high number of users, one PH’s three children’s bedrooms in
the south experienced more overheating [87].
4.2.2. Personal Factors of Users
Individual characteristics such as clothing, the degree of activity, and the state of
health affect thermal comfort in buildings were investigated by Chen [127]; further Porritt
et al. [128] investigated the occupant characteristics associated with overheating in British
homes built in the 19th century by monitoring a family and an old couple. The most
effective remedy for older occupants is external shutters for windows rather than external
wall insulation, while adding interior wall insulation is proven to extend overheating [129].
4.2.3. Simple Design and Occupant Awareness
Encouraging occupants to utilize advanced technologies in passive housing (PH)
is a crucial element in boosting the effectiveness of this concept. The design should be
simple, allowing managers and users to adjust to crucial factors that have previously been
overlooked. According to a German study, tenants complain about the shading’s excessive
complexity and potential for overheating [130].
ff
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4.3. Climate Conditions
The Köppen–Geiger classification helps comprehend the extensive body of research
and is widely accepted and used in many studies [131]. Reviewing the studies based on
this classification demonstrated that buildings in each of the following regions experienced
overheatingfbin the hot period: temperate oceanic climate or subtropical highland climate
(Cfb), hot hot-period Mediterranean climate, warm hot-period Mediterranean climate
(Csa-Csb), hot semi-arid climate (Bsh), cold semi-arid climate (Bsk), warm- hot-period
fb
humid continental climate (Dfb), humid subtropical climate; (Cfa), monsoon-influenced
hot-period humid continental climate (Dwa), subtropical highland climate (Cwa), monsooninfluenced humid subtropical climate (Cwb), and tropical rainforest climate (Af). It should
fb with a higher risk, according to the reported
be noted that Cfa and Cfb are the climate zones
cases. Also, it can be noted that more studies have been conducted in these regions
(Figures 3 and 4).
Figure 3. The climatic spread and frequency of overheated PH cases, according to studies.
The legend in Figure 4 illustrates the distribution of case studies concerning the
maximum number of overheated instances reported, ranging from one to twelve cases per
region. It is important to note that the aim of this mapping is not to show the density of
cases, but to highlight the distribution of these instances and underscore the necessity of
considering the overheating risk across various regions.
Reviewing the research reveals that the risk of overheating in the hot period has
been considered in many studies on super-insulated PHs. These can be found in Central
Europe [56], Southwestern Europe [57,132], Southern Europe [47,57,59], Northern Europe [37,39,42,61], Northwestern Europe [123], and the UK [7,8,21,24,64,65,75]. Also, there
are several studies focused on the overheating risk in PHs in Australia [88], America [89,90],
and Asia, mostly from China [77,79,80,82,107].
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Figure 4. Mapping the geographical spread of overheated PH examples.
4.4. Study Risk of Bias Assessment and Certainty Assessment
4.4.1. Occupant Behavior and Lifestyle
Early-Stage Considerations
In the earlier studies within the review period (from 1988 to the early 2008s), there was
a lack of understanding and consideration of occupant behavior and lifestyle. This oversight
may have led to inaccurate or incomplete assessments of the overheating risk in PHs.
Impact on Results
As occupant behavior and lifestyle significantly affect the outcomes related to overheating, studies that did not account for these factors may present biased or skewed results.
4.4.2. Technological Advancements
Time Frame Variability
The time frame of this review spans from 1988 to 2024, a period characterized by rapid
technological advancements and changes in building practices. Studies conducted in the
early part of this period did not have access to the advanced technologies available in later
years, potentially leading to differences in the findings and conclusions. Therefore, the
timeline depicts the studies separated into three time frames in order to best illustrate this
feature. This is also explained in Table 5.
ff
Table 5. Risk of bias assessment and certainty assessment for study.
Occupant Behavior and Lifestyle
a.
b.
Early-stage considerations
Occupant behavior and lifestyle impacts on
study results
From 1988 to the early 2008s, there was a lack of understanding and
consideration of occupant behavior and lifestyle, which can lead to
inaccurate or incomplete assessments of overheating risk in PHs.
Although some studies find that occupant behavior and lifestyle are
less impactful in PH dwellings, the role of occupant behavior is
highlighted in many studies [11,46,48,65,70,123] as a factor that can
significantly affect the outcomes related to overheating.
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Table 5. Cont.
Technological Advancements
a.
b.
Time frame variability
Availability and integration of advanced
technologies
This review spans from 1988 to 2024. Studies conducted in the early
part of this period did not have access to the advanced technologies
available in later years, potentially leading to differences in the
findings and conclusions.
The availability and integration of advanced technologies over time
likely influenced how occupant roles and behaviors were considered,
which leads to different focuses on various factors.
Contextual Differences
a.
Geographical and cultural context
The consideration of occupant roles in different contexts, such as
varying geographical locations and cultural settings, may have led to
inconsistent findings.
Differential Impact
The availability and integration of advanced technologies over time likely influenced
how occupant roles and behaviors were considered, resulting in varying degrees of emphasis on these factors across different studies, as mentioned earlier, in each stage.
4.4.3. Contextual Differences
Geographical and Cultural Context: The consideration of occupant roles in different
contexts, such as varying geographical locations and cultural settings, may have led to
inconsistent findings. Different regions and cultures have distinct living habits and building
practices, which can impact the generalizability of the results.
5. Solutions
5.1. Optimal Orientation
A correct layout with reduced needless solar gain, enough thermal mass, good ventilation, and minimized internal gains possesses crucial elements that can prevent or reduce
overheating [133]. For example, in the United Kingdom, a north–south orientation with
daylight-optimized windows on the north façade and between 15 and 25% glazed on
the south façade is optimal [108]. Lower south-facing windows enhance resistance to
future warming in PHs in the UK [134]. In a south Brazilian PH analysis, considering
the acceptable hot period indoor temperature of 26 ◦ C in a humid subtropical climate, a
6.9% overheating frequency was the outcome, which is less than the permitted maximum
limit. It is advised to employ passive design techniques, such as ensuring a building
orientation to the east/west axis, appropriate building density, and glass on the north
facade, to achieve positive results [135]. Buildings should be pointing southward in the
Northern Hemisphere or toward the equator and lightly shaded because passive solar
energy is a critical component of PH design. Most of the research on PH buildings focuses
on the issue of the possibility of indoor overheating in PH buildings without making any
recommendations for finding solutions. Additionally, the range of energy consumption and
other design parameters has only been regulated by considering PH guidelines, making it
challenging to ensure an ideal outcome [136]. A study on orientation and optimal glazing
size in European climates classified as CFb, specifically Ljubljana, Budapest, Munich, and
Stockholm, revealed the following: After accounting for the U-value and the G-value, the
results indicated that the optimal glazing share for the main façade varied between 38%
and 42%, depending on the characteristics of the glass. The reduction could range from 0 to
20% for the ESE (121.5◦ ) direction, or from 0 to 24% for the WSW (247.5◦ ) orientation [137].
5.2. Building Envelope Material Optimization
Heat loss and gain are substantially influenced by material qualities such as U-values,
solar absorptivity, and thermal mass; therefore, choosing the optimum material properties
is essential to enhancing a building’s thermal performance [94]. A building’s high thermal
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mass and vertical shades outside the east and west façades provide thermal comfort in hot
periods [4]. Another study indicated that the interior temperature varies less throughout
the day when there is a high thermal mass and the exterior shades are closed. However,
it increases considerably when the night ventilation system is turned on, particularly in
lightweight construction in temperate climates [138]. In a social housing PH study in southern
Brazil, the results revealed that due to the significant daily temperature change, the heat
gained throughout the day is released through the envelope, which results in high thermal
transmittance and helps to cool the residence. During the night, when the air conditioning
is turned on, this behavior helps to reduce the cooling demand [52]. Moreover, the roles
of thermal inertia in conjunction with creative free-cooling technical solutions and dry
assembled opaque walls made of natural materials were studied by Bruno et al. [139] in
Mediterranean regions.
5.3. Ventilation
The use of higher external shading, thermal insulation, and natural ventilation are
frequent passive tactics that replace standard mechanical devices to lessen the likelihood of
overheating in the hot period [27]. Other research supporting these options indicates that
solar shade and night ventilation can prevent interior warming. In order to keep the internal
temperature constant and comfortable, it is required and potentially sufficient to keep the
windows open at night during warm hot period days, to shade the southern and western
windows, and to use as little internal energy as possible [56]. Through the analysis of 11 PH
projects as part of CEPHEUS (Cost Efficient Passive Houses as European Standards), it
was discovered that proper ventilation techniques can provide users with comfort in hot
periods. Ventilation behavior overshadows the significance of occupancy and shading
components [33]. According to Breesch et al. [140], natural night ventilation appears to be
significantly more successful than an earth-to-air heat exchanger at enhancing comfort in a
PH. Similarly, Ridley et al. [21] indicate that increasing ventilation may prevent overheating
better than boosting shading. Another study confirmed that the most efficient options,
when both initial and ongoing expenses are considered, are ventilation strategies, such as
‘night-purge ventilation’, smart ventilation, and cross-ventilation. Notably, the limitation of
passive ventilation needs to be considered; for instance, in the comparative study by Ridley
et al. [70], occupants preferred not to open windows for bedroom ventilation due the risk
of insects entering. An early study conducted on PH schools in Germany in the hot period
and winter warned about the poor indoor air quality due to the high level of CO2 . Proper
natural ventilation in addition to mechanical ventilation should be considered [141].
According to Grussa et al. [142], to provide the proper design of an efficient management approach, ventilation, shade, and glazing interactions need to be assessed together
at the planning stage. Another study by Fokaides et al. used dynamic simulations to test
how well the first PH worked in Cyprus’s subtropical climate. They identified zones that
were too hot and applied an optimized night ventilation strategy, which resulted in a drop
in the interior air temperature of 1.4 ◦ C on average, and it was discovered that increasing the HVAC’s cooling capacity had a substantial positive impact on the zone’s thermal
efficiency [47]. It should be noted that in warm regions, active ventilation is inevitable;
otherwise, indoor thermal discomfort will occur [4,104]. Moreover, active cooling lowered
the incidence of overheating in the first Australian PH from 26% to 6% using 10.8 kWh of
cooling energy [25]. To investigate MVHR and natural ventilation, two PH flats in Cardiff,
Wales, were compared. Based on the findings, it may be possible to stop using MVHR in
regions with warm winters and cool hot periods without compromising comfort. By using
the PH model, this can be accomplished with lower capital costs and at least comparable
energy savings [143].
5.4. Shading
In early studies in Belgium [144], it was shown that sun blinds could restrict solar
heat gain during the hot period. Another study showed that by using natural ventilation,
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the overheating hours might be reduced by 28–35% in the 2050s and by 9–11% in the
2090s [129]. The best ways to lower overheating were external shutters and night-purge
ventilation [129]. Indoor thermal comfort can be provided by opening a window for airflow
at night or during unfavorable suitable daytime hours [145]. In the hot period, a high
thermal mass structure provides thermal comfort with exterior shading on the east and
west façades—also cross-ventilated by opening the bedroom window. The inhabitants
were satisfied on the hottest hot-period day when the outdoor temperature was raised
to 35 ◦ C [4]. A significant reduction in the risk of future overheating can be achieved by
optimizing glazing ratios and exterior shading devices [64]. Accordingly, a study on the
first PH constructed in southern France revealed that a PH can maintain comfortable inside
temperatures during the hot period, and a functional exterior sunshade is required for this
in Marseille. It is stated that insulating the building envelope has benefits in both the winter
and the hot period [5]. A total of 40% of the end-users in the Hanover–Kronsberg estate
made extra solar shading investments [28]. Not only may night ventilation and window
shading increase the sustainability and resilience of domestic cooling, but they can also
lower peak cooling demand, which helps Switzerland minimize the consequences of climate
change. Shading might cut cooling loads by 71% and night ventilation needs by 38% [146].
The significant drawbacks of Korean PHs are thought to be related to overheating in the hot
period and ondol heating during the winter; however, additional architectural approaches
such as external shading, an optimal glazing ratio, and mechanical systems have been
able to resolve such concerns [85]. According to a simulation study on shading devices,
including outside blinds, external shades, and overhangs to reduce temperatures during the
hot period in Romania, the former two devices were more effective than the latter [53]. The
shading system in classrooms effectively impacts the energy demand relating to orientation.
As the south-facing façade reaches the highest solar gain compared to the north-facing, it
would be more efficient in the hot period [147].
A new method for avoiding the overheating risk by collecting data from sensors and
then simulating various strategies in a typical PH in Belgium that faces an overheating risk
in the hot period was proposed by Abrahams et al. in 2019. This study’s simulations of
three distinct overheating mitigation tactics reveal that although it will cost more than other
options, controlling solar blinds in response to solar radiation with a shade factor is the most
effective method [60]. The designer created a double-layer heat rejection roof to expel hot air
from the sunspace and placed a reed sunshade on the exterior that could be adjusted based
on user activity to prevent overheating in China’s cold environment [83]. Similarly, Li et al.
advise hybrid shading and ventilatory cooling for the same climate conditions [84]. Another
long-term study carried out on the early-stage design of two PH buildings in Germany,
which included an office building and a school, revealed that the school occasionally
overheated during the hot period because of strict shading restrictions [130]. A Romanian
single-family PH energy-efficient study aims to enhance the overall hours of comfort spent
indoors by implementing the proposed hot period shading system [148].
6. Results and Discussion
Addressing Overheating Risk in Passive Houses and Mitigating Strategies
This study employs data from the PubMed database and utilizes the VOS viewer
software (Version 1.6.19) to map the knowledge structure associated with PHs, providing a
good understanding of the keywords in previous studies. The space between the clusters
shows the degree of correlation between the keywords. Out of the 857 total keywords,
142 meet the threshold; those with large recurrence counts were chosen to map the network
and a minimum number of 5 occurrence of keywords was established. A co-occurrence
network of terms is depicted in Figure 5.
Table 6 highlights the timeline when the concept of the PH was first proposed in
different regions as early as 1988. According to the review of the relevant sources, since
2008, the overheating risk has been acknowledged as a concern in PH design in relation
to climate change. The timeline was created using information gathered from scientific
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research, reports, and documents provided by the official PH institute from 1988, the year
the PH idea was first proposed. According to a review of the relevant sources, it seems that
after 2001, the overheating risk was acknowledged as a concern in PH design. The fourth
IPCC report issues a warning that the major effects of global warming are obvious [149].
However, before that, several documents demonstrated tenant satisfaction with hot period
indoor thermal comfort [5,30].
Figure 5. Co-occurrence network of keywords.
Table 6. Dates of the development of first PHs in different countries.
Year
Country/Region
1988
Germany—initiation of PH concept
ffiGermany—first PH created
1991
2000
Germany—first multi-storey PH
ff
2001
Sweden
2003
America
2004
Ireland
2004
ff
Romania
2005
France
2006
Slovenia
2007
Poland
2008
Denmark
2009
Spain
2010
UK
2010
China
2011
Chile
2011
Indonesia
2012
New Zealand
2013
South Korea
2013
Japan
2014
Latin America
2019
Thailand
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Table 7 shows the overheated cases reported in studies from 2001 to 2024. It also
identifies the locations of PH buildings across the UK (as well as elsewhere) to help
visualize which area was most at risk. It can be concluded that after 2009, there was a
significant increase in research concentrating on the risk of overheating in relation to climate
change and rapid global warming.
In Table 7, the timeline shows that the risk of overheating in the hot period has been
part of many studies focused on PHs in a number of regions: Central Europe [56], the
southwest of Europe [57,58], Southern Europe [47,57,59], Northern Europe [37,39,42,61],
Northwestern Europe [123], and the UK [7,8,21,24,64,65,75]. Also, there are several studies
focused on the overheating risk in PHs in Australia [88], America, [89,90], and Asia, mostly
from China [77,78,80,82,84]. The timeline was created using information gathered from
scientific research, reports, and documents provided by the PH Institute.
Table 7. The progression of studies on the risk of overheating across the world.
Date
Region
Country/Area
2001
Europe
Germany
2005
Europe
Germany
2007
Europe
Germany
2009
Europe
Sweden
2010
Europe
Austria
2010
Asia
South Korea
2011
Europe
Slovenia
2011
Europe
Austria
2011
Europe
Denmark
2012
Europe
Netherlands
2013
Europe
UK (South)
2013
Europe
UK (South)
2013
Europe
Sweden
2014
Europe
UK (South)
2015
Europe
Sweden
2015
Europe
Spain
2015
Europe
UK (North)
2015
Europe
UK (North)
2015
Europe
UK (Central)
2016
Europe
UK (North)
2016
Europe
Portugal
2016
Europe
Cyprus
2017
Europe
UK (North)
2018
Europe
Italy
2018
Europe
Cyprus
2018
N. America
Canada
2019
Asia
China
2019
Europe
Belgium
2019
Europe
UK
2020
Europe
UK
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Table 7. Cont.
Date
Region
Country/Area
2020
Europe
Ireland
2020
Asia
China
2020
Europe
Norway
2020
Central/South America
Latin America
2021
Europe
Spain
2022
S America
Brazil
2022
Europe
UK
2022
Australasia
Australia
2023
Asia
China
The fourth IPCC report issued a warning that the major effects of global warming were
becoming obvious [149], although before that point, several documents produced by the
Passive House Institute demonstrated tenant satisfaction with hot period indoor thermal
comfort [30,33,150,151]. It may be inferred that after 2008, there was an increasing research
interest in the risk of overheating in relation to climate change and rapid global warming.
The number of studies that have confirmed the overheating issue has increased from
2009 to 2024, whereas there was just one report of overheating in Germany in 2001, as
illustrated in Figure 6.
Figure 6. The rise in studies on the overheating risk of passive houses between 2001 and 2024.
The studies employed several approaches, such as simulation, dynamic simulation,
monitoring, monitoring and simulation, monitoring and surveying, and simulation and
surveying, which are arranged according to their frequency of usage in the Figure 7 pie
Monitoring and
chart. Prior to 2011, studies utilized
monitoring and interviews as their methodologies.
interview
The pie chart illustrates the distribution
of methodologies used in studies conducted after
21%
Monitoring
2011, reflecting
advancements in technology and sensor applications.
The
most significant
Monitoring and
interview
34%
amount of research
used simulation methods including sensitive and static simulation
Dynamic simulation
and sensitive sensors to measure and monitor data. More research,
including surveys and
Monitoring
and simulation
behavior profiling and monitoring, appears to be required to
obtain more
accurate findings
Dynamic
simulation
18%
Simulation
Monitoring and
Simulation
Monitoring
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about the significance of occupant behavior in the frequency and severity of overheating
risks in PHs.
Monitoring
34%
Monitoring and
interview
21%
Monitoring and interview
Dynamic simulation
Monitoring and simulation
Dynamic
simulation
18%
Simulation
18%
Simulation
Monitoring
Monitoring and
simulation
9%
Figure 7. Distribution of methodologies used in studies post-2011.
Conversely, many overheating cases have been reported in European countries like
Sweden, the UK, and Norway with latitudes higher than 46◦ , while Badescu et al. [152]
pointed out that cooling should be unnecessary in European locales at latitudes higher
than 46◦ N. This further emphasizes the time dependency of climate change phenomena.
When considering regions in the Southern Hemisphere, the cooling demand is highly
location-dependent. Conversely, in various countries, the need for more information about
hot period overheating is emphasized by Mlecnik [153]. Compared to the rest of the world,
Europe has more overheated case studies due to the higher number of PH buildings. Even
though this study’s primary focus is on European countries, the reviewed studies cover the
region of Europe, America, Asia, and Australia, which highlights the number of studies
on the overheating risk in PHs and reveals that the majority of studies were carried out in
Europe, specifically northern Europe, as shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8. Location-based number of overheated cases based on studies.
ffi
ffi
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Overheating is most frequently reported in bedrooms, and sometimes in living rooms,
kitchens, and dining rooms in PH dwellings. It is also experienced in classrooms in
educational buildings and officeffirooms in officeffibuildings, as illustrated in Figure 9.
Figure 9. The frequency of overheated spaces in PH buildings according to the reviewed studies.
The majority of PHs have been constructed in Europe, as shown in Table 8 specifically
in the north-west and northern regions, as this concept originated in Europe and spread
to other continents. Asia follows in second with 593,000 m2 of Treated Floor Area (TFA),
followed by North and South America and the South Pacific [154]. Consequently, the
overheating risk in PHs is reported in various countries and regions, from North and
Western Europe to South Europe, China, and Australia. Studies focusing on the overheating
risk in PHs significantly increased after 2008, while the IPCC warned about global warming.
tt https:
Table 8. Passive house certification worldwide provided by passive house database,
//passivehouse-database.org/, accessed on 1 July 2024.
Europe
2,659,000
Asia
m2
TFA
593,000
North and South America
m2
TFA
203,000
m2
TFA
South Pacific
53,000 m2 TFA
Using a PH simulation over 25 global areas, Harkouss et al. [155] showed that the
percentage of overheating hours would be as high as 43–81% in hot climates and as low
as 27–45% in mixed climates. Although initially, the PH concept was applied in colder
climates in Europe, after 2005, buildings with PH standards were constructed in other areas.
The PH concept, with its high thermal inertia, good insulation quality, and relatively low
glazed surface, may be used, with the proper modifications, in warmer European climates
as well [36].
In the early stage of studies, most of the overheating occurred due to a lack of knowledge about technologies and devices, and a lack of understanding of shading and control
for inhabitants. The absence of the possibility of room temperature control was reported in
German PHs [28]. Also, in the primary studies in the second stage, the main complaint in
Swedish PHs was the inability of residents to adjust the indoor temperature [27]. While
shading and both mechanical and natural ventilation are recommended as the primary
solutions for overheating, questions remained about the insulation properties, climate
conditions, and overheating risk. Identifying the most optimal orientation and configuration of PHs is an essential component in each region; nevertheless, the specific solutions
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that yield the greatest effectivenessff will vary depending on the local climate conditions.
For instance, many studies have confirmed that a PH’s well-insulated, airtight building
envelope maintains the building’s temperature year-round and helps limit hot period heat
gain [156]. However, a review of case studies confirmed that insulation should be used
more carefully [98], and specifically in warm areas, super-insulation negatively affects
overheating
in the hot period [104]. In regions with high temperatures and humidity, such
ff
as areas of China, insulation negatively affects overheating
and thermal comfort [157].
ff
Li et al. [84] showed that improving airtightness and thermal insulation resulted in a remarkable 62% reduction in winter energy use. However, due to overheating, the energy
required for cooling increased during the transition and hot period seasons compared to
cold winter climates in China. Figure 10 presents the recommended design alternatives
from the investigations. In order to enhance indoor climate quality and energy efficiency,
researchers
have focused on the impacts of climate change and highlighted the need to
ffi
adapt architectural design principles to local climatic demands [158]. The optimization of
orientation and glazing area to match climate conditions also needs more focus.
Figure 10. The frequency of various architectural solutions to minimize the overheating risk in PHs
recommended in the reviewed studies.
Apart from architectural design and local climate conditions, inhabitants’ thermal
comfort level and perception significantly affect their satisfaction; Morgan et al. [23] found
that occupants’ perception of overheating and their subsequent behavior are significant
factors. Although Blight and Coley [102] found that PH dwellings are less responsive to
occupants’ behavior than previously believed, the role of occupant behavior is highlighted
in many studies [46,48,65,70,123,124,159]. Conversely, in the Dutch Ministry of Housing
database, occupant characteristics and behavior were identified as substantial factors
that impact energy use; however, it was revealed that building factors have a ten times
larger influence on a home’s energy use than use patterns generally [160]. Variations
in the upper temperature value have been investigated too. Sigalingging et al. [161]
used a typical terraced house in Jakarta, Indonesia, to apply the PH concept, in which
Jakarta’s upper comfort range was set at 27.6 ◦ C instead of the PH standard’s 25 ◦ C. An
experimental study in Vietnam by Le in 2021 analyzed the thermal comfort of occupants;
indoor temperatures ranging between 23.7 ◦ C and 29.6 ◦ C were found to be acceptable
(80% acceptability), with a comfort temperature of 27.9 ◦ C. A significant relationship
between participants’ assessments regarding their individual PH comfort and the social
side of comfort is confirmed by Zhao and Carter [66]. Due to the cultural norms in south
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Brazil, the idea of airtight structures with sealed windows feels burdensome to people.
Sealed windows present in a PH feel constricting, and they are opened frequently. Since
they are designed to operate with closed windows, highly insulated buildings will not
perform as effectively in these circumstances [162]. The requirement for BES modelers to
establish a consistent standard that will be used to evaluate overheating is highlighted by
the notable difference in the overheating results found in simulations, which is dependent
on comfort criterion selections [20]. For instance, climate and behavioral patterns in China
vary significantly from those in the north of Europe, from where the PH concept originates,
leading to differences in the way thermal sensations are measured under identical thermal
conditions [159].
In terms of the method used to predict and evaluate the overheating risk, several studies have shown the inability of PHPP to predict the overheating risk with thermal comfort
being confirmed [22,74,87]. Due to China’s various climates and enormous dimensions, the
post-occupancy evaluation showed widely different results from PHPP indicators [163].
Therefore, it is crucial to compare two distinct tools and their methodologies with realworld data [7]. Further, there is a need to provide a more sensitive and accurate method for
airflow modeling to help minimize the future overheating risk.
Local building regulations are an important factor that is not covered in this study due
to differentiation and diversity. Moreover, through a qualitative study, the main factors
evaluated by Krechowicz [164] and three categories of factors are identified, including
installation, construction site, and the architectural and construction design. In the construction design section, technological errors need more consideration, including factors
that are not examined by current studies. It was also found in the first stage of this study,
that there were complaints about the inability to control the indoor air temperature due to
a lack of education provided to users.
7. Conclusions
This study examines the time lag between the introduction of PHs in various countries
and the publication of research on overheating issues in those locations. These data can
be instrumental for future studies exploring potential connections between local climate
and overheating risks. The research highlights a ten-year gap between the construction of
the first PH in Germany (1991) and the publication of the first European overheating case
study. This suggests that overheating may not be immediately recognized as a concern in
new building concepts. The present study further identifies several key factors influencing overheating in PHs: architectural design including construction elements, occupant
behavior, climatic conditions, perceptions of indoor environmental quality, and the urban
context, including green infrastructure around the building like trees that can provide
shading, the density of the urban area, and the height and configuration of other buildings
in neighborhood
A review of existing research reveals four key categories of factors influencing overheating in PHs:
Building Characteristics: This category encompasses material properties, building envelope performance, building form, configuration, and orientation, glazing ratio, and
insulation details. The key aspects impacting overheating include the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Sun shading/protection strategies;
Solar heat gain;
Thermal mass and insulation effectiveness;
Internal heat gains from appliances and occupants;
Night cooling potential;
Ventilation rate;
Glazing properties such as ratio, transmittance, and orientation [58].
Whilst all of these are included in PH design principles and the operation of PHPP, the
authors believe that this review can indicate opportunities for further refinement and detail.
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Occupant Behavior: Occupancy patterns, user numbers, age and gender demographics,
knowledge about PH operation, and equipment usage all influence thermal comfort and
can contribute to overheating. These features are likely to have increased importance in
the future because of comfort considerations and the means to also consider adaptive
comfort options which might influence set points for temperature control in potentially
overheating PHs.
Climate Conditions: Regional variations in temperature, humidity, and solar radiation
significantly affect the likelihood and severity of overheating in PHs. As global warming
progresses, such factors need to be understood in even greater detail for successful PH
design and construction.
The Potential Role of Urban Context: While the impact of the urban context on overheating
in PHs remains inconclusive, further research is needed to explore the potential influence
of surrounding buildings and heat island effects. Additionally, a deeper understanding is
required regarding the interaction between PH envelopes and their role in both urban heat
islands (UHIs) and indoor overheating risks.
General findings
1.
2.
3.
4.
In summary, the following features need a more complete and detailed understanding,
shade, ventilation, air conditioning, evaporative cooling, solar chimneys, earth tubes,
reflectors, and nighttime radiation, which are standard comfort cooling techniques
in hotter climates [42]. In addition to mechanical cooling, design techniques include
effective home appliances and technical setups, bypassing ventilation heat recovery
units, sun shading windows, building orientation, and window sizes and characteristics. The findings indicate that as the risk of overheating increases under future
climate-related situations, space heating needs decrease and cooling needs grow [165].
In order to lower the internal temperature and prevent overheating, the beneficial
effects of mitigation methods such natural ventilation have been suggested in several
studies in Europe [33,50,56,70,140], and active ventilation in warm regions [4,104]
has also been proposed in warm and humid areas in Asia [76]. Although natural
ventilation can increase air pollution, high indoor air humidity [166], and noise
pollutants [35] in PHs, considering the future climate [50], it is concluded that the
effectiveness of mixing several passive strategies in reducing overheating is higher
in southern Europe. Moreover, shading is suggested as a helpful strategy in various
studies, from early studies [5,28,144] to recent studies [4,53,59,60,64,83,85,145–147].
Mixing strategies and increasing occupant engagement can significantly minimize the
overheating risk in PH dwellings [82].
Combining with other strategies: For a comprehensive strategy to mitigate overheating, this study recommends that green walls be utilized in conjunction with other
passive cooling strategies such as natural ventilation, reflecting coatings, and appropriate building orientation. Integrating plants into the façade can help regulate
indoor temperature and improve air quality, aligning with PH principles. Although
retrofitted PH constructions were more likely to overheat due to orientation restrictions and material modifications, the studies did not expressly state what kind of
construction was involved, indicating that most cases were newly constructed. Because there are few studies in the retrofitting case studies, it is not possible to draw
any significant conclusions about them.
Previous studies concluded that south-facing PHs are at a higher risk of overheating [64] in the UK and in the Netherlands [112]; while reviewing the studies, it
becomes clear that north, west, and east-facing PHs in the UK are also at risk. As a
result, providing appropriate shading based on heat gain quantity and ventilation is
essential in addition to building orientation. Even though researchers are aware of
the primary factors influencing the risk of overheating in PHs, this study thoroughly
analyzed every component, offered remedies for gaps, and indicated the quantity
of studies that failed to uncover the primary elements that should have received
more attention. Additionally, as the majority of studies are conducted using simu-
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5.
6.
7.
8.
lation software, it is evident from this systematic review that greater focus needs to
be paid to combining case study techniques, including monitoring, surveying, and
behavior profiling.
Addressing the gaps: Upon analyzing the literature on overheated PHs, it is evident
that a data gap exists for the themes of analysis in this paper. The glazing ratio and
details were not sufficiently covered in the early stages of studies. Some studies did
not specify the overheated areas in PH buildings, which would help researchers to
study with more focus and provide more practical solutions. Another crucial factor
that should have been noted in case study evaluations is the number of occupants.
More accurate results would be produced if more extensive data on earlier case studies
involving overheating were available.
The necessity of strong energy performance requirements for practically zero-energy
dwellings, together with design and execution quality assurance, is emphasized
by Mlecnik et al. [112]. The review showed that the importance of execution and
construction quality is overlooked and needs more attention.
Although comprehensive studies in the UK compare numerous examples [7,65,74],
they did not highlight the location and features of each case. By sharing this information, the overheated PH buildings could be categorized based on their typology. It
would help architects and researchers identify high-risk configurations, orientations,
and locations in the UK. More studies in the UK and other regions need to focus on
the sustainable strategy for large-scale PH building projects, specifically focused on
building typology, configuration, and materials.
Overall, the lack of studies that examine overheating in urban contexts with a focus
on PHs has been identified. The PH concept is an occupant-dependent strategy, and
occupants have a significant role in the success of this idea. Therefore, educating
occupants and increasing their interaction will help to achieve sustainable outcomes.
As stated by Farrokhirad and Gheitarani, 2024 [167], increasing public awareness is
essential for the successful implementation of energy-efficient strategies. Regarding
the variation in the impacts of future climate change, it is important to consider
more design options to control indoor air temperature. It is recommended that the
details of case studies that encountered the overheating risk need to be included
in the official documents by the PH Institution for more in-depth investigation and
analysis. By providing more details about the projects, researchers and designers can
identify specific features and critical reasons more accurately from both theoretical
and practical points of view.
In compiling this paper, the authors take the view that since passive house design is
now both well established and also being developed to try to take account of new building
techniques/technologies and, at the same time, consider impacts of global warming, this
review has substantial benefit in showing the history and development of the interest in
overheating issues.
8. Suggestions for Future Work
8.1. Overlooked Factors and Potential Solutions
While the existing research explores overheating risks in PHs and proposes solutions, a crucial aspect often remains overlooked: the role of envelope materials and their
contribution to UHI intensity, particularly in large cities. Additionally, the focus on architectural design features, while essential, neglects the potential of building façades in
mitigating overheating.
8.2. Green Walls: A Multifaceted Approach
Integrating green walls as a nature-based solution addresses this gap by tackling both
the overlooked issue of envelope materials and UHIs. Furthermore, GW implementation
complements the established factors influencing overheating in PHs. By lowering surface
temperatures and promoting cooler indoor spaces, GWs directly combat overheating risks.
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Their insulating properties further enhance thermal performance during the winter months.
ff
ffi
GWs offer an eco-efficient solution to regulate building temperatures. Through evapotranspiration and shading, they reduce surface temperature during the hot period months.
Conversely, their insulating properties and ability to act as a wind barrier contribute to
warming the building in the winter. This dual functionality allows GWs to be adapted to
various climate conditions and regions, ultimately promoting a more comfortable indoor
thermal environment. It should be highlighted that while GWs are widely acknowledged
by scientists and there have been several studies on the thermal performance of this naturebased solution, there is lack of knowledge on how the green envelope affects passive
ff
houses’
thermal performance according to particular principles. Further research is needed
ff two energy-efficient solutionsffi
to demonstrate the effectiveness of these
when combined
with super-insulation and airtightness regulation in PHs. Figure 11 illustrates and example
of the potential design.
Figure 11. An example of a PH plant-covered façade proposed by the authors.
8.2.1. Beyond Thermal Benefits
The advantages of GWs extend beyond thermal regulation. They actively contribute
to broader sustainability goals by promoting biodiversity, improving occupant well-being,
and enhancing air quality. This aligns with the vision of creating sustainable and livable
urban environments. Green walls can be a promising strategy to reduce the overheating
risk in passive houses.
8.2.2. Reduced Surface Temperature
Green walls utilize evapotranspiration, as plants release water vapor through their
foliage. This process cools the surrounding air through a similar principle as sweating.
Consequently, the building envelope (walls) covered by the green wall experiences a lower
surface temperature [168,169]. Wall surface cooling and vegetation solar transmittance
were significantly correlated, but not with the evapotranspiration rate [170]. GWs reduce
heat transfer into the interior space [171].
8.2.3. Shading Effect
The foliage of green walls acts as a natural shade, blocking direct sunlight from
hitting the building façade. This significantly reduces solar heat gain, keeping the indoor
environment cooler [172]. Moreover, it decreases heat infiltration and raises the building
envelope’s thermal resistance [173].
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Improved Insulation: during the colder months, the green wall acts as an additional
layer of insulation, trapping heat within the building and contributing to improved thermal
performance [174].
Author Contributions: E.F.: conceptualization, methodology, software, data curation, writing—
original draft preparation, visualization, investigation. Y.G.: conceptualization, methodology, supervision, project administration, funding acquisition, writing—reviewing and editing. A.P.: conceptualization, methodology, supervision, project administration, funding acquisition, writing—reviewing
and editing. G.C.: data curation. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This study was funded by the research fund from the Sustainable Living Research Centre
at the University of Huddersfield.
Data Availability Statement: No new data was created in this study.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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