Revista FLAMMAE
Revista Científica do Corpo de Bombeiros Militar de Pernambuco
Artigo Publicado no Vol.10 Nº30 Edição Especial 02 de Jul. de 2024 - ISSN 2359-4829
Versão on-line disponível em: http://www.revistaflammae.com.
FIRES IN ENVIRONMENTS WITH BRAZILIAN AND FOREIGN
MATERIAL: A COMPARATIVE STUDY 1
George Cajaty Braga 2
Cristiano Corrêa3
Bruno Matos4
Jorge Vinícius Fernandes Lima Calvalcanti5
Joaquim Pereira Lisboa Neto6
ABSTRACT
The actual article presents an experimental study that aims to compare the
development of a fire full scale of a furnished environment with Brazilian
materials, and another analog experiment with foreign furniture (England and
The United States of America). Assessing the temperatures reached, the heat
fluxes, the emanated gases and the thermic and conventional images. Verifying
that, for environments containing a sofa and a TV each, being made in Brazil in
the first experiment, and with an English sofa and an American TV in the
second. It comes out from the presented data that the environment furnished
with foreign materials presented a longer delay reaching the maximum values of
temperature and heat flux. In general, the maximum values in the same
environment were always lower on the foreign one, about both temperature and
heat flux, when compared to the environment with Brazilian furniture. It came
out also that both the carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide in the environment
furnished with Brazilian furniture would be lethal to 50% of the population after
three minutes from the beginning of the combustion process if the inmate kept
standing behind the sofa (gas collection point).
Keywords: Safety fire; Full size essay, Fire experiment, Fire gases.
1
Artigo Publicado originalmente no Número 20 da Revista FLAMMAE, republicado no contexto do
Dossiê Temático: Tecnologia e Combate a Incêndios.
2
Coronel do Corpo de Bombeiros Militar do Distrito Federal (Quadro Complementar). Doutor em Física e
PhD em Segurança contra Incêndio pelo NIST/EUA. Email: george.braga@gmail.com
3
Tenente Coronel do Corpo de Bombeiros Militar de Pernambuco. Doutor em Engenharia Civil, com
ênfase em Segurança Contra Incêndio – UFPE. Email: cristianocorreacbmpe@gmail.com
4
Major do Corpo de Bombeiros Militar do Distrito Federal. Mestre em Engenharia Civil – UnB.
5
Doutor em Egenharia Química pela UFPE. Professor do Departamento de Engenharia Química UFPE.
Email jorge.cavalc@ufpe.br
6
Tenente do Corpo de Bombeiros Militar do Distrito Federal. Instrutor de Combate a Incêndio do CBMDF.
1
Revista FLAMMAE
Revista Científica do Corpo de Bombeiros Militar de Pernambuco
Artigo Publicado no Vol.10 Nº30 Edição Especial 02 de Jul. de 2024 - ISSN 2359-4829
Versão on-line disponível em: http://www.revistaflammae.com.
1. INTRODUCTION
Carrying out full-scale fire tests is of great importance for gauging fire
behavior, especially for improving fire prevention, fighting and investigation
(Corrêa, et al., 2017).
It is possible to observe an increasingly aggressive behavior in the fires
that happen in Brazil (Peres, 2019). Factors such as the type of material on site,
the size of the room and ventilation can have a significant impact on the
development of the fire, aggravating the consequences for people and
secondarily increasing material losses (Braga, Neto & Salazar, 2016).
In Brazil, unlike countries in Europe and North America, there is little use
of materials in the manufacture of furniture and household appliances that are
flame retardant or even less igneous in their composition (in this study, furniture
with a retardant material was not used).
It is therefore important to carry out studies to check fire behavior in
similar settings, containing Brazilian furniture and furniture from other countries
with more careful legislations and cultures in terms of Fire Safety – FS. This
study used pieces of furniture and household appliances with very similar
dimensions and specifications, manufactured in Brazil (room 1) and abroad
(room 2).
The most widely discussed full-scale fire tests in the world have been
carried out outside Latin America, with a special focus on the experiments
conducted by the National Institute of Standards and Technology / NIST – USA,
with the support of the Fire Department of New York (FDNY) and other bodies.
An experiment with 14 real fire events was carried out in a 7-storey building,
testing various scenarios for developing and fighting the flames. All of these
events started with a fire in the respective furnished room (NIST, 2009).
In
the
UK,
Cardington
was
a
high-profile
initiative,
where
a
multidisciplinary team analyzed natural fire in eight previously prepared
2
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compartments, with different cladding, fire load and ventilation conditions, with
the overall objective of seeking to refine the Eurocodes (Lennow & Moore,
2003).
Reports of full-scale fire research and analysis started to emerge only in
the last decade (Corrêa, et al., 2017; Lorenzi, et al., 2013; Corrêa, et al., 2018),
but still none comparing Brazilian furniture with furniture manufactured outside
the country. An important aspect of understanding the lethality of fires lies in the
gases emanating from them. These are the biggest cause of death in these
tragic events (David, et al., 2017).
One example is exogenous intoxication, which comes from inhaling
combustion gases. Nevertheless, surveys collecting and analyzing these gases
are rare, especially in the Latin American context (Corrêa, et al., 2017). For this
reason, tests were carried out to compare the development of a fire in an
average compartmentalized setting, where there was no difference in terms of
geometry, construction material and ventilation, but only in terms of the
combustible material present in the room, i.e. the furniture.
Accordingly, the aim of these experiments was to check the influence of
the composition of Brazilian (first experiment) and foreign (second experiment)
furniture and household appliances, manufactured under a different FS
regulatory framework. With the concern arising from the gases emanating from
the fire, during the experiment, the collection and subsequent analysis was
carried out using an experimental protocol (not standardized), since there is no
standard in the subcontinent (Latin America) for the collection of fire gases on a
real scale.
2. METHODOLOGY
In order to check the difference in fire behavior resulting from the burning
of materials manufactured in Brazil and abroad, two similar experiments were
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carried out using two rooms with a light steel structure (Stell Frame) and drywall
walls and ceiling with dimensions of 2.4 meters wide, 3.6 meters long and 2.4
meters high (see Figure 1 below).
In this setting, an opening 0.8 meters wide and 2.1 meters high was
placed, representing an open door in a room. This was designed on the
premises of the Training Center of the Federal District Military Fire Brigade –
CBMDF (as per its Portuguese acronym).
Figure 1 – Setting designed for fire tests.
These rooms were furnished with televisions – TV and sofa
manufactured in Brazil (room 1) and TV manufactured in the USA and sofa
manufactured in the UK (room 2), respectively. The sofas were slightly different,
as it was not possible to buy two identical sofas, but the TVs were similar (same
manufacturer and model, only one was bought in Brazil and the other in the
USA). The sofas can be seen below in Figure 2. There is only one photo of the
TV model, as they are visually identical, see Figure 3.
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Figure 2 – Photo of the Brazilian (a) and English (b) sofas.
The sofa was placed at the back of the room, away from the door, and
the TV was placed on the opposite wall to the sofa, near the door. The layout of
the furniture and TV can be seen in the picture below.
Figure 3 - Photo of the position of the sofa (a), the TV (b) and the external
view of the TV in the room.
The entire test was monitored using high-definition cameras (yellow
arrow), one to monitor the sofa and the other to monitor the TV, as well as a
thermal camera (red arrow) also pointed at the sofa (see Figure 4).
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Figure 4 - Positioning of the high-definition (yellow arrow) and thermal
(red arrow) cameras.
In order to better assess the fire behavior, k-type thermocouples and
Schmidt-Boelter heat flow sensors were used. In total, nine thermocouple
sensors were placed in the center of the room, six on the sofa, three on the TV,
three on the door and a further six to monitor the temperature of the
plasterboard walls (see Figure 2 and Figure 3 above). In addition, a heat flow
sensor was placed pointed at the sofa inside the room and another outside,
which was pointed at the opening that represented the door (green arrows in
Figure 5).
The meters were connected to a cooling system to ensure that the
internal temperature of the meter was in its calibration range (white box in the
figure below). Throughout the experiment, the thermocouples measured the
temperatures, highlighting that the uncertainty in these measurements is in the
order of 2.2 °C below 293 ºC and +/- 0.75% above that (Omega Engineering,
2004).
For the case of heat flow, the uncertainty of the calibration component for
Schmidt-Boelter type devices is, according to the manufacturer, in the order of ±
3 % (Medtherm, 2003). Results of a study on the response and calibration of
heat flow meters show that the expanded uncertainty for Schmidt-Boelter gauge
type meters is in the order of ± 8% (Pitte, et al., 2006).
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Figure 5 – Location of the heat flow sensors.
The figure below displays the general layout of the room and the furniture
and TV. It shows an outline of the devices (white dots for the thermocouples
and yellow for the heat flow
Figure 6 – Outline of the test site and its instrumentation.
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All the data was collected on a CompactDAQ chassis with temperature
and voltage measurement modules from National Instruments and stored on a
computer using a program developed especially for the experiment in LabView.
Figure 7 – Data acquisition system.
The candle was lit and placed on the left side of the sofa, at the junction
between the seat and the side armrest and with the wick facing the backrest
(see arrow in Figure 8), and the development of the fire was monitored until the
sofa combusted. The candle was always placed in the same way and was not
moved once it had been placed.
Figure 8 – Position of the ignition source (candle) on the sofa.
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Cylindrical glass ampoules with two taps at the ends and a capacity of
125 ml were used to collect the gases. A semi-vacuum was applied with a 10 ml
syringe, which was aspirated ten times in sequence into each ampoule, seeking
a standard negative pressure in all collections.
These ampoules were labeled and placed on a bench and used to
aspirate the gases in the two experiments, as displayed in Figure 9. For
collection, the ampoules were positioned in a small hole in the wall next to the
sofa, at a height of 1.6m, approximately where the mouth and nose (aspiration)
of a man of average heightare located, according to Brazilian parameters
(Figueiroa, 2012).
Figure 9 – Ampoules being prepared and arranged on the bench.
3. RESULTS
The two burnings were carried out on the same day, with a 30-minute
difference between them. The weather conditions were favorable (see Figure
10), with no rain, an average temperature of around 23 ºC and relative humidity
of 80% (source: INMET).
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Figure 10 – Environmental conditions during burning.
Some
results
obtained
are
presented
below,
in
particular
the
temperatures observed in the room, using thermocouples placed in the center
of the room, the temperature of the objects (sofa and TV) and the heat flow
observed within the room and one meter away from the door. 4.1 –
Temperature measurement. The charts below show the temperatures at
different heights in the rooms with Brazilian furniture (Figure 11) and foreign
furniture (Figure 12). From these charts, it can be seen that the temperatures in
the gaseous layer reached higher values, as well as developing more quickly,
within the room with Brazilian furniture.
Figure 11 – Temperature chart at different heights in the center of the
room with Brazilian furniture.
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Figure 12 – Temperature chart at different heights in the center of the
room with foreign furniture.
The difference in the speed at which the fire temperature develops can
be better seen when we compare some curves (30, 120 and 210 cm high) on
the same chart (Figure 13).
One can note the difference in speed and temperature increase between
the experiments with foreign furniture (solid line) and Brazilian furniture (dotted
line). In addition, one cannote that the room with Brazilian furniture, after a
quicker start and with higher temperatures, has a temperature decay with time
close to the room with North American furniture (see time over 10 minutes),
indicating that it not only evolves more quickly, but also remains at high
temperatures for longer.
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Figure 13 – Comparative temperature chart in the center of the room with
foreign (solid line) and Brazilian (dotted line) furniture.
In addition, it was possible to measure the temperature in the sofas and
TVs. In the case of the sofas, it can be seen that the Brazilian sofa (Figure 14)
has a very close temperature increase in all its parts, showing that the piece as
a whole quickly contributes to the magnitude of the fire. In the case of the
foreign sofa (English), there was a more gradual temperature evolution, with a
difference in temperature evolution between the left and right sides of the sofa.
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Figure 14 – Temperature evolution on the Brazilian sofa.
Figure 15 – Temperature evolution on the foreign sofa (English).
In the case of the Brazilian and foreign (USA) TVs, the behavior was
similar, but a small difference can be seen in favor of the foreign TV. The chart
below shows a comparison of the temperature at the top of the TVs.
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Figure 16 – Comparative temperature chart at the top of the foreign (solid
line) and Brazilian (dotted line) TVs.
3.2. Measuring heat flow.
More important than checking the behavior of temperatures in a fire is
measuring the heat flow released by it, as this is a direct measure of its
magnitude. The chart below (Figure 17) shows that there was a big difference
between the two types of furniture. In the case of the room with Brazilian
furniture, the heat flow reached peaks of 100kW/m2 inside.When evaluated by
the meter placed outside, it reached peaks of around 18kW/m2. For the room
with foreign furniture, the internal sensor showed peaks of around 80kW/m2
inside, while it showed peaks of 7.7kW/m2 outside. In addition, one can see that
there was a quicker increase in heat flow in much shorter times in the room with
Brazilian furniture.
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Figure 17 –Chart of internal and external heat flow (1 meter from the door)
for the two tested settings (USA solid line and Brazilian dotted line).
3.3. Thermal images – Using the thermal camera images, it can be seen
that there is a difference in the visual spread of the fire on the Brazilian (Figure
17) and American (Figure 18) sofas, which is consistent with what was checked
by means of the temperature and heat flow sensors.
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Figure 18 – Thermal camera image of the Brazilian sofa.
Figure 19 – Thermal camera image of the foreign sofa.
After each gas collection, the small hole used to fit the ampoule was
sealed with a plug made of aluminized material, as can be seen in Figure 20.
Figure 20 – Gas preparation and collection.
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The samples were analyzed using gas chromatography in a laboratory at
the Federal University of Pernambuco. In this analysis, 200 microliters were
injected in splitless mode, at a temperature of 40°C for 2.5 minutes, with heating
at 20°C/min up to 80°C, maintained for a further 5 min. Porapak-N column,
nitrogen as a carrier gas, flow rate of 30 mL/min. It was carried out on an HP
5890 chromatograph with a thermal conductivity detector, recently calibrated
and inspected. The first results in terms of CO (carbon monoxide) and CO2
(carbon dioxide) are displayed in the table below:
Table 1 – Full-Scale Fire Gas Results.
Time
(minutes)
3
Carbon
Monoxe (%)
1,60
Carbon
Dioxide (%)
5,87
5
1,67
5,22
7
1,65
5,33
11
1,70
5,36
13
1,71
5,75
It should be highlighted that the preliminary data refers to the room
containing the Brazilian furniture, since there is already a good knowledge of
the toxicity of furniture and household appliances manufactured there in the
USA and England.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The fire was started with a candle placed horizontally in the left-hand
corner of each of the sofas. Once the flame was lit, data collection took place.
The starting point was the moment when the sofa material started to catch fire,
and the end point of the experiment was the end of the burning of the
combustible materials in the compartment.
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In much of the measured data, it was possible to see that the room made
up of foreign materials took longer to reach the maximum temperature and heat
flow values. Besides that, in general, the maximum values in this setting were
always lower, both in terms of temperature and heat flow, when compared to
the setting with Brazilian furniture.
Furthermore, the thermal and high-resolution images showed a visible
difference in the burning behaviors of these settings, especially in terms of the
production of flames and even smoke, as well as the burning time of the TV.
Carbon monoxide has a high affinity with hemoglobin, making it a competitor
(with much greater chemical attraction) for oxygen (David, et al., 2017).
Thus, the monoxide spreads quickly through the blood to all the organs
and tissues of the human body (Inacio and Brandão, 2016). However, the main
harm from this intoxication is the anoxia resulting from the conversion of
oxyhemoglobin into carboxyhemoglobin (COHb), since the affinity of carbon
monoxide is around 200 to 250 times greater for hemoglobin than oxygen
(Lacerda, Leroux & Morata, 2005).
Exposure to carbon monoxide for a certain period of time at a
concentration of 10 ppm will produce signs of poisoning, while it is lethal at 100
ppm for 50% of the population subjected to such an environment for a few
minutes (Jachid and Jachid, 2001). Carbon dioxide or carbon dioxide gas is
found in atmospheric air in average percentages of 0.03% (Jachid and Jachid,
2001), but this rate was 191 times higher in the experiment at stake.
With regard to the collection of gases, it was found that the rates of
carbon monoxide and carbon dioxidecould be lethal for an occupant standing in
the burning setting from the third minute after the start of combustion at a height
of 1.6m, revealing the possibility of using the experimental protocol as another
parameter for measurements made in full-scale fire experiments.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the Financier of Studies and Projects –
FINEP (as per its Portuguese acronym) for its support, through the
measurement equipment acquired by the project named Improving Fire Fighting
and Investigation Procedures (MODFOGO), and the ABICHAMA, for its support
in acquiring the material used in the experiment. The authors would also like to
thank the Operational Training Center, the Urban Fire Prevention and Combat
Group, the Fire Investigation Directorate of the Federal District Military Fire
Brigade, the Federal University of Pernambuco (Chemical Engineering
Department – Prof. Jorge Vinícius Fernandes Lima Calvalcanti) and the team
that directly supported the execution of the experiment, especially the military
firemen: Joaquim Pereira Lisboa Neto, Luciano Maximiano da Rosa, Valmeci
Domingo dos Santos, Marcelo dos Santos Cirilo, Cláudio José Leme, Ismael
Moura de Souza and Bruno Marcelino de Almeida Nunes.
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