JCDS: JOURNAL OF COMMUNICATION AND DEVELOPMENT STUDIES, Vols. IX-X (2022-2023)

THE PAPUA NEW GUINEA ISSN 1992-1322 UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY Department of Communication and Volumes IX-X Development Studies 2022 – 2023 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 JCDS: JOURNAL OF COMMUNICATION AND DEVELOPMENT STUDIES (Former title: JLCS: Journal of Language and Communication Studies) ISSN 1992-1322 Editors Eric Gilder, PNGUoT (Editor-in-Chief) Silvia Florea, Director, UNESCO Chair in Quality Management of Higher Education and Lifelong Learning, “Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, Romania (co-Editor in Chief) Emilian Tîrban, “Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, Romania (Guest co-Editor) Associate Editors Rachel Aisoli-Orake, PNGUoT Garry Sali, PNGUoT Editorial Advisory Board Afroza Anwary (Minnesota State University, Mankato [USA]) Srikanta Chatterjee (Massey University [NZ]) James K. Gray (Liberia) Lyn H. Gray (Liberia) Baik-Chul Lee (Kyonggi University, Korea) Mizanur Miah (Valdosta State University [USA]) Henrieta Anişoara Şerban (Institute of Political Sciences and International Relations, Romanian Academy, Bucharest [Romania]) ii JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Hailing from Papua New Guinea, the world’s most linguistically and socially diverse locale, the JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies (formerly titled the JLCS: Journal of Language and Communication Studies (ISSN 1992-1322) is published once every two years by the Department of Communication and Development Studies at the Papua New Guinea University of Technology, in cooperation with the UNESCO Chair in Quality Management of Higher Education and Lifelong Learning, of the “Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, Romania It is interested in research papers falling under two broad disciplinary “umbrellas,” i.e., English for Academic Purposes (EAP)/English for Special Purposes (ESP) and Communication for Development. Papers covering EAP or ESP can consider any aspect of the areas, including: classroom research, EAP/ESP methodology, course design, material design, genre analysis, rights analysis, critical EAP/ESP, reading and writing, testing and evaluation, computer-mediated language learning, EAP/ESP research, quality assurance of academic programs, and socio-linguistic influences on the teaching and learning of EAP/ESP. For contributions covering Communication for Development (C4D) topics, the journal welcomes papers on any aspect of the field, including: communication in education, communication and gender, communication in resource management, conflict resolution, negotiation skills, partnership building, communicating development in such sectoral contexts as industries, healthcare, agriculture, and so forth, mass media, democracy and human rights, and media and HIV/AIDS. Empirical (quantitative) or qualitative approaches to relevant topics are equally welcome. Papers which bridge the two larger fields of interest in an innovative trans-disciplinary fashion are particularly encouraged. Authors grant the JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies the copyright to their article upon publication, so to foster wide distribution. What this practically means is that if the author wishes subsequently to re-publish the article(s) in another form, full acknowledgement and full publication data of the JCDS must be included therein. Indexing: The JLCS: Journal of Language and Communication Studies (former title) is indexed in OCLC (www.worldcat.org). Under the current title, JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies, it is presently listed in Google Scholar, ResearchGate, and Academia. Published by: Department of Communication and Development Studies The Papua New Guinea University of Technology, in cooperation with: Cover and Page Design by: Printed by: Lexion Paivano and Elvis Jack PNGUoT Print Shop Print Date: Final Print 08 07 2024 iii JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Editorial Contents I. Empirical Development Studies on Sociological and Political Issues in Papua New Guinea Impacts of COVID-19 on Increased Household Inequality in Papua New Guinea by Imelda Ambelye Understanding the Escalation of Tribal Fighting in the Enga Province: Is Control Slipping Away from the Papua New Guinea Government? by Garry Sali II. Contemporary Issues in Communication Studies and Linguistics The Rise of Fake News in the Social Media Era by Ecaterina Ilis Paraphrasing as a Means of Avoiding Plagiarism by Isabelle Nicole Voicu Interlanguage Pragmatics by Andreea Dietrich (Cotîrlea) Camaraderie vs. Dissent: A Sociolinguistic Comparative Analysis of Same-Gender Interviews and Opposite-Gender Interviews across Political Divides by Emilian Tîrban III. Book Reviews Review of Khandakar Qudrat-I Elahi’s Economics for Democracy in the 21st Century: A Critical Review of Definition and Scope by Thomas Muthucattu Paul Review of Sorina Chiper’s Performative Selves, Performative Poses: Gertrude Stein, Norman Mailer and Philip Roth as Autobiographers by Daniela Matei iv Editorial Similar to previous journal issues, this edition of JCDS offers a diverse selection of comprehensive and thought-provoking interdisciplinary studies on education, communication, sociology, politics, and critical studies on societal and human development. These studies cover various locations, including PNG and other parts of the world. If this issue differs from the others, it is because it endeavours to take its readership on a selfdiscovery excursion into the narrative of politics and communication. In doing so, it will assist readers in projecting an understanding of the compelling vulnerabilities of these issues into the very field-specific resistance qualities. Consequently, the dynamically unfolding text of this issue is characterized by a three-layered thematic structure that moves through a diverse array of important contemporary attitudes and reflections on development studies and communication. The first section, entitled Empirical Development Studies on Sociological and Political Issues in Papua New Guinea, comes to meet the readers’ expectation that any journal on communication and development studies should foreground and engage with contemporary sociological and political issues. The section spans areas concerning the socially and politically oriented living conditions in PNG and interrogates the government’s reaction and control over dire escalating issues in aspects pertaining to the individual/community dichotomy. Whether by exploring the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the livelihoods of ordinary people of PNG (Ambelye) or by examining the complex issues of tribal fighting in a PNG province (Sali), the section breathes a somewhat optimistic hope that individualizes governmental decisions, sets out the course of action and turns the scrutinized issues into a nationally beneficial cause for action. The middle section under the heading of Contemporary Issues in Communication Studies and Linguistics posits value in its eclectic approach. It provides direction for scholars in areas related to human communication and linguistics, by exploring some of the new ideas and approaches in these subjects, specifically with new approaches in this field coming from authors with very diverse backgrounds. Such a pressing societal challenge, impacting communication, public perception, and democratic processes, is the rise of fake news which allows Ilis to explore its indepth implications for individuals and society as well as discuss ways of developing informed interventions to mitigate its negative effects. In a similar vein, but decidedly oriented towards promoting a more trustworthy and thus ethical information environment, Voicu takes paraphrasing center stage highlighting its benefits in adopting ethical writing practices and curbing plagiarism. Moving to another vantage point, of sociological and conversational concern, two more studies complete the section by assessing pragmatic competence and transfer (Dietrich [Cotîrlea]) and sociolinguistic variations and gender/cultural differences in language use (Tîrban). Premised on the common idea that facilitating communication empowers individuals to recognize important issues and find common grounds for action, building therein a shared sense of common goals, the studies under this section take a bold stance by projecting communication initiatives into normbased perspectives capable of maximizing the overall effectiveness of communication. The closing section of Book Reviews provides a refreshing wind of perspectives into fine critical assessments of two recently published books, one on the cross-cultural tensions between economic theory and political democracy in our century (Paul), the other of cultural studies and literature (Matei). The section presents these book reviews as a space of interest for the values of knowledge, debate, and dialogue, a space that affords enhanced collective knowledge drawing from JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 individualized contributions, dialectic exchanges, and the thrust of cherished and nurtured scholarly debate. The current issue continues to serve as an open invitation for its readers to engage in a more critical examination of the contemporary values and issues that confront communication and the human mind across cultures. By equipping the readership with the necessary skills to confront contemporary issues through social and behavioural change, this issue facilitates a comprehensive understanding of the various methodologies required to communicate problems and encourage change within global and local communities. To close this editorial, we note the sad passing of four noted Romanian colleagues of language, culture, and society: Professor Mihaela Anghelescu-Irimia (1951-2022), Professor Irina Grigorescu Pană (1948-2022), and Professor Octavian Roske (1956-2023) all of the University of Bucharest, Faculty of Foreign Languages, as well as Professor Virgil ”Bill” Stanciu (1941-2023) of the University “Babeș-Bolyai” Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Letters. We were greatly affected by the spirit of their scholarship and persons, either directly or indirectly, and miss them dearly! The Editors 3 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 I. Empirical Development Studies on Sociological and Political Issues in Papua New Guinea 4 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Impacts of COVID-19 on Increased Household Inequality in Papua New Guinea (PNG) Imelda Ambelye Abstract The COVID-19 pandemic and the lockdown affected lives around the globe including Papua New Guinea (PNG) at all levels. This study explored the impact of the pandemic on the livelihoods of ordinary people of PNG with the Sustainable Livelihood Framework being used as a lens. A qualitative research methodology was utilized to investigate the real-life experiences and narratives of common people in rural and urban Lae and Mt. Hagen. Sixty male and female participants were interviewed. Through thematic analysis, it was found that COVID-19 had compounding household impacts that magnified extant inequalities. The author holds that the PNG Government must address these increased inequalities to achieve, inclusivity and equality resulting in sustainable human development for all. Keywords: COVID-19, household inequality, sustainable livelihood, thematic analysis, interviews, sustainable development. Introduction COVID-19 was first reported in Wuhan in the Hubei province of China on 31 December 2019. By 25 January 2020, about 13 countries globally were affected by COVID-19 (Hoarau, 2021; Sumb, 2021; WHO, 2020). From then on, COVID-19 affected more and more countries. Countries around the world thus took measures to contain and prevent the virus (coronavirus) from spreading. Some of the common measures taken by countries to contain the virus and stop it from spreading included lockdowns, restricted movements of people, banning large group meetings, and border closures (Hoarau, 2021). As a result, traveling restrictions by air, sea and land affected economies worldwide, including the tourism industry (Turnšek et al., 2020). The Pacific region did not have an immediate direct health crisis because countries like Papua New Guinea (PNG) acted promptly to mitigate the spread of COVID-19 in its early stages through the lockdown policies and measures implemented to contain its spread (Lau, Sutcliffe, & Hungito, 2020). Even so, in the Pacific itself, countries such as French Polynesia, Guam, PNG, Timor-Leste and Fiji were worse hit than the other Pacific countries Sumb, 2021). For instance, from 1 September 2020 to 31 January 2021, there was a surge in case numbers in French Polynesia, rising from 573 to 18,060. Guam also experienced a rise in COVID-19 cases from August to November 2020 but managed to bring it under control. (Howes & Surandiran, 2021). The Government of PNG swiftly implemented stringent measures upon the detection of the initial COVID-19 case in the country on 17 March 2020, which involved a 45-year-old foreign mine employee in Lae. The response included imposing travel restrictions on international flights, declaring a State of Emergency (SoE), and instituting orders that limited the movement of 5 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 individuals between districts or provinces. Additionally, all schools and non-essential businesses were closed, with only essential services such as shops, banks, and hospitals allowed to remain open (Sumb, 2021). The Government did its best to minimise the spread of the virus, manage community transmission and get help globally, yet COVID-19 and its related issues have compounded problems that already existed in the country. For example; “the COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated the deterioration of social outcomes in PNG” (DFAT, 2021). Furthermore: According to the UN and Water Aid, only 41 per cent of people have access to basic water supply and only 12 per cent of schools have hand washing facilities with both water and soap. Lockdown restrictions and border closures have slowed economic activity, reduced household incomes, disrupted education, and exacerbated poverty and gender inequality. The outbreak is having direct and indirect health, social and economic consequences (GoAus, 2020). This observation was confirmed by The Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT, 2021) and (Lau et al., 2020).“Without a formal social protection system, there is no readily available mechanism to reach poor households and informal workers affected by COVID-19” (DFAT, 2021, p1). Lao et al. (2020) said aspects of livelihoods and human well-being have been and will continue to be affected by the pandemic, such as rural people in New Ireland (LMMANetwork, PNGCLMA, & WCS-PNG, 2020) and the Manus Islanders. Such issues and challenges have to do with structural inequality. According to Farmer (2004), structural inequality displays historical, social, political, and economic dimensions on a grand scale, defined by systems of privilege that create disparities in society, including property rights, health care outcomes and access, housing, education, and other resources. Therefore, with no state-established social security system in place in PNG for vulnerable people (though churches and community-based organisations help informally), this study aimed at exploring and understanding how Papua New Guineans’ livelihoods and well-being were impacted by COVID-19, including the compounding effects it has had on existing inequalities within the lived experiences and lives of common Papua New Guineans. This study shows the impacts of capital lack (assets/resources) within the Sustainable Livelihood Framework upon the lived experiences of ordinary men and women in Lae and Mount Hagen during the COVID-19 lockdown. Purpose of Study and Objective This study adds to existing reports and studies on the impact of the pandemic by supplementing them in its evaluation of impacts on the lived experiences of the common citizens of the country, which is important so that the Government and other organisations can have a more detailed understanding of the lives of most PNG citizens so that in the future, crisis decisions can be made while avoiding discrimination and exclusion. The objective of this study was to investigate the cumulative effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on rural and urban people’s livelihoods. The strategies they utilized to address and overcome these challenges. 6 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Research Question What are the compounding effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the general population of Papua New Guinea and what coping strategies are being used by them to counter them? Theoretical Framework The Sustainable Livelihood Framework is applied to comprehend the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic and the lockdown on the ordinary residents of Lae and Mount Hagen in Papua New Guinea. Through their lived experiences, this report explored the resources or assets they have that determined their vulnerability and coping strategies. Most of the challenges faced were because of structural inequality. In contrast, possession of social capital played a major role in helping people live through the pandemic, at the same time it was impacted negatively. Sustainable Livelihoods Framework The frameworks for Sustainable Livelihoods (DFID, 1999; Ellis, 2000) aim to conceptualize how individuals operate within a context of vulnerability, influenced by factors such as changing seasonal constraints, economic shocks, and long-term development trends. These individuals leverage various types of livelihood assets or capitals -- financial, natural, physical, human, and social -- in diverse combinations. The dynamics are shaped by the vulnerability context, a variety of institutions and processes, and how individuals utilize their asset base to formulate a range of livelihood strategies, ultimately seeking to attain desired livelihood outcomes (Scoones, 1998). As stated by Chambers & Conway (1991), A livelihood comprises assets and activities required for a means of living: a livelihood is sustainable if it can cope with and recover from stress and shocks, maintain or enhance its assets, and provide sustainable livelihood opportunities for the next generation; and which contributes net benefits to other livelihoods at the local and global levels and in the long and short term. (p. 6) Figure 1 (Source: DFID, 1999) 7 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Limitation and Scope This study did not use quantitative methods but qualitative ones to bring to light intangible social aspects of the lived experiences of people at the household and community level in selected communities (sampled by convenience), so generalizations will have to be made carefully in light of other community data and studies. Methods The approach to this study is qualitative in order to fully explore the lived experiences of the participants. The study's objective was to comprehend the genuine experiences and perspectives of everyday people that are usually not revealed in quantitative research. Qualitative methods techniques for collecting and analyzing data involved purposive sampling and conducting semistructured, open-ended interviews (Creswell, 2014). Textual data is usually gathered through these techniques, which enable a more thorough analysis and discussion of social, political, economic, and other processes (Lincoln & Guba, 2013). Design Qualitative methods, specifically focus group interviews and narratives, were employed to capture firsthand accounts of real-life experiences. This qualitative approach was used to amplify some of the qualitative studies done by different groups like WHO (2020) and UNDP-PNG (2020). The qualitative data and analysis refined and gave a deeper understanding of the impacts of COVID19 on the same topics addressed in quantitative data and reports as secondary data. Ten focus groups with 3-4 participants each, aged between 24 and 40 years from in and around Lae and Mount Hagen, were engaged. Others gave their narratives and stories individually. Both males and females from the urban areas and those from the rural villages whose customary land are now where the cities are which is a walking distance to the urban cities. The study aimed at a diverse sample consisting of males and females who were from two different parts of the country and were from rural as well as urban areas. Data collection and analysis The focus group interviews and the individual ones were conducted in two cycles (from May to July 2021 and from December 2021 to January 2022). The study was conducted in two locales (Mount Hagen and Lae) in both rural and urban settings. Five research assistants were engaged in data collection and analysis. After each set of data was collected, the whole group met to analyse and come up with summaries for the report to be written. (Four of the five research assistants were all university graduates now and one was a DATEC student. All the research assistants have skills and knowledge of research and report writing.) We then created a semi-structured interview guide comprising open-ended questions, which were formulated and developed around key concepts and themes. These included probes into what type of capital and resources were utilized to grasp the effects of COVID-19 on livelihoods and what were the coping strategies used? Qualitative content analysis was applied. This form of analysis involves a subjective interpretation of the content of textual data through a systematic classification process of coding and identifying themes or patterns. 8 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Ethical Considerations In this study, the participants were well-equipped with sufficient information about the purpose and objectives of the study. Authorization was obtained from each individual prior to data collection and participants were able to make informed decisions whether to take part in the survey or not. Participants were well assured that this study would be conducted in a manner that would serve the interests of the respondents and the communities at large. All information collected through verbal or written form together with the respondents and participants was treated as confidential. Anonymous indicators or pseudonymous were used in reporting data. Participants Participants' demography 12 9 6 12 8 10 Urban Male 6 7 7 8 Urban Female Rural Male 6 Rural Female 4 5 Rural Female Rural Male Urban Female 2 Urban Male 0 Lae 7 Mount Hagen 5 Urban Female 8 7 Rural Male 6 12 Rural Female 9 6 Urban Male Figure 2 A total of 60 participants participated in the study as the graph indicates. An even number of 30 participants from Mount Hagen and 30 from Lae took part in it. Both groups male and female participants. 9 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Findings Table 1: Livelihoods directly affected by the pandemic Livelihood Number of Number of Number of Number of strategies Rural men Rural women Urban men Urban women Formal 3 2 4 4 6 5 5 6 3 3 0 0 5 5 5 4 employment only Informal marketing Subsistence farming Mix of different livelihood strategies Participants in informal marketing were affected the most followed by those in ones who had a hybrid of livelihoods and formal employment. Those in subsistence farming were not affected because these participants are in the rural village communities. Table 2: Coping strategies/activities of participants during the pandemic Coping Number of Number of Number of Number of strategies Rural men Rural Urban men Urban women women 10 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Remittance and help from 4 4 4 4 0 0 0 1 8 7 4 5 6 6 6 6 relatives Government help programs and other institutional help Subsistence farming and or informal marketing Church, friends and relatives providing nonmonetary help Table 2 shows that the majority of the participants coped with the social relations they had with relatives and other people and groups Table 3: WASH facilities during pandemic and lockdown WASH facility Number of Number of Number of Number of Rural men Rural Urban men Urban women women 11 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Have been using Proper 5 4 9 8 8 5 piped water and toilet before and during pandemic No properly piped 11 10 water and toilet Before and during pandemic The majority of the participants do not have proper piped water in the rural areas compared to those in urban ones. Table 4: Participants’ perception or knowledge behaviour of COVID-19 and vaccination Knowledge Number of Number of Number of Number of and behaviour Rural men Rural Urban men Urban towards women women measures Antivaccination 11 10 9 11 4 5 5 5 Pro Vaccination 12 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Regular health and hygiene 6 6 10 10 12 8 5 5 2 3 7 6 15 13 6 9 practice with Soap and sanitizers No regular health and hygiene practice with Soap and sanitizers Followed directions to observe measures e.g. Social distancing Did not follow directions to observe measures, e.g., Social distancing 13 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 The table shows that the vast majority of the participants from the rural and the urban were not supportive of vaccination. While most in urban areas had access to water with soap and sanitisers and maintained good hygiene practices, a majority from the rural did not. Table 4 also shows that the majority of the people in rural areas especially did not follow directives from the government like social distancing. How has COVID-19 compounded extant social problems in PNG? COVID-19 has revealed and magnified inequalities and deprivations that have existed in the lives of the urban poor and the rural poor. Before COVID-19, there has been spatial and structural inequality. COVID-19 then affected disproportionately those who already were disadvantaged socially and economically. It has revealed, exacerbated, and amplified pre-existing inequalities in wealth, gender, and race by further enriching the wealthy while deepening poverty among the less affluent (Oxfam, 2021). COVID-19 is not discriminatory as it can attack anyone from any background, colour, status, looks, age, gender, etc. While it posed a big risk to everyone, policies, institutions and government, variations in methodologies of addressing it magnified inequality, discrimination, and exclusion leading to unsustainable livelihoods. This is especially true for the persons in rural communities. Generally, while the urban poor have access to basic services, the rural poor have less or sometimes no access. Such factors affect and hamper development of all other capital, including human capital, natural capital, social capital and economic or financial capital of livelihoods (UN, 2021). The compounding and intersecting obstacles thereby contribute to both poverty and social exclusion (Catteneo, Nelson, & McMenomy, 2021). This is true for Papua New Guinea as shown in this study. The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in a decrease in resources or assets people had, thus affecting their livelihoods and making it harder for the majority of the common ordinary citizens of the country in Lae and Mt Hagen. The following are some examples of how people’s livelihoods were affected, as experienced and shared by the participants themselves. (Not every aspect of the capital affected has been highlighted.) Firstly, economic and income-generating activities, such as informal marketing that the majority of participants engaged in, decreased or lost by participants in rural and urban centres alike (Table 1)) as Mary says, I have a family of three children and I am a single mum who literally earns money from table market (roadside market). I sell a mix of store goods and garden food every day at the junction. I never had a job even though I applied to have a job but I make enough money to sustain myself and my children who are in primary school. Due to the lockdown and the restrictions made because of COVID-19, I lost many customers. Due to the closure of informal markets during the lockdown sources of income-generating activities were lost like in Mary’s case. Formal income opportunities (jobs) were also lost, as Table 1 shows. Common people were adversely affected economically. At these micro-levels, income-generating activities declined and prices of expenditure increased (UNDP-PNG, 2020). The well-being and livelihood strategies of people in urban and rural centres of PNG were negatively affected. The most affected as shown in 14 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Table 1, are informal marketing and those into a mix of farming and informal marketing. A study by Lau et al. (2020) on the people on Manus Island revealed similar challenges to the people there, due to the lockdowns and the social restrictions implemented. Those depending on formal employment for living were also affected. About 30% of the people interviewed lost their jobs. Companies downsizing and fear of required vaccinations were two main reasons for this. Two families surveyed to this day are still without jobs and unemployed. The stress in looking for food and putting it on the table increased, amidst an already very high level of unemployment and poverty (UNDP-PNG, 2020). Most of these people who took part in the study had these markets as their main livelihood activity. When the lockdown occurred, their means of earning money were gone, thus adding more stress and depression to their lives. The COVID-19 crisis has affected so many lives, especially those in rural and poor urban centres. Most people have no formal income and have become more uncertain because of the closure of the informal economy that was affected due to lack of public transport caused by lockdowns (Bundervoet, Dávalos, & Garcia, 2021; Kopil, 2020). Workers in wage-earning positions, as well as those engaged in informal or self-employment, experienced job losses Bundervoet et al., 2021; Parisotto & Elsheikhi, 2020). Household incomes were thereby markedly reduced. This added to the already vulnerable and struggling livelihoods of the vast population in Papua New Guinea. As shown in Table 2, no organised help in monetary or non-monetary came from the Government. Their challenges and problems of struggling to make ends meet were compounded as pointed out by Laka, a participant, who said, I have been working as a casual in town and I do marketing on the side, but now I can’t. I was put off the payroll. I’m struggling with my children and wife who is getting food from the garden and sustains us. I tried to sell some goods on the roadside but I was stopped by the task force. The government has not given us anything to support us. We heard about other countries and donors giving COVID-19 money to the government to help us but we have not received anything yet. This is an indication that the Government and those in authority have not done enough to cater for the needs of the common people. There is no formal system to help such vulnerable people (DFAT, 2021; GoAus, 2020; UNDP-PNG, 2020) making their livelihoods even harder and not sustainable under pandemic conditions. Secondly, the physical infrastructure could not support and keep up with the COVID-19 mitigating measures, leaving people extremely vulnerable and unsustainable livelihoods as the majority of the people in the rural areas do not have proper piped water and toilets as shown in Table 3. One of the measures taken to control the spread of the virus was to emphasize the importance of regular handwashing with clean water and soap but most could not because the Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) infrastructure was not there in the first place. With the majority excluded from basic infrastructure needed to improve livelihoods, the potential of being infected and sick not only from COVID-19 but other diseases have been there for a long time. Before the pandemic, the United Nations (UN, 2021) noted that the majority of individuals worldwide (8 out of 10) who do not have access to basic drinking water services reside in rural areas, as do 7 out of 10 of those who lack basic sanitation services, with approximately 2 billion people residing in rural and remote areas lacking sufficient access to essential health services within their communities. According to UNICEF-PNG (2018), almost 8.5 million people in Papua New Guinea are among the countries with the lowest access to a safe water supply globally. According to the Government's WASH Policy 2015 - 2030, 89 per cent of people in urban areas 15 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 and 33 per cent in rural areas have access to safe water. However, when it comes to basic sanitation, the figures are 57 per cent for urban dwellers and just 13 per cent for the rural population. This in itself reveals that the individuals residing in rural settlements and the underserved communities continue to be structurally excluded from basic services and vital infrastructure that is needed for better and improved livelihoods. Furthermore, UNICEF- PNG showed that waterborne diseases, such as diarrhoea and acute respiratory infections, affect mainly children under the age of five. Among the Pacific Island countries, PNG is at the bottom in WASH-related health statistics, which indicate over 6,000 deaths are caused annually due to diarrhoea diseases, surpassing figures reported by other Pacific neighbours. (UNICEF-PNG, 2018). In 2009, cholera resurfaced in PNG after an absence of 50 years. A significant portion, over 60 per cent, of the population relies on unimproved water sources, and less than 20 per cent have access to improved sanitation facilities. This situation has resulted in prevalent open defecation, particularly in rural communities where the majority of the PNG population resides (UNICEF-PNG, 2018). According to the World Bank's findings in 2017, 41 per cent of Papua New Guinea's population had access to safe drinking water, with 35 per cent in rural areas and 86 per cent in urban areas. However, access to sanitation in rural areas was only 8 per cent, contrasting with 48 per cent in urban areas (WorldBank, 2021). This poses more health risks and deprivation. This is an indication that most of the rural population is missing out on important services and infrastructure. Thus, actions taken to control the transmission of COVID-19 have not considered the diverse environment and context of people’s livelihood. This could be the reason why a majority of the rural respondents did not wash their hands with soap regularly, as shown in Table 4. Maki says this, Everyday water is being fetched at the riverside. We do not have piped water or water supply so we depend on the river for bathing, washing clothes and collecting drinking water from the little spring on the bank of the river. The river serves all our needs basically. People say to wash hands with soap regularly but that is not very practical for us in the village. We don’t do that regularly and all the time we come into contact with someone. This did not happen. Thirdly, participants’ knowledge and perception of COVID-19 and behaviour contradicted the ‘new normal’ revealing people’s livelihoods and wellbeing in the rural parts of PNG are not supported well by institutions and the government. This has affected how they relate to the government and authorities. Most did not adhere to the COVID-19 measures in place. The majority did not wash their hands with soap, the majority failed to observe social distancing and the majority hesitated to be vaccinated. Coupled with people not being provided with basic WASH services and not enough education to practice good health and hygiene practices, there is a high chance they are not safe and so are vulnerable to diseases which is a decrease in the human capital. Therefore, knowledge of COVID-19 protocols and adhering to COVID-19 measures such as social distancing were lacking/not observed by the majority in the rural areas, as shown in Table 4 and in Maka’s statement: Social distancing is hard here because we live together and do things together too. For example, when some of our relatives died, people had to come together for ‘haus krai’ (funeral) even though social distancing was in place. 16 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Social distancing measures that work in the urban environments of industrialised formal and mainstream economies do not work at all in the rural areas or urban settlements of PNG. Most of the poor infrastructure that persists in the settlements is overcrowded. Too, communal gatherings and doing things together form a fundamental aspect of the social interactions within the village community. For example, it takes a collective effort to perform funeral activities in the village (Rooney, 2021). Hence, social distancing is not practical. Additionally, a majority in the rural were hesitant to take the COVID-19 vaccination, as shown in Table 4. Loi told us that: I do not want to take the vaccine because there are so many different opinions about this vaccine. We do not know much about the origin and effect of the vaccine. No proper education has been conducted about vaccines to us in the village. This observation is also confirmed by Seymour (2021) who mentioned that most of the rural population of Western Province hesitated to get the vaccine. Instruction from the government on social distancing, washing hands with soap, and encouraging people to be vaccinated so that the virus could be contained were not adhered to as shown in Table 4. Nana had this to say: The government and the relevant authorities kept telling us to get vaccines, keep social distance, wash our hands, not shake hands, etc but most of us could not keep up with it. We heard from other people and some announcements on the Radio and the big notices. None of them came to our community to explain things clearly for all of us in the village. We have always been like this. Sickness, no good services and infrastructure, no job, not enough money. ‘How mipla stap em mipla stap. Em normal ya’ (even though things are not ok, we will live through - how we normally live and stay). Based on Nana’s comments, the government and authority’s direction was not followed. Such behaviour was seen in other parts of the country too as mentioned by Simon Eccleshall, head of programs at Médecins Sans Frontières’ Australia office, who said, “We’re not really seeing this education and enforcement around social distancing practices that we do in countries where we are successfully containing COVID outbreaks” in (Cornish, 2021). The relationship between the people and their leaders is not positive for the community’s social capital base as there no trust. According to Putnam (2004) social capital refers to the reciprocal trust existing among community members and the trust extended from the community towards its leaders. This social trust can effect changes in society and social occurrences (Wu, 2021) and encourage a good social relationship that is favourable to the common good of a community. The foundation of trust in social capital often originates from social networks and interactions that offer both information and communal support (Pisani & Micheletti, 2020) within the fabric of a community and the functioning of a state (Rayamajhee & Bohara, 2021). In PNG, social trust between communities is often lacking. However, extant social capital did have a positive influence on how people coped throughout the pandemic and lockdown because of the relationships and trust they had between and among the relatives, family friends and trusted members of the community. That contributed to their coping strategy. The following paragraphs discuss the coping strategies people used to get through the lockdown and pandemic. Coping strategies Social capital is the glue that keeps other capital resources together (Freuchte, 2011). The importance of social capital and how it contributed to people’s coping strategies in the most 17 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 challenging time of the pandemic is shown. People coped by depending on the relationship they have with their family and friends and other organizations like the church. Table 4 shows that almost all participants depended on their relationships like relatives, friends and church to draw support in going through the pandemic. Some examples show how social capital was used. Kala admitted that: When times were so difficult and so unbearable, I had to reach out to my aunty who lives in Port Moresby. She is a strong woman who has a senior position in a government department. She sent us some money through SMS phone banking which was good. It can be seen that people depended on whom they trusted to seek help and in Kala’s case, it’s her relative. Such shared experiences confirm that relationships and networks matter. Social capital encompasses three types of network relationships: bonding, bridging, and linking. Bonding social capital specifically addresses relationships among individuals with personal familiarity, such as family or friends and that is the kind that helped participants more. Bridging social capital pertains to relationships that extend across ethnic groups, the workplace, or one's neighbourhood. It involves connections with individuals who share common interests or characteristics but may have limited personal interaction. This is shown in Beni’s case: When my dad passed on, I was very sad and extremely terrified we would not give him a decent burial but somehow we performed the necessary obligations and rituals and laid him to rest. We were satisfied. Linking social capital refers to relationships among different social classes, on a global scale, or within groups where one segment holds power and influence while the other does not This relationship is the one the participants here demonstrated in terms of their relationship with the government and authorities. Bourdieu (1989) says social capital enables actions carried out by individuals within the framework of the social structure Trust becomes evident through the demonstration of honesty, orderliness, and cooperative behaviour grounded in shared norms. It is the glue that keeps all together in a community as it is invisible. The other resource they used that made them live through and cope was the reliance on natural capital. The ecosystem services, e.g., natural rivers that provide water for cooking, bathing and other village activities. The land they own is their most important natural resource. It provides their everyday food for consumption and other activities. It didn’t cost money. They were resilient. In summary, the livelihoods of the participants are more unsustainable regardless of whether they live in rural or urban areas. The rural population is more vulnerable as they do not have any formal social systems. Implications COVID-19 only magnified the overall structural and spatial inequality. Inequalities within rural areas stem from various sources and recourses are one of them (IFAD, 2018). According to United Nations (2021) Resources such as income, land, physical capital, technology, and services like health and education, among others are not accessed equally by communities, households and individuals in rural areas. This includes ownership of these resources and their use. There is also a strong association between inequality in a resource and inequalities in health, education and nutrition, with each influencing the other. Inequality of opportunities (livelihoods) 18 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 and inequality of outcomes (living standards and well-being) are, therefore, two sides of the same coin. Without equal opportunities made possible through investing in the capabilities of individuals and the potential to benefit (on an equitable basis according to rights and needs) from public services, systematic patterns of discrimination and social exclusion will continue to prevent disadvantaged groups or individuals from accessing public services (UN, 2021, p. 4) Inequalities are multifaceted, have multiple layers, and accumulate over time, are influenced by the very process of development (UNDP, 2019; UNDP & OPHI, 2019) Sen (2001) contends that development should prioritize people's 'entitlements' and 'capabilities,' denoting the opportunities and rights individuals wield to access societal resources, invariably contingent on power relations. Development processes pertain to the methods through which development objectives are achieved. These processes can encompass specific policies and strategies implemented by governments and other development agencies, or they may be linked to broader forces of change beyond the control of governments or individual organizations. While it is relatively straightforward for people and governments to agree on broadly defined aims, it is often more challenging to prioritize among them or come to a consensus on the means to accomplish them. The concept of human development or social development usually involves a broader set of goals in which economic development is often seen as a means to an end rather than an end in itself. In human or social development, the goals relate to quality-of-life issues, such as security, health, education, social stability, equality, empowerment, dignity, and so on. The government of Papua New Guinea and its systems in place must use the experience and impact of the COVID-19 situation to develop strategies and approaches that will promote equality and inclusion in the provision of resources that can achieve human development and human well-being. Conclusion The objective of this study was to uncover the effects of COVID-19 on the regular residents of Papua New Guinea, with a specific focus on Mt Hagen and Lae. The rural and the urban were affected but the rural were the worst because of structural and spatial inequality. The government has a big task to prioritise human development so that there is equality and inclusion. Acknowledgements I thank TETRA TECH International Development for the grant that supported this study, PNG AAA for the coordination of the activity, and PNG University of Technology for the support. References Bourdieu, P. (1989). The Field of Cultural Production. New York: Colombia University Press. Bundervoet, T., Dávalos, M., & Garcia, N. (2021). The short-term impacts of COVID-19 on households in developing countries: an overview based on a harmonized data set of highfrequency surveys. Policy research working paper no. 9582. Retrieved from Washington DC: Catteneo, A., Nelson, A., & McMenomy, T. (2021). Global mapping of urban-rural catchment areas reveals unequal access to services. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 19 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Chambers, R., & Conway, G. (1991). Sustainable Rural Livlihoods: practical concepts for 21st Century .IDS Discussion Paper 296. Retrieved from Cornish, I. (2021). Behind Papua New Guinea's rising COVID-19 cases lie misinformation and politics.Inside Development.COVID-19. Devex. Retrieved from Creswell, J. W. (2014). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches (5th Edition): Sage. DFAT. (2021). Pacific COVID-19 Response Package: PNG. DFID. (1999). Sustainable Livelihood Framework. Department for International Development. Ellis, F. (2000). Rural Livelihoods and diversity in Developing Countrie. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Farmer, L. (2004). An Anthropology of Structural Violence. Current Anthropology, 45(3), 305325. Freuchte, K. (2011). Social Capital: The Glue That Holds a Community Together. ExtensionExtra. Paper 514. Retrieved from http://openprairie.sdstate.edu/extension_extra/514: GoAus, A. G. (2020). Papua New Guinea Covid-19 Development Response Plan. Hoarau, J.-F. (2021). Is international tourism responsible for the pandemic of COVID- 19? A preliminary cross-country analysis with a special focus on small islands. . Economics Bulletin, 40(3). doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10290-021-00438 Howes, S., & Surandiran, S. (2021). COVID-19 takes hold in the Pacific. IFAD. (2018). Rural inequalities: evaluation approaches to overcome disparities. Kopil, E. (2020). Can PNG fight the coronavirus crisis whilst protecting its most vulnerable citizens? . Lau, J., Sutcliffe, S., & Hungito, W. (2020). Lived experiences of Covid-19: impacts on an atoll island community, Papua New Guinea Townsville, Australia. ARC CoE in Coral Reef Studies. James Cook University: ames Cook University. Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (2013). The constructivist credo.: Left Coast Press. LMMANetwork, PNGCLMA, & WCS-PNG. (2020). COVID19 Update #4: PNG. 16 July 2020. LMMA Network. Oxfam. (2021). The Inequality Virus: Bringing Together a World Torn Apart by Coronavirus through a Fair, Just and Sustainable Economy. Retrieved from Parisotto, A., & Elsheikhi, A. (2020). COVID-19, jobs and the future of work in the LDCs: A (disheartening) preliminary account, ILO Working Paper 20. Pisani, E., & Micheletti, S. (2020). Social capital and rural development research in Chile. A qualitative review and quantitative. Journal of Rural Studies Dep. Territorio e Sistemi Agro-. Putnam, R. D. (2004). Democracies in Flux: The Evolution of Social Capital in Contemporary Society, Democracies in Flux. Rayamajhee, V., & Bohara, A. K. (2021). Social capital, trust, and collective action in postearthquake Nepal. Natural Hazards 105(2), 1491–1519. doi:10.1007/s11069-020-04363-4 Rooney, M. (2021). COVID-19 and Haus Krai: DEVPolicy Blog. Scoones, I. (1998). Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: A Framework for Analysis. IDS Working Paper 72. Sen. (2001). Development as freedom. Oxford: Oford University Press. Seymour, M. (2021). Caccine Hesitancy and the risks in rural Papua New Guinea. Sumb, A. (2021). Assessing Financial Impacts of COVIS-19 on Tourism and hospitality businesses in Papua New Guinea. Contemporaary PNG Studies: DWU Research Journal 36. doi:doi.org/10.1177/1609406920920962 20 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Turnšek, M., Brumen, B., Rangus, M., Gorenak, M., Mekinc, J., & Štuhec, T. L. (2020). Perceived threat of COVID-19 and future travel avoidance: Results from an early convenient sample in Slovenia. Academic Turistica - Tourism and Innovation Journal, 13(1), 3-19. UN. (2021). Tackling inequalities in public service coverage to “build forward better” for the rural poor. Policy brief by the HLCP Inequalities Task Team. UNDP-PNG. (2020). Socio economic impact assessment of COVID -19 on Papua New Guinea; Advanced edition. UNDP. (2019). Human development report 2019. Beyond income, beyond averages, beyond today: inequalities in human development in the 21st century. Retrieved: http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2019.pdf: UNDP, & OPHI. (2019). Illuminating inequalities: global multidimensional poverty index. Retrieved: http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/mpi_2019_publication: UNICEF-PNG. (2018). Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Clean water, basic toilets and good hygiene practices are essential for the survival and development of children and women. Retrieved: https://www.unicef.org/png/what-we-do/water-sanitation-and-hygiene: WHO. (2020). Coronavirus disease (COVID-19): situation report, 202. World Health Organization. Retrieved: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/333834: WorldBank. (2021). High Frequency Phone Survey on COVID-19 [Press release] Wu, C. (2021). Social capital and COVID-19: a multidimensional and multilevel approach. Chinese Sociological Review 54(1), 27–54. doi:10.1080/21620555.2020.1814139 21 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Understanding the Escalation of Tribal Fighting in the Enga Province: Is Control Slipping Away from the Papua New Guinea Government? Garry Sali Abstract This research examines the complex issue of tribal fighting in Papua New Guinea's Enga Province; to explain its prevalence and causes while assessing the Government's control over this escalating problem. Drawing upon anecdotal evidence from newspapers, contemporary literature, and personal experiences as a citizen, the analysis asserts that the roots of tribal fighting in Enga are intricately intertwined with the cultural dynamics, socio-economic systems, and the political and bureaucratic operational structure of the nation. Moreover, it contends that Papua New Guinea (PNG) is gradually losing control of the province, allowing violence and destruction to become pervasive, thereby jeopardising it with a relentless cycle of killings and property destruction unless constructive and strategic actions are swiftly implemented. The analysis points out the urgency of establishing an integrated, tribal-based peace and order system but emphasizes that immediate proactive Government intervention is vital to curbing the escalating conflicts. However, it also highlights that, before addressing technical matters, a fundamental shift in the mindset and attitudes of politicians, government employees, security forces, educated elites, and tribal leadership is crucial. Failing to develop a proactive strategy to contain this escalating problem may result in the loss of control over this violence, leaving the province under the influence of warlords, many of whom are educated elites residing outside of the province. Keywords: Tribal fighting (Enga Province), Escalation of violence, PNG Government, Loss of social control Introduction Tribal fighting has been a persistent challenge in the Enga Province of Papua New Guinea, reflecting a complex interplay of historical, cultural, and social factors that have had far-reaching implications (Paul & Sali 2020). This research endeavours to shed light on the intricate issue of tribal fighting in Enga, to explain the prevalence and uncover the root causes of these conflicts while critically assessing whether the Papua New Guinea Government is gradually relinquishing control of this escalating problem. The analysis draws from a multifaceted approach, incorporating anecdotal evidence garnered from newspapers, insights from contemporary literature, and personal experiences as a concerned citizen of this linguistically diverse nation. There appears to be some confusion regarding the terms “tribal warfare” and “tribal fighting”. While these terms are often used interchangeably, they do not strictly denote the same (Ferguson, 1984). The distinction between tribal warfare and tribal fighting hinges on the scale, organization, and complexity of the conflicts involved. Tribal warfare typically encompasses larger groups, meticulous planning, and a more extensive regional impact, often arising from historical or systemic tensions (LeBlanc, 2003; Fried, 1972). On the other hand, tribal fighting pertains to smaller, less formalized conflicts, frequently rooted in localized disputes or personal grievances 22 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 within a tribal community (Otterbein, 2000). For this paper, we will employ the term “tribal fighting” as it aligns more closely with the character of conflict observed in the Enga Province. Tribal fighting in the Enga Province is not a surface-level issue but rather deeply entangled within the intricate fabric of Papua New Guinea's cultural dynamics, socio-economic systems, and the political and bureaucratic framework of the entire nation (Harriman, 2023). The causes of these conflicts are multifaceted and rooted in historical grievances, territorial disputes, power struggles, and the interplay of different tribal or clan groups within the region. These conflicts do not exist in isolation; they are deeply intertwined with the broader socio-political landscape, and their repercussions extend far beyond the immediate combatants (Jorgensen, 2005). The analysis points to a concerning trend: Papua New Guinea's national Government may be losing its grip on the situation, potentially ceding control to tribal warlords who thrive in an environment of violence and destruction. The consequences of this shift are dire, with ceaseless killings, rampant violence, and widespread insecurity imperiling the province's residents. Urgent and wellconsidered actions are needed to stem the tide of this crisis. Addressing the issue of tribal fighting in Enga demands a multifaceted and careful approach. Creating an integrated, tribally based peace and order is important, but government intervention must be proactive and strategic. However, the analysis points out an important requirement: a transformation in the mindset and attitudes of key stakeholders, including politicians, government officials, security forces, educated elites, tribal leaders, community leaders, and other participants. Without this change in perspective and a concerted effort to address the issue holistically, the risk remains that control over this rising violence could slip away, potentially leaving the province under the control of warlords, many of whom have connections to educated elites residing in cities and towns outside of the provinces. The objective of this study is threefold: (a) explore the prevalence and causes of tribal fighting in the Enga Province, (b) assess the government's control over this escalating problem, and (c) suggest strategies to address this deeply ingrained and rooted issue. Theoretical framework This analysis is based on two fundamental theoretical frameworks: emotional theory and retributive and restorative justice. These theories form the basis for understanding the complex dynamics of tribal fighting in Papua New Guinea. Through their lenses, we gain clear insights into the multifaceted character of this issue, offering a different perspective on its prevalence, causes, and potential strategies to resolve the issue. Emotional theory Emotion is invisible and not physical, but the person can feel the level of it (Arnold, 1960). Essentially, emotions are waves of strong feelings (like love, overwhelmed, anger, and disappointment) that run through the human mind and body based on one’s circumstances, mood, and relationship (Anderson, 1993). Emotions are part of human nature, drive, or instinct as identified by Freud (1927), and are complicated and subtle. They are the epitome and essence of what makes up human beings (Anderson & Lebiere, 1998). Humans are, therefore, referred to as, “emotional beings” (Lewis, Haviland-Jones & Barrett, 2008), since emotion is an intrinsic part of all humans. It is, however, blurred and unclear as to how emotion precisely works in the human body because it is an invisible force and feeling (Anderson & Lebiere, 2003). 23 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 A definition of emotion provided by Pham (2007) perhaps comes closer to illuminating how it functions as it states: “Emotions refer to complex states of the organism characterized by changes in autonomic nervous system arousal accompanied by distinct psychological expressions, specific action tendencies of certain valence” (2007:156). It is a complex matter because different kinds of emotions operate with different intensities depending on the situation. Emotions (such as upset, disgust, frustration and anger) have different levels of emotional valence (Ekman, 1999). Emotions connect the brain to different parts of the body and produce different patterns of expressions and reactions. As it is captured: “Every emotion activates separate areas of the brain and produces different patterns of nonverbal expressions and body reactions and laypeople do not confuse the subjective sensations associated with them” (Matsumoto, Hwang & Frank, 2012:10). Emotions are an essential part of the human being, stirred by external different forces (Austin, 1962). The essence and vigour of our emotional responses are modulated by the stimuli we encounter in our environment. However, the external societal and cultural context plays a pivotal role in shaping the nature and intensity of these emotional responses. Emotions can be viewed as social and cultural constructs, intricately woven into our lived experiences (Averill, 1980). Within the diverse cultural landscapes across the world, emotions are nurtured and moulded in distinct ways. Our emotional responses, seemingly woven into our very fabric, are subject to the influences and pressures of our cultural surroundings. These cultural influences, which are dictated by the nuances of our culture, guide our bodies' responses to emotional triggers. Varied socialization experiences tied to regional, ethnic, gender, and class differences not only dictate how we outwardly express emotions but also influence the types of emotions we are predisposed to experiencing. Consequently, in the absence of external stimuli, our emotional reservoir remains calm, poised, and controlled. However, the potency, form, and direction of these external stimuli determine how our minds and bodies respond, thereby shaping the emotional symphony we exhibit. In the context of tribal fighting in the Enga Province of Papua New Guinea, the emotional theory elucidates how emotions play a pivotal role in driving and escalating conflicts within tribal communities. Emotions such as anger, frustration, and resentment can serve as catalysts for conflicts, especially when individuals or groups perceive themselves as wronged or threatened. These intense emotions may fuel retaliatory actions and contribute to an ongoing cycle of violence. Furthermore, the cultural and social context of the Enga Province can shape the way these emotions are expressed and harnessed within tribal conflicts, influencing both the intensity of violence and the potential for reconciliation and resolution. It is important to understand the complex character of emotions within an Engan cultural context to address and mitigate tribal fighting from a cultural perspective. Retributive justice and restorative systems The historical conversation on retributive justice and restorative justice in Enga sheds some light on the multifaceted nature of justice systems in this linguistically diverse and geographically unique province. Retributive justice, which was introduced by the Australian colonial administration, is mainly associated with formal court proceedings (Umbreit, 2001). It revolves around punitive measures such as imprisonment or fines, reflecting a conventional approach to holding offenders accountable for their actions. However, the expansive and isolated terrain of Enga poses obstacles when it comes to accessing official courts, rendering the enforcement of 24 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 retributive justice a challenging feat for numerous communities. In areas such as Yangis, where road access is non-existent, the retributive justice system can prove to be elusive. Hence, conversely, restorative justice aligns more closely with Enga's indigenous and communityoriented approach to conflict resolution. It emphasizes reconciliation, healing, and the restoration of relationships, recognizing the communal impact of crime ((Ness and Strong, 2002). Enga's traditional practices value community consensus and resolution over punishment, and restorative justice processes often involve mediation and dialogue between the involved parties. This approach aims not only to hold offenders accountable but also to provide them with opportunities to make amends and be reintegrated into the community (Umbreit, 2001). Both the retributive and restorative justice systems co-exist within Enga's unique cultural landscape. Many rural communities in the province continue to rely on customary methods for resolving disputes, which have proven to be an effective means of addressing conflicts involving tribal leaders, elders, and community councils (Braithwaite, 1989). This dual approach reflects the province's commitment to addressing crime and conflicts while respecting both formal legal systems and traditional community-based solutions (Ness and Strong, 2002). In this context, the notion of a tribal-based approach to maintaining peace and order holds significant importance, functioning alongside the formal policing and court system that embodies retributive justice in the Enga Province. The tribal-based approach incorporates culturally accepted practices for effectively addressing and resolving tribal conflicts and fights while complementing the conventional justice system (McNeill, Gordon, and Press, 2019). Enga’s province perspective: Tribal dynamics Enga Province, one of Papua New Guinea's 23 provinces, encompasses five districts: KompiamAmbum, Wapenamanda, Lagaip-Pogera, Kandep, and Wabag. Situated in the heart of the Papua New Guinea Highlands, Enga is characterized by a scattered population living in hamlets across the province (Gordon and Meggit, 1985; Carrad, Lea, and Talyaga, 1982). Wabag, serving as the provincial capital, is the hub of administrative activities in the province. The people of Enga, known as Engans in the Melpa language of the Western Highlands, share a common vernacular called Enga, albeit with minor dialectical variations (Paul, 2015). Archaeological evidence suggests that Enga Valley was settled by the Enga people approximately 12,000 years ago (Meggit, 1977; Carrad, Lea, and Talyaga, 1982). These findings are rooted in discoveries made at Yuku Cave, situated on the border between Enga Province and Lumis census division in Western Highlands, dating back 12,000 years (Bulmer, 1975). This long-standing presence of Enga communities in the valley predates the arrival of outsiders. In the 1930s, early explorers ventured into the Highlands (Lacey, 1979; Gordon and Meggit, 1985) ultimately leading to the discovery of Enga province in 1934 through gold prospectors' explorations (Boyd, 2013). Before PNG's independence in 1975, Enga province was administered as part of the Western Highlands (Gerritsen, 1975; Gordon and Meggit, 1985). Gradually, it evolved into an independent province, with Wabag Township serving as its administrative headquarters (Paul, 2015). Engan society places significant emphasis on tribal identity. Each individual is born into a named clan and tribe in Enga. Each individual in Enga is known or identified by his or her clan and tribe 25 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 affiliation, sometimes by its major tribal grouping or phratry (Paul, 2015). These social structures, which are deeply and strong, are based on patrilineal descent, forming segmentary lineages. The lineage comprises the agnatic descendants of the tribal founder (Meggit, 1977). These tribes share a common ancestral origin, ceremonies, and initiation chants, fostering a sense of unity. So, this is to say that, there is unity and cooperation among tribe members akin to a rugby league team, although there are differences within the tribe they can be solved easily. Each tribe takes pride in its activities, competes with neighbouring tribes, and does social activities in the name of the tribe (Jorgensen, 2005). In Enga, people care about their tribes and identity. When someone is born in Enga, they belong to a specific clan and tribe. This is a big deal and helps identify who they are (Meggit, 1977). These tribes are strong and have been around for a long time. They are built on families passing down their names and traditions from one generation to the next (Jorgensen, 2005). These families are like big groups of relatives who all come from the same tribe founder. They share family stories, special traditions, and songs that connect them to their past. Even though there might be differences between tribes, they work together like a team in rugby. They take pride in their tribe and like to compete in friendly ways with other tribes. They also do things together for their tribes, which makes them closer (Meggit, 1977). When one person in a tribe has a problem, it can affect everyone in the tribe. So, they stick together and help each other out, creating a strong bond between different tribal groups (2015). Context of tribal fighting in Enga Modernization has introduced new, more destructive elements to tribal warfare. While traditional conflicts were fought with bows and arrows until as late as 1990, the adoption of modern firearms, such as shotguns and semi-automatic rifles, has drastically increased casualties and destruction (Wiessner, 2012). The introduction of these weapons, combined with traditional conflicts, has resulted in an alarming loss of life and environmental degradation. Tribal fighting in Enga province has been deeply rooted in cultural practices, making it challenging for provincial governments to resolve. Factors contributing to these conflicts include land disputes, revenge, competition for resources like pigs and women, modern politics, alcohol, unequal access to services, criminal gangs, envy, jealousy, and indiscriminate attacks (Yala, 2002). The ‘big man mentality’, where wealthy individuals are seen as leaders and influencers, has also played a role in driving conflicts, as tribes expect support from their leaders during warfare. In recent years, tribal fighting has seen a decline due to several factors. Economic exhaustion, indigenous law practices in village courts, and conversions to Christianity have contributed to this shift (Wiessner, 2012). Too, tribal conflicts have become increasingly costly, leading to the exhaustion of resources and prompting negotiations through village courts. Additionally, conversions to Christianity fostered a moral shift, leading people to perceive tribal fighting as ethically wrong and evil (Paul, 2025). However, the introduction of modern firearms and the influence of Western culture have transformed the nature of these conflicts. Big-man politics and leader influence have become deeply ingrained in modern life, affecting the dynamics of tribal fighting. Despite measures taken to control and prevent tribal fighting, the destructive potential of modern weaponry poses significant risks to society (Paul & Sali 2021). Tribal fighting thus remains a critical issue, challenging the development trajectory of Enga Province. While traditional causes of conflict 26 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 persist, contemporary factors such as politics and unequal service distribution have emerged. The transition to modern weaponry has intensified conflicts, causing greater loss of life and environmental damage. Efforts to resolve these conflicts require a deep understanding of the cultural, historical, and economic factors at play in Enga Province (Paul & Sali, 2021). The current state of tribal fighting in Enga In a deeply concerning turn of events, some parts of Enga province in PNG have recently witnessed a sharp escalation in tribal fighting, resulting in devastating consequences. According to the Papua New Guinea police, a recent month alone had seen the tragic loss of more than 60 lives due to ongoing conflicts (ABC Pacific, 2023). There are additional fatalities and property destruction that remain unaccounted for. The adverse impacts of the tribal fighting in the province are immense by any standard (Joku, 2023). The Australian newspaper (2023) recently covered a disturbing incident of violence that erupted in the province recently. Shocking videos depicting the jubilation of young men and women, accompanied by mercenaries, have surfaced on social media. These videos, as captured by the newspaper, serve as evidence of ongoing tribal warfare unfolding in the Enga Province1. This conflict has taken on an alarming tit-for-tat nature, drawing in as many as ten tribes into a vicious cycle of reprisal violence. What distinguishes this cycle from previous incidents is the reported use of mercenaries by some of the involved parties (Joku, 2023). This disturbing development has heightened the intensity and brutality of the conflict, turning it into a severe crisis2. The involvement of mercenaries not only escalates the violence in this province but also complicates the resolution of the conflict. It introduces external elements with their motivations, making it challenging for local authorities to mediate and bring about peace (ABC Pacific, 2023). The disturbing nature of the conflict was further highlighted by the video that circulated on social media platforms recently (The Australian, 2023). The video depicted a gruesome scene wherein three bodies were being dragged behind a vehicle, while villagers filmed the macabre procession and cheered (Joku, 2023). This incident highlights the grim reality of the violence in the province and its profound impact on local communities3. It is important to understand, however, that this tribal fighting occurring in Enga Province is limited to some parts of the region, and many areas of the province remain peaceful with normal daily activities ongoing. Even in the mentioned war-torn areas, such as the one seen in the video images in the links above, peace is usually negotiated, and settlements are reached as a means of dispute resolution, eventually restoring normalcy until the next outbreak of violence occurs (Paul & Sali 2021). 1 The following link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JWZBc44qB1I (The Australian, 2023); shows that jubilation such as this is often seen right through the province after causing fatalities and destructions to enemy tribe. 2 Enga’s police commander George Kakas told BenarNews on Tuesday that police had retrieved 11 bodies in the past few days – all apparently killed in the one episode of violence. It’s unclear how many people have died in the recent wider tribal violence in the province. Kakas said he believes highlands power brokers are hiring gunmen to carry out attacks and fueling tribal violence. “A new and evil phenomenon is creeping in,” Kakas said. “We have hired men involved, business and educated elites and well-to-do people are funding these activities, to hire gunmen and purchase ammunition.“I warn all gunmen not to get involved in a tribal fight that is not yours.” (Joku, 2023). 3 (Refer to the ABC News (2023) at this link: https://www.google.com/search?q =the+remergence++of++tribal+figti ng+in+the+highlands+of+png&sca_esv#fpstate=ive&vld=cid:6aa4157f,vid:EhVpKBJESB8,st:0). 27 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Pervasive Illegal Firearms: A Pressing Concern for Enga and Papua New Guinea The widespread proliferation of illegal firearms throughout Enga province and PNG has emerged as a matter of grave concern. While speaking on the occasion of Papua New Guinea's independence celebration at the PNG University of Technology on the 16th of September 2023, Retired Major General Jerry Singirok, the former Chair of the Guns Control Committee established by the Papua New Guinea Government, emphasized the dire consequences of the illicit utilization of firearms, which has now permeated every corner of the country, inflicting trauma upon thousands of victims. He stressed that this situation poses a severe threat to the nation, with unforeseen repercussions for its economic, social, and political domains, while also imperiling the overall security of Papua New Guinea (Singirok, 2023). This Papua New Guinea Guns Committee has identified the primary sources of these illegal firearms and the channels through which they reach both the general public and criminals. In the State Society and Governance in Melanesia discussion paper (Singirok, 2005), these pathways are as follows: a) Lawful Firearm Owners: Some lawful firearm owners abuse their privileges. Instances have been reported where holders of legal firearm licenses exploit these permits for multiple gun purchases, even illicitly transferring personal firearms to new owners without proper authorization. Research conducted by Sali (2015) has uncovered connections between gang members in Lae and individuals in possession of duly registered firearms. After committing criminal acts, these gangs return the firearms to their registered owners, often sharing in the proceeds. Therefore, the root of the problem primarily rests with those possessing legally registered firearms. b) Royal Papua New Guinea Constabulary (RPNGC): In December 2000, a staggering number of police firearms -nearly 100- went unaccounted for, including 10 machine guns, 32 M16 automatic assault rifles, 25 SIG Sauer pistols, and 5 semi-automatic shotguns, along with substantial quantities of ammunition. Subsequent audits estimated that as many as 600 firearms had vanished from police armouries. Over the years, thousands of small arms and extensive ammunition stockpiles were imported for police use, a significant portion of which went missing. Reports from as early as January 1989 through September 1995 indicated the disappearance of around 85 high-powered military firearms, further highlighting the issue. Despite various governments announcing periodic stock-takes of state-owned small arms, no concrete figures from RPNGC emerged, and comprehensive records remained elusive. In 2003, the Australian Federal Police (AFP) sponsored an audit of all PNG police armouries and ammunition storage facilities, exposing discrepancies, unauthorized transfers, and instances of missing firearms (Alpers, 2005). c) The Papua New Guinea Defense Force (PNGDF): Disturbing reports suggest that firearms are being pilfered from the Papua New Guinea Defense Force by soldiers under questionable circumstances. Notably, a 2020 report by the National newspaper confirmed missing firearms within the Papua New Guinea army (National Newspaper, 2020). Additionally, Singirok (2005) disclosed the existence of five military bases across the country, along with five major units in Port Moresby. Accessibility to military firearms is most pronounced in Port Moresby. Incidents involving missing firearms and ammunition from these military installations, with some weapons being illicitly sold or employed in criminal activities, have been documented. 28 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 d) Illicit firearms influx from Australia: While the Australian Federal Police (AFP) has denied allegations that firearms from Australia contribute to tribal conflicts in Papua New Guinea (AFP, 2023), there is mounting evidence indicating that firearms used in the Highland region's tribal conflicts originate from Australia. These firearms are reportedly exchanged for a commodity known colloquially as “Niugini Gold”, referring to marijuana. Reports have indicated that firearms used in the Upper Highlands are smuggled in from Australia (Finkeo, 2023). Singirok (2005) further highlighted the vulnerabilities along the border between the northern tip of Australia and southern Papua New Guinea, known as the Torres Strait, despite Australia's claims of comprehensive surveillance. He documented instances where 24 weapons from Australia were used during the 2002 National Election campaign in the Southern Highlands. These weapons were transported via small fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters, bypassing Port Moresby, the primary port of entry. e) Illicit firearms inflow via the Indonesian border: A considerable number of illegal firearms regularly find their way into Papua New Guinea through this route, particularly in the Upper Highlands, a region marked by tribal conflicts (February 2023). Border Chief Superintendent Peter Philip has reported cases of firearms being bartered for marijuana along the borders of Australia and Indonesia. Reports have pointed to the involvement of individuals from Enga and Jiwaka in the Indonesia-Papua New Guinea border trade, while those from Eastern Highlands and Simbu engage in the Australia-Papua New Guinea border trade (Faiparik, 2021). Singirok (2005) underscored the vulnerability of the unguarded land border stretching 760 kilometres between Papua New Guinea and Indonesia, which remains vulnerable to illicit trade in firearms and narcotics. Regarding firearms used in tribal conflicts in the Upper Highlands and Enga, there is a suggestion that educated elites and high-profile individuals play a significant role in smuggling these weapons into the country and unfairly placing blame on impoverished villagers. Through these aforementioned sources, illegal firearms permeate the Enga Province, leading to their use in taking lives, damaging government and private property, displacing people, and seizing land (Sali, n.d.; Finkeo, 2022; Paul & Sali, 2021; Paul, 2015). Determining factors of tribal fighting Tribal fighting in the Enga Province is a complex and deeply concerning issue, characterized by escalating tensions, historical legacies, and a web of sociological factors (Paul & Sali 2021). The following points delve into the multifaceted causes driving tribal fighting within the province, offering insights into the roots of this problem and its potential consequences. The causes explored encompass land disputes, resource scarcity, unresolved grievances, inter-tribal rivalry, disputes over elections, easy access to weapons, and the involvement of educated elites. By examining these interconnected factors, we gain an in-depth understanding of the challenges associated with tribal fighting in the province. a) Land disputes: In the context of tribal fighting, land boundary issues within the Enga Province assume paramount importance. The well-defined boundaries within and between tribes have historically played a pivotal role in regulating land utilization and ownership, a factor that significantly influences the dynamics of tribal conflicts (Meggit,1977). With a burgeoning population in the region, the strain on available land resources has intensified, sparking fierce competition and disputes over limited land access and ownership rights, further aggravating the propensity for tribal conflicts (Paul, 2015). Consequently, addressing these land boundary 29 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 issues becomes not only essential for prudent land management but also a crucial step in conflict prevention and resolution within the context of tribal fighting. b) Unresolved grievances: Unresolved grievances, both historical and contemporary, emerge as significant catalysts for tribal fighting within the Enga Province of Papua New Guinea (Paul, 2015). These conflicts are often deeply rooted in disputes over ancestral lands, exacerbated by the enduring legacy of unresolved issues spanning generations. Additionally, any lingering disputes related to severe crimes such as murder, attempted murder, rape, attempted rape, physical assault, theft, and arson can serve as flashpoints for inter-tribal conflicts, escalating tensions, and igniting tribal fighting (Paul & Sali, 2021). c) Inter-Tribal rivalry: Inter-tribal rivalry is a notable driver of tribal fighting in the Enga province, often stemming from fierce competition, power struggles, and disputes between distinct tribes or clans. These rivalries are marked by a quest for influence, dominance, or control over crucial resources, leading to heightened tensions that can culminate in violent tribal conflicts. d) Ego and pride: In the context of tribal fights in Enga province, the deeply ingrained sense of ego and pride often prevents an Engan man from accepting defeat without retaliating and seeking revenge (Paul & Sali 2021). Within Engan society, where tribal identity and honour hold immense significance, any perceived loss or insult to one's tribe or clan is often seen as a direct insult to personal pride and tribal dignity. Hence, this powerful emotional attachment to one's tribe fuels a determination to restore perceived honour through acts of retaliation and revenge, with tribal fighting typically serving as the means through which individuals within the Engan tribal communities seek to satisfy these emotions of ego and pride (Jorgensen, 2025). e) Disputes over elections: Disputes over elections have emerged as a contributing factor to tribal fighting in the Enga Province of Papua New Guinea (Sali, n.d.). In this context, election-related conflicts often revolve around contentious electoral processes, including disputes over candidates, voting irregularities, and contested outcomes, which can ignite inter-tribal tensions and violence. The competition for political power and representation within the province can exacerbate existing rivalries between tribes or clans, leading to confrontations and conflicts fueled by political interests (Jorgensen, 2005). These electoral disputes show the intricate linkages between politics and tribal dynamics, highlighting the need for effective conflictresolution mechanisms to address these challenges. f) Dual roles of Members of Parliament: The connection to tribal fighting in Papua New Guinea arises from the dual roles of Members of Parliament (MPs) who, due to their direct responsibility for delivering public services under the Papua New Guinea District Development Authority Act 2014, focus primarily on fulfilling localized, immediate, and individual needs of their constituents. This approach, driven by the allocation of K50 million over their five-year term, enhances their chances of being re-elected but often diverts their attention from crafting effective legislation. Consequently, MPs and their supporters are willing to go to great lengths, including resorting to conflicts and tribal fighting, to secure victory in elections. This phenomenon illustrates the blurred lines between the legislative and executive branches of government and highlights the influence of clientelistic politics in Papua New Guinea, where voters prioritize tangible benefits over legislative effectiveness, leading to societal divisions and conflicts (Sali, n.d.). 30 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 g) Easy access to weapons: As explained above, easy access to weapons, particularly highpowered firearms, has significantly contributed to the severity and escalation of tribal fighting in the Enga province of PNG (Finkeo, 2023). Unlike traditional conflicts, contemporary tribal warfare is characterized by the ready availability and utilization of advanced weaponry, which has transformed these conflicts into far more deadly and destructive events (Ballard & Banks, 2003). The ease with which high-powered guns and ammunition can be acquired has exacerbated the impact of tribal fighting, leading to increased casualties and intensified violence, underscoring the urgent need for effective measures to control and regulate weapon access in the region (Korei, 2023). h) Involvement of educated elites: In the context of tribal conflicts in the Enga province of PNG, the role of educated elites emerges as a critical factor. The Minister for Higher Education, Science, Research and Technology (DHESRT) has strongly warned educated professionals, entrepreneurs, and business people in Enga to stay away from tribal fights because they are seen to perpetrate the fight (Rai, 2023). The perplexing question arises: how do impoverished villagers acquire the means to obtain high-powered firearms, weapons that have played pivotal roles in both contemporary and historical tribal confrontations? It has been welldocumented that educated elites, particularly those residing outside the Enga province, wield significant influence in supporting local villagers engaged in conflicts with rival tribal groups (Korei, 2023). These educated elites, whether situated in different regions or provinces, contribute not only morally but also financially to the ongoing strife (Finkeo, 2023). Their involvement proves indispensable in the perpetuation of these conflicts, for without their assistance, the fighting could potentially come to an abrupt halt, as sustaining such disputes necessitates substantial financial resources. Their active support extends beyond mere encouragement, encompassing the provision of crucial funding and resources that serve to protract these disputes over time. Specifically, educated elites, especially those with roots in Enga but dwelling elsewhere, facilitate access to vital resources, including high-calibre firearms and ammunition, which would otherwise remain beyond the reach of many villagers (Korei, 2023). Tribal fighting in the Enga Province is a grave concern influenced by several factors, each contributing to the escalation of conflicts. Land disputes, unresolved grievances, inter-tribal rivalry, ego and pride, election-related conflicts, easy access to weapons, and the support of educated elites all play pivotal roles in perpetuating and intensifying tribal fighting. Recognizing the interrelated nature of these causes is crucial for developing effective strategies to mitigate and prevent tribal conflicts. To address this complex issue, a multifaceted approach is required, one that not only focuses on immediate triggers but also tackles the underlying structural problems. Ultimately, resolving tribal fighting in the province necessitates a collaborative effort involving local communities, authorities, and stakeholders to restore peace and stability to Enga. Is control slipping away from the Papua New Guinea Government? The recent resurgence of tribal fighting in the Enga province has raised serious questions about the PNG Government has entirely lost control over tribal fighting in the province, several key factors indicate that their current approaches are mainly reactive rather than proactive. To address this issue effectively, a more strategic and tribe-based approach is needed. However, let us highlight the challenging circumstances in which the national Government faces considerable difficulties in resolving tribal fighting. This is due to several pressing factors, three of which we discussed below: 31 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 a) Firstly, the government's control over these conflicts appears tenuous, primarily due to the persistence and intensification of tribal conflicts over time. There have been various efforts to curb tribal conflict and promote peace, but tribal fighting nonetheless continues to disrupt peace and order in the province. The fighting persists with high intensity. This ongoing cycle of violence highlights the difficulty in finding a lasting solution, implying that the government's control over these conflicts remains limited (Filer & Macintyre, 2014). b) Furthermore, the involvement of external actors, including mercenaries from other tribes and districts, as well as participation by some educated elites, complicates the cycle of conflict and makes it difficult to resolve. The support and resources provided by these external actors can prolong conflicts and empower local fighters, making it challenging for the government to intervene effectively ((Smith, Kora, and Handley, (2023). The financial and logistical support from educated elites, some of whom reside outside of the province, contribute to the sustainability of tribal fighting, hampering the government's ability to assert control. c) Moreover, the increasing lethality of tribal conflicts, fueled by the ready availability of highpowered firearms and ammunition, poses a significant challenge (Ballard & Banks, 2003). Unlike traditional tribal fights, which relied on traditional weaponry, contemporary conflicts involve modern firearms with devastating consequences. The government's capacity to regulate and control access to these weapons is limited, further eroding its control over the situation. In response to these challenges, the government's recent proposal to amend the Inter-Group Fighting Act of 1977 with the imposition of life imprisonment for those involved in tribal fights may be seen as a reactive measure (in APR, 2023). While it aims to deter violence, it does not address the root causes or prevent conflicts from escalating. To regain control and effectively address tribal fighting in Enga province, a smarter and more tactical approach and tribal-based approach to peace and order is required, which are elaborated further in the discussion section below). While the PNG Government has made efforts to address tribal fighting in Enga Province, the persistence and intensification of conflicts, the involvement of external actors, and the easy access to modern weapons raise concerns about its control over the situation. Achieving lasting peace and stability in the region demands a multifaceted approach that tackles the root causes of tribal fighting, strengthens community-based conflict resolution mechanisms, and effectively regulates the availability of weapons. It is a complex challenge that necessitates sustained commitment and cooperation from the government, educated elites, and local communities. What is the way forward? After forty-eight years of political independence from Australia (since 1975), the issue of ethnic conflict persists as a significant topic in public debates within Papua New Guinea. The prevailing impression is marked by an escalating trend of tribal violence on one hand and the perceived incapacity of state systems and mechanisms to effectively curtail this violence on the other. Though the challenge is hard, we must collectively find a way to address the issue, and there are two approaches suggested, namely: (a) a Smart, Proactive, Efficient, and Assertive Response (SPEAR), and (b) an Integrated Tribe-Based Approach to Peace, Law, and Order. In the analysis below, these two approaches are delved into detail: 32 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 (a) Smart, Proactive, Effective, and Assertive Response (SPEAR) Any attempt to halt tribal fighting, while it is ongoing, must be approached with caution because it has the potential to backfire. This means that the combatants in the villages, armed with highpowered guns, may confront the security forces and anyone perceived as interfering in their local conflict. For instance, in the Wapenamanda District, multiple conflicts persist, characterized by the use of high-powered firearms resulting in significant damage and a tragic loss of lives. The government's response has involved deploying a special police unit from Port Moresby to quell the current hostilities4. However, this police unit is undeniably outnumbered when compared to the mobile, locally knowledgeable, physically fit, alert, and tactically skilled village combatants. The likelihood of a backfire scenario is substantial. Therefore, while this special unit operates in the conflict zone, a smarter, more proactive, innovative, and tactical response from the government is imperative. The government cannot simply send the police force to intimidate the warring villagers and combatants, hoping that tribal fighting will subside out of fear. Enga's residents possess immense pride and ego, viewing the police as yet another adversary. Hence, in this context, any state response aimed at halting ongoing tribal fighting must be smart, proactive, effective, and assertive (SPEAR). This response includes, but is not limited to, the following: i. Changes to the Intergroup Fighting Act: Amending existing legislation, such as the Intergroup Fighting Act, can enhance the legal framework for addressing tribal fighting (Jorgensen, 2005). Increasing penalties for participation in tribal conflicts can act as a deterrent, while facilitating mediation processes can offer a peaceful alternative to violence. Furthermore, providing incentives for peaceful resolution, such as community development projects, can motivate tribes to seek non-violent solutions. Effective implementation will require collaboration between government agencies and local communities to ensure fairness and justice. ii. Establish an effective communication and intelligence system: In the context of controlling tribal fighting in the Enga Province, establishing an effective communication and intelligence system is paramount. This is critically important to manage the conflict proactively. Establishing effective communication channels between key stakeholders (local communities, tribal leaders, law enforcement agencies, and government authorities) is important for critical information sharing on potential conflicts and emerging tensions. An effective communication system enables early warning mechanisms, allowing for swift responses to prevent violence from escalating. In essence, an effective communication and intelligence system acts as a vital tool in bridging gaps, promoting cooperation, and facilitating informed decision-making in the pursuit of lasting peace in the region. iii. Cutting off the supply chains of guns and bullets: Restricting the supply of firearms and ammunition is indeed a crucial step in reducing the lethality of tribal conflicts. Implementing stricter gun control measures and increasing border security can help prevent illegal arms trafficking, making it more difficult for armed groups to acquire weapons. Additionally, amnesty programs can encourage individuals to voluntarily surrender their weapons, contributing to disarmament efforts. However, success in this area may face challenges due to the presence of black markets and the cultural significance of guns in some tribal communities. Effective implementation would require cooperation from local leaders and community members to ensure that firearms are surrendered and not concealed. 4 Refer to the link: https://www.thenational.com.pg/police-told-save-enga/ (Kuku, 2023:1). 33 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 iv. Install roadblocks to prevent movement: Roadblocks can be a practical strategy to impede the movement of armed groups between tribal areas. However, their implementation must be handled with care to avoid causing inconvenience to innocent civilians and exacerbating tensions (Filer & Macintyre, 2014). Roadblocks should be positioned strategically, and local communities should be involved in their operation to minimize disruptions to daily life. Moreover, they should be part of a broader strategy that includes conflict resolution efforts to address the underlying causes of tribal fighting. v. Temporary mobile network disruption: Temporarily disrupting mobile networks can disrupt communication among tribal fighters. Still, it must be done judiciously to avoid infringing on the rights of non-combatant civilians who rely on mobile communication for various purposes (Banks, 2003). A delicate balance is needed to ensure that the disruption is limited in scope and duration, with clear guidelines in place to prevent misuse. This tactic should be part of a broader communication strategy that emphasizes dialogue and conflict resolution. vi. Monitoring of educated elites: Monitoring individuals from fighting tribes who have received higher education can be an effective means of identifying potential instigators of violence and providing opportunities for intervention (Filer & Macintyre, 2014). Conflict resolution training and community engagement programs can help educated elites become advocates for peace. However, this approach should respect individuals' rights and privacy while focusing on their potential positive contributions to conflict resolution efforts. vii. Checking police and defense officials' involvement: Ensuring that law enforcement and military officials remain neutral is essential for impartial conflict resolution (Filer & Macintyre, 2014). Mechanisms for oversight, accountability, and addressing corruption within these agencies are crucial to maintaining public trust. Investigations into any allegations of cooptation with tribal warriors must be thorough and transparent to uphold the rule of law. Building trust between these agencies and the communities they serve is vital for effective conflict management. Implementing these strategies should be part of a broader conflict resolution framework that includes community engagement, dialogue, and addressing the root causes of tribal fighting. Collaboration between government agencies, local leaders, and external stakeholders is essential to ensure that these tactics contribute to sustainable peace in the region. When normalcy returns, where there is peace and order, this idea of an integrated tribe-based approach to peace, law and order can be implemented. The analysis below explores how this approach can work: Implementing these strategies should be a part of a broader conflict resolution framework that encompasses community engagement, dialogue, and the addressing of the root causes of tribal fighting. Collaboration between government agencies, local leaders, educated elites, and external stakeholders is essential to ensure that these tactics contribute to sustainable peace in the province. Once normalcy returns, and peace and order are restored, we can then consider implementing the idea of an integrated tribe-based approach to peace, law, and order. The analysis below examines how this approach can work: (b) Integrated tribal-based approach to peace, law and order An integrated tribe-based approach to peace, law and order is vital for fostering sustainable and continued peace in the Enga province. Empowering communities to take ownership of conflict resolution and peace-building processes can be more effective than solely relying on punitive 34 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 measures. Traditional dispute resolution methods, when adapted and integrated with modern systems, may hold the key to reducing violence and promoting reconciliation. It is with this line of thinking that this approach to peace, law and order based on the Enga tribal system integrated with modern political and bureaucratic leadership structure and educated elites from the Enga tribes living outside form the nuclear of driving the concept going forward (Forsyth, Kipongi & Gibbs, 2023). An integrated tribe-based approach to peace, law, and order is vital for fostering sustainable and continued peace in the Enga province. Empowering communities to take ownership of conflict resolution and peace-building processes can be more effective than solely relying on punitive measures. Traditional dispute resolution methods, when adapted and integrated with modern systems, may hold the key to reducing violence and promoting reconciliation. It is with this line of thinking that this approach to peace, law, and order, based on the Enga tribal system integrated with modern political and bureaucratic leadership structures and educated elites is key from the Enga tribes living outside, forms the nucleus of driving the concept forward. Paul and Sali (2021) introduced in their article, “The Intriguing Challenges of Tribal Warfare in Enga; Communicating a Clan-Based Approach to Maintaining Peace, Law, and Order”, the concept of a tribal-based approach to peace, law, and order. This approach encompasses several key components that are crucial for its successful implementation: i. Effective communication at all levels: Communication plays a pivotal role in resolving conflicts and maintaining peace. Open and clear channels of communication must exist not only within tribes but also among different tribes and government authorities. Effective communication ensures that concerns are addressed and misunderstandings are minimized. ii. Strong leadership: Leadership is paramount in any peace-building initiative. This requires the committed efforts of leaders like ward councillors, village court magistrates, church pastors, Government officers and Members of Parliament who can play important roles in guiding the communities to mediate disputes and promote peace and unity between different tribal communities. iii. Engagement of educated elites: The participation of educated individuals from Enga tribes, both residing within and outside the region, is critically essential. Their knowledge and expertise can significantly contribute to conflict resolution, education, and advocacy for peace. iv. Balance of retributive and restorative justice systems: All forms of miscarriages of justice must be eliminated in the retributive justice system, where the work of the police, courts, and corrections must be effective and efficient. While retributive justice is critically important, there should also be an emphasis on restorative justice, where reconciliation, restitution, and healing are practised throughout. Both the retributive and restorative justice systems must coexist side by side. v. Tribal resolution: Conflict resolution is incomplete without making powerful declarations, affirmations, and vows to completely abstain from getting involved in future tribal fights. This is powerful because it represents a community resolution and a collective commitment to peace by all tribe members. These collective resolutions must be well-documented, prayed over, sealed, and then buried at an agreed-upon tribal border. This symbolic act reinforces the seriousness of the commitment and serves as a strong deterrent against future conflicts. 35 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 When executed with genuine commitment, an integrated, community-led approach to achieving peace, law, and order within tribal dynamics carries the potential to establish enduring harmony Conclusion Tribal fighting in the Enga Province has deep historical, cultural, and socio-economic roots. These factors are exacerbated by emotional grievances and a lack of access to effective justice mechanisms. The consequences of this violence on communities are devastating, leading to loss of life, physical displacement, and obstacles to development and progress. To address this issue effectively, a multi-pronged approach is essential and critical. First and foremost, political will and leadership are required. Without strong commitment from government and community leaders, sustainable solutions will remain elusive. Hence, leadership must rise to another level with genuine commitment and dedication if we are to address this critical issue. We must also recognize the need for a proactive, smart, and innovative approach. This entails amending relevant laws, strengthening law enforcement and justice systems, disrupting the supply chain of firearms and ammunition, monitoring communication networks, engaging with educated elites from the warring tribes, and ensuring that security forces do not inadvertently collude with local communities and educated elites in any manner to promote tribal fighting by helping their relatives (or "wantoks" in the local context). Moreover, a tribe/community-based approach to peace and order is vital. Enga communities themselves should be involved in the design and implementation of initiatives aimed at conflict resolution and prevention. Traditional conflict resolution mechanisms can be revitalized and integrated with modern approaches to create a comprehensive system that meets the needs of the people. In this journey towards peace, it is crucial to understand that there are no quick fixes. Progress may be incremental, but it is essential. Enga's future stability and prosperity depend on our collective efforts to address the root causes of tribal conflict and to build a community where justice, security, reconciliation, and peace succeed and endure. The challenges are real and formidable, but not impossible. By accepting and embracing a holistic approach, promoting strong leadership and political will, and involving the communities themselves in participation, we can pave the way for a brighter and more peaceful future in Enga Province. The time to act is now, for the sake of the Enga people and the greater good of Papua New Guinea as a whole. This study is based on anecdotal evidence and authors personal experiences as the source of information. It is an initial step and other researchers need to undertake a more detailed and comprehensive investigation by collecting empirical data. This data collection involves the design of appropriate research tools, and the conducting of in-depth interviews with a range of stakeholders, such as villagers, combatants (village warriors), village leaders, government officials, and politicians in all five districts of Enga Province. 36 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 References ABC News, (2023). Dozens killed in tribal fighting in Papua New Guinea. ABC World News on 23rd August 2023. Retrieved on 10th September, 2023 at https://www.google.com/search?q=the+remergence++of++tribal+fighting+in+the+highla nds+of+png&sca_esv#fpstate=ive&vld=cid:6aa4157f,vid:EhVpKBJESB8,st:0 ABC Pacific, (2023). 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Science 337, 1651. 40 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 II. Contemporary Issues in Communication Studies and Linguistics 41 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 The Rise of Fake News in the Social Media Era Ecaterina Ilis Abstract: The rise of fake news in the social media era has emerged as a pressing societal challenge, impacting communication, public perception, and democratic processes. This article examines the phenomenon of fake news in the context of social media platforms and explores its implications for individuals and society. Drawing on a review of relevant scientific literature, the article delves into the psychological processes that contribute to the spread and acceptance of misinformation. Additionally, it highlights the consequences of fake news, such as eroding public trust in media and institutions, distorting public opinion, and influencing decision-making. The article critically analyzes three pieces of fake news, aiming to dissect the linguistic and narrative techniques employed to manipulate perceptions around COVID-19. It reveals how such misinformation can influence public trust, exacerbate fears, and distort the discourse on health and politics. It also explores existing strategies to combat fake news, including media literacy education, fact-checking initiatives, and responsible journalism, while emphasizing the need for innovative and collaborative future approaches. By understanding the complexities of fake news and its impact in the social media era, this article aims to provide insights into developing informed interventions to mitigate its negative effects and promote a more trustworthy information environment. Keywords: fake news, social media, misinformation, media literacy 1. Introduction: The term "fake news" has been a subject of intense debate and scrutiny. Domenico et al. (2021) highlighted the challenges in defining it due to its potential to encompass both intentional deception and inadvertent errors, as well as the overlap with terms like "misinformation" and "disinformation." Fake news can be described as false or misleading information disseminated online, often with the intent of deceiving or manipulating its audience for various gains, be it financial or political (Zhang and Ghorbani, 2020). However, the intention behind the production of fake news is not always a universal distinguishing factor, as per Terian (2021), who stresses its effect on urging specific actions in recipients. In an analysis by Allcott and Gentzkow (2017), fake news is characterized as stories that are intentionally and verifiably false with potentially misleading impacts on readers. Egelhofer and Lecheler (2019) identified key characteristics for identifying fake news: a low factual basis, intent to deceive, and a presentation mimicking journalistic style. Initially associated with political satire (Baym, 2005), the term has expanded to cover various inaccuracies, sometimes even unrelated to media communication (Tambini, 2017). In the digital era, fake news has significantly altered views on journalism, the credibility of news, and how information is accessed (Egelhofer and Lecheler, 2019). Although social media platforms have revolutionized the dissemination and consumption of information, they have also facilitated the spread of fake news (Pennycook et al., 2018). In this article, we aim to investigate the factors contributing to the rise of fake news in the social media era and its implications for individuals and society at large. By analyzing and synthesizing existing research, I seek to shed light on the 42 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 mechanisms driving the spread of misinformation, the psychological processes influencing its acceptance, and the consequences it has on public opinion and decision-making. Furthermore, I explore potential strategies and interventions to address the challenges posed by fake news and promote the dissemination of accurate and trustworthy information. 2.1. The Role of Social Media Platforms The proliferation of fake news on social media platforms has become a significant concern in the digital age. Social media platforms have provided an unprecedented avenue for the rapid dissemination of information, making them vulnerable to the spread of misinformation and fake news. Research has shed light on the role of social media platforms in facilitating the spread of fake news and its impact on public perception, as falsehood diffused significantly further, faster, deeper, and more broadly than the truth in all categories of information (Vosoughi et al., 2018) on social media platforms. This emphasizes the need to understand the role of social media platforms in the dissemination of fake news. One aspect contributing to the spread of fake news on social media platforms is the algorithmic nature of content distribution. Social media algorithms are designed to prioritize engaging and attention-grabbing content, which may include sensationalized or misleading information. Social media algorithms can facilitate the spread of misinformation, as these algorithms optimize engagement rather than accuracy (Lewandowsky et al., 2012). The algorithmic bias towards viral and controversial content can inadvertently amplify fake news, leading to its wider reach and potential influence on public opinion. Furthermore, the prevalence of echo chambers and confirmation bias within social media networks can contribute to the spread and acceptance of fake news. Individuals tend to be more exposed to like-minded individuals and content that aligns with their existing beliefs and opinions. This phenomenon can create an environment where fake news finds fertile ground to propagate. Users tend to aggregate in communities of interest, which causes reinforcement and fosters confirmation bias, segregation, and polarization (Del Vicario et al., 2016). These echo chambers can limit exposure to diverse perspectives, making individuals more susceptible to false information that confirms their existing beliefs. Social media platforms have a responsibility to address the issue of fake news by implementing measures to curb its spread. Research has highlighted the importance of fact-checking mechanisms and media literacy initiatives. Providing warnings about false information and nudging users to think about accuracy could be effective in combating the spread of online misinformation (Pennycook and Rand, 2019)]. Social media platforms can also play a crucial role in promoting media literacy among their users and providing clear indicators or labels for verified information. 2.2. Psychological Factors Research indicates that even a single exposure to fake news can influence an individual's belief in it, regardless of prior debunking or conflicting political biases (Pennycook, Cannon & Rand, 2018). Understanding why certain individuals are more inclined to believe fake news is pivotal given its societal implications. Evidence suggests those with delusional tendencies, those prone to implausible explanations (Bronstein and Cannon, 2017), and those with paranormal beliefs (Pechey & Halligan, 2011) are particularly vulnerable to misinformation. Multiple theories attempt to explain the allure of conspiracy thinking, including feelings of powerlessness, the need for blame assignment, cynicism, and biases against specific groups. These factors often intertwine in the context of research. 43 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Research into fake news belief origins began in the 1990s and accelerated over the past 15 years. The recent spike in fake news during the Coronavirus pandemic, especially regarding health guidelines, has triggered more intensive research. Amidst this information deluge, numerous studies have explored factors influencing susceptibility to misinformation, making it a challenge to synthesize the diverse theoretical stances. However, for easier understanding, we will group them into three categories: socio-political, personality and psychopathology, and cognitive. A. Socio-political factors: Belief in fake news often emerges from a sense of societal disconnection. Those who feel detached from societal norms, a condition known as anomie, are notably more susceptible to misinformation (Goertzel, 1994; Leman and Cinnirella, 2013). This is further magnified in individuals with political cynicism and negative perceptions of authority (Swami et al., 2010). Moulding et al. (2016) further highlight that feelings like social isolation and normlessness make one more prone to false information. A poignant observation is how those disillusioned with undemocratic processes lean more towards conspiracy thinking (Swami et al., 2010). When individuals, particularly those feeling powerless or those with an external locus of control, sense an imbalance in their environment, they can become more vulnerable to false claims (Abalakina-Paap et al., 1999). Radicalization and societal polarization are other significant contributors to this issue, suggesting a more profound societal divide (Inglehart, 1987). Moreover, the belief that authorities intentionally deceive the public amplifies the acceptance of fake news (Wood et al., 2012). B. Personality and Psychopathology: Diving into the realm of personality, traits such as openness, extraversion, and agreeableness have surfaced as influential factors in shaping one's relationship with misinformation. Key studies by experts like McCrae and Costa (1987), Lai et al. (2020), and Wolverton and Stevens (2020) have cemented this correlation. Another intriguing layer is the role of emotional intelligence (EQ). Given the emotionally charged language that often peppers fake news, those with a higher EQ might be better equipped to sieve through such content (Vosoughi et al., 2018; Preston et al., 2021). Emotions, as drivers of decision-making, cannot be overlooked. Bodenhausen et al. (1994) and Forgas (2019) have underscored how emotions like anger and sadness impact our susceptibility to persuasion, whereas Martel et al. (2020) emphasize that positive emotions might make us more receptive to certain claims. Lastly, from a psychopathological perspective, certain traits lean towards misinformation sharing. This includes neuroticism and narcissism (Ross et al., 2009; Srinivas et al. 2022). Furthermore, societal unrest and upheavals, marked by heightened anxiety, can serve as fertile grounds for misinformation (Swami et al. 2017). And finally, schizotypy, traditionally tied with pseudoscientific beliefs, has been found to resonate with fake news beliefs too (Escolà-Gascón, Marín, et al., 2023). C. Cognitive factors: The Motivated System 2 Reasoning (MS2R) and the classical reasoning approach are two frameworks to understand belief formation, especially concerning misinformation. MS2R suggests that deliberation can bolster political identity and existing beliefs, which may increase partisan bias and political polarization, making it difficult to discern true from false news. High numeracy individuals can have polarized views on issues like climate change and gun control, and are influenced by political alignment of information (Kahan et al., 2012; Bagò et al., 2020). Contrastingly, the classical reasoning approach posits that deliberation aids truth discovery. Not deliberating can lead to believing fake news, while thoughtful evaluation improves truth discernment irrespective of one's ideology. This perspective is supported by studies showing that 44 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 evidence-based instruction and exposure to scientific consensus can change beliefs, regardless of political leanings (Pennycook & Rand, 2019; Bronstein et al., 2018; Van der Linden et al., 2019). The classical reasoning approach ties into a dual-process model of cognition. It claims that emotional intuitions can lead to imprecise judgments and misinformation acceptance, especially in politics and science (Garrett and Weeks, 2017). Research distinguishes between two cognitive approaches: Type 1, which is intuitive and unconscious, and Type 2, which is analytical and deliberate (Kahneman, 2003; Evans, 2008). Analytical thinking allows better evaluation of information, but the lack of it makes one susceptible to false beliefs, such as conspiracy theories (Swami et al., 2013; Freeman et al., 2012). The dual-process theory suggests that reliance on intuition over analytic reasoning can increase susceptibility to fake news (Pennycook & Rand, 2019). Cognitive abilities, styles, and working memory capacities play roles in discerning true from false information (Brydges et al., 2018). Open-mindedness can lead to false belief endorsement if not paired with analytical thinking. Delusional-like ideation can also lead to implausible belief acceptance, like paranormal events or conspiracy theories (Svedholm and Lindeman 2013; Swami et al. 2013). Belief in fake news might be tied to analytical reasoning ability, religious beliefs, and cognitive conflict detection capabilities (Pennycook et al., 2015). Some individuals may misinterpret significant events due to reasoning biases. High belief in conspiracy theories can lead to overestimating connections between unrelated events (Brotherton and French, 2014; Moulding et al., 2016). Confirmation bias also influences people's acceptance of false information that aligns with their beliefs, as seen in politics (Nickerson, 1998; Michael and Breaux, 2021; Calvillo et al., 2021; Pennycook et al., 2020; Beauvais, 2022). Echo chambers on social media amplify and reinforce false beliefs. Studies have shown that platforms like YouTube and Gab enhance fake news propagation, while platforms like Reddit with fact-checking features help mitigate its impact (Brennen et al., 2022). People's acceptance of misinformation can also be influenced by how it is presented and by their trust in popular figures (Preston et al., 2021; Brennen et al., 2020; Beauvais, 2022). 2.3. Dissecting Deception: A Critical Discourse Analysis of Fake News Examples For the purpose of illustration, three instances of misinformation regarding the coronavirus were meticulously chosen, each promulgating a distinct narrative: the engineered creation of the virus to establish a New World Order, the utilization of the pandemic as a means for population control, and the promotion of purported miracle cures. These selections were subjected to a synthetic analysis from the standpoint of Critical Discourse Studies. The first piece of fake news is titled "Româncă, mărturie cutremurătoare: Ne obligă să declarăm că a murit de coronavirus. Ne distrugeți psihic!" ("Romanian Woman's Harrowing Testimony: We Are Forced to Declare They Died of Coronavirus. You Are Mentally Destroying Us!"). This article features a Romanian woman's harrowing testimony, claiming that authorities are forcing families to declare that their deceased loved ones died of COVID-19. She accuses the authorities of mentally destroying people by coercing them into supporting an alleged agenda to inflate coronavirus death statistics. The second article, "ATENȚIE: Dacă ambii părinți ajung la spital din cauza COVID-19, COPIII vor fi preluați de stat" ("ATTENTION: If Both Parents Are Hospitalized Due to COVID-19, the Children Will Be Taken by the State"), asserts that if both parents are hospitalized due to COVID19, the state will take custody of their children. It suggests a draconian measure purportedly in 45 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 place under the guise of public health protection, sparking fear and concern over potential government overreach and the separation of families. The third article, "Interesele Big Pharma, spulberate de Donald Trump. Covid-19 se tratează cu medicamente de 25 de dolari!" ("Big Pharma's Interests Shattered by Donald Trump. Covid-19 Can Be Treated with $25 Medicines!"), claims that Donald Trump has shattered Big Pharma's interests by revealing that COVID-19 can be treated with inexpensive drugs costing around 25-30 dollars. It promotes the narrative that the former U.S. President discovered a simple and cheap cure for the coronavirus, challenging the pharmaceutical industry's alleged financial motivations and conspiracies to control the pandemic narrative for profit. 2.3.1. Misinformation Through a Personal Testimony In the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic, the digital information ecosystem has been inundated with various forms of misinformation, shaping public perception and response to the health crisis in profound ways (Wasike, 2022). This section delves into a critical discourse analysis of the piece of fake news titled "Româncă, mărturie cutremurătoare: Ne obligă să declarăm că a murit de coronavirus. Ne distrugeți psihic!" ("Romanian Woman's Harrowing Testimony: We Are Forced to Declare They Died of Coronavirus. You Are Mentally Destroying Us!"). This analysis aims to unpack the linguistic and cognitive mechanisms at play within this narrative, which purports to relay a Romanian woman's distressing account of being coerced by authorities into falsely attributing a family member's death to COVID-19. Lexical Choices and Emotional Framing: The narrative strategically utilizes emotionally charged language such as "cutremurătoare" (harrowing), "obligă" (forces), "mincinoșilor" (liars), and "gunoaie" (trash) to invoke fear, distrust, and anger towards the authorities. These lexical selections are not merely words; they are powerful tools that paint the authorities as manipulative, coercive, and inherently negative entities. The inclusion of direct speech, particularly phrases like "Nu vom face asta mincinoșilor, cu tot fake-ul vostru!" (We will not do this, liars, despite all your fake!), serves to personalize and intensify the narrative, creating a confrontational and intimate tone. This linguistic strategy effectively engages the reader on an emotional level, enhancing the impact of the message by tapping into visceral reactions that bypass rational critique. Metaphors and Conceptualization: The use of metaphor in "Ne-au ridicat persoana decedată dintr-un sac" (They lifted the deceased person out of a bag) vividly portrays the deceased being treated with a profound lack of dignity and compassion. This imagery not only enhances the narrative’s emotional charge but also frames the authorities as callous and inhumane. Similarly, "Ați zăpăcit o lume cu știri false" (You’ve driven the world crazy with fake news) metaphorically conceptualizes misinformation as a deliberate weapon wielded by the authorities to sow confusion and maintain control over the population. This metaphor taps into deep-seated fears of deception and manipulation, framing the crisis not just as a health emergency but as a battleground for truth and autonomy. Narrative Structure and Cohesion: The narrative is meticulously structured to first establish credibility through the mention of a personal, relatable loss, then to escalate to a broader, more generalized accusation against the authorities and their alleged dissemination of misinformation. This progression from a personal 46 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 anecdote to widespread critique is a persuasive technique that leverages the initial emotional engagement to lend weight to the broader claims of manipulation and deceit. Such a structure is effective in guiding the reader from empathy to outrage, persuading them of the narrative’s legitimacy and the purported malevolence of the authorities. Cognitive Processes and Emotional Impact: The narrative is designed to manipulate cognitive processes by activating schemas associated with death, disease, and authoritarian abuse. Framing the authorities’ actions as both absurd (demanding false declarations of the cause of death) and tyrannical (enforced compliance) primes the audience for emotional responses such as paranoia, helplessness, and defiance. This manipulation of cognitive frameworks exploits the human tendency to seek coherence in chaos, leading readers to embrace the narrative’s explanation for their anxieties and frustrations. By appealing to and manipulating these deep-seated fears and emotions, the narrative fosters an environment conducive to skepticism, resistance, and dissent against perceived authoritarian manipulation. 2.3.2 The Craft of Fear: A Deep Dive into Pandemic-Induced State Intervention Myths In the fake news piece titled "ATENȚIE: Daca ambii parinti ajung la spital din cauza COVID-19, COPIII vor fi preluati de stat", the use of lexical choices and framing plays a significant role in shaping the narrative's impact and reader perception. Let's delve deeper into how these elements contribute to the overall message and influence of the article: Lexical Choices and Emotional Framing: This narrative employs a strategic selection of words and phrases that are designed to instill anxiety and fear concerning the role of the state during the pandemic. The title itself, starting with "ATENȚIE" (ATTENTION), serves as a clarion call, demanding immediate focus and implying a situation of urgent concern. Terms such as "preluați de stat" (taken by the state) are laden with connotations of force and loss of autonomy, painting a draconian picture of state intervention. This choice of language frames the state not as a protector but as an entity poised to infringe upon family bonds, thereby exploiting societal fears of overreach and separation. Metaphors and Conceptualization: The concept of children being "preluați de stat" (taken by the state) can be seen as a metaphorical representation of loss of control and invasion of personal space by an impersonal authority. This narrative constructs an image of the state as a looming, almost predatory figure, ready to disrupt the sanctity of family at a moment of vulnerability. Such a conceptualization plays into archetypical fears of separation and taps into the collective consciousness that values family unity above all, thereby magnifying the perceived threat posed by the state’s actions. Narrative Structure and Cohesion: The narrative structure of this piece of fake news is designed to provoke a strong, immediate emotional response. By presenting a hypothetical scenario where both parents are incapacitated due to COVID-19, the narrative quickly escalates to the alarming conclusion that the state will intervene directly in family affairs. This progression from a medical concern to a state-imposed action on family structure is effective in creating a seamless yet distressing flow of information, compelling the reader to perceive these steps as not only possible but likely, despite the lack of substantiating evidence. 47 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Cognitive Processes and Emotional Impact: This narrative manipulates cognitive processes by leveraging societal norms and expectations regarding family and state roles. By suggesting that children will be forcibly removed from their homes if both parents are hospitalized, it activates deep-seated fears about the vulnerability of family bonds in the face of governmental authority. The framing here is designed to induce paranoia and a sense of helplessness, encouraging readers to question the intentions and limits of state power during the pandemic. The narrative fosters a cognitive environment where trust is eroded, and authority is questioned, amplifying concerns over personal rights and the sanctity of the family unit. 2.3.3. Discourses of Power and Profit: The Alleged Exposure of Big Pharma by Donald Trump In the fake news piece titled 'Big Pharma's Interests Shattered by Donald Trump: Covid-19 Can Be Treated with $25 Medicines!', the exploration of Donald Trump's confrontation with the pharmaceutical industry and the promotion of inexpensive COVID-19 treatments are delved into. This analysis aims to unpack the narrative's implications for understanding the dynamics of misinformation, public trust, and the complex interplay between health, politics, and corporate interests during the pandemic era. Lexical Choices and Emotional Framing: The title and narrative employ strategically chosen lexical elements that immediately set a confrontational tone against the pharmaceutical industry, suggesting a victory by Donald Trump over "Big Pharma's interests." The use of "spulberate" (shattered) conveys a powerful image of disruption and defeat, casting Trump in a heroic light against a backdrop of corporate greed. The mention of "$25 medicines" as a cure for COVID-19 introduces a stark contrast to the perceived exploitation by pharmaceutical companies, framing the narrative as a revelation of a simple, affordable solution withheld from the public. This choice of words not only challenges the integrity of the pharmaceutical industry but also appeals to the reader's sense of justice and fairness, invoking emotions of relief and vindication. Metaphors and Conceptualization: The metaphorical framing of "Big Pharma" as an antagonist with vested interests in prolonging the pandemic for profit is a central theme. Donald Trump is conceptualized as the disruptor of this status quo, suggesting his actions have unveiled a low-cost treatment that directly challenges the financial motivations of the pharmaceutical industry. This narrative constructs a dichotomy between the greed of "Big Pharma" and the welfare of the population, positioning affordable treatments as a means of liberation from corporate control. This conceptual battle between good (affordable healthcare) and evil (corporate greed) taps into deep-seated distrust towards pharmaceutical companies and aligns with populist sentiments. Narrative Structure and Cohesion: The narrative unfolds in a manner designed to build a compelling storyline of discovery and suppression. Starting with Trump's announcement of taking hydroxychloroquine preventively, it quickly transitions into an exposé of how this revelation threatens the pharmaceutical industry's interests. By claiming a 100% success rate with inexpensive drugs, the narrative escalates the conflict between individual health rights and corporate profit, culminating in the assertion of a global elite conspiracy. This structured progression from a personal health choice to a global health policy critique is effective in drawing the reader into a broader conspiracy theory, making the narrative more persuasive. 48 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Cognitive Processes and Emotional Impact: This piece of fake news manipulates cognitive processes by framing the discovery of cheap COVID-19 treatments as a suppressed truth, revealed by an outsider to the political and pharmaceutical establishment. By suggesting that the cure for a global crisis has been economically gatekept, the narrative leverages cognitive biases such as conspiracy thinking and distrust in authorities. It induces a cognitive dissonance where the reader is led to question the motivations behind pandemic management strategies, fostering a sense of enlightenment but also paranoia about the intentions of pharmaceutical companies and global health policies. 2.4. Consequences of Fake News in the Social Media Era The proliferation of fake news in the social media era has significant consequences for individuals, society, and democratic processes. Research has highlighted the detrimental effects of fake news on various aspects of society, including public opinion, political discourse, and individual decisionmaking. One consequence of fake news is the erosion of public trust in media and institutions. As Allcott and Gentzkow (2017) noted, misinformation can lead to misinformed beliefs and behaviours, with potentially serious consequences for individuals and society at large. When individuals encounter false information repeatedly, it can lead to scepticism and a decreased willingness to trust traditional news sources. This erosion of trust can have far-reaching implications for the functioning of democracy and the dissemination of accurate information. Fake news also has the potential to distort public opinion and influence political outcomes. Individuals who are exposed to false or misleading information may develop biased perceptions and make decisions based on inaccurate beliefs. As Lewandowsky et al. (2017) emphasized, false information can influence political decision-making and even pose a threat to democratic processes. The intentional spread of misinformation for political gain can manipulate public sentiment and shape electoral outcomes, undermining the integrity of democratic systems. Furthermore, the consequences of fake news extend to individual decision-making in various domains, including health, finance, and consumer behaviour. False information about health treatments, financial scams, or product efficacy can have detrimental effects on individuals' wellbeing and financial security. Research has shown that exposure to fake news can lead to misguided decisions and behaviours. As Pennycook and Rand (2019) noted, people who frequently consume fake news are more likely to make less informed decisions and may be more susceptible to manipulation. Fake news can exploit individuals' vulnerabilities, leading to real-world consequences. Addressing the consequences of fake news requires a multi-faceted approach involving media literacy, fact-checking, and responsible platform policies. It is crucial to empower individuals with critical thinking skills and media literacy education to navigate the complex landscape of information. Fact-checking initiatives can help debunk false claims and provide accurate information to counteract the spread of fake news. Social media platforms also have a responsibility to implement policies that curb the reach and impact of misinformation while promoting reliable sources and transparency. 2.5. Strategies to Combat the Dissemination of Fake News Combating the dissemination of fake news requires a multi-faceted approach that involves individuals, media organizations, and technology platforms. Research has identified several 49 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 strategies that can help address the spread of fake news and promote a more informed and discerning public. Firstly, media literacy and critical thinking education play a crucial role in empowering individuals to navigate the digital landscape. Teaching individuals how to evaluate sources, fact-check information, and recognize common tactics used in fake news can enhance their ability to discern reliable information. As Roozenbeek and van der Linden (2019) pointed out, boosting critical thinking and inoculating against misinformation are some of the key ingredients of effective interventions. Incorporating media literacy into formal education and promoting public awareness campaigns can foster a more media-savvy society. Secondly, fact-checking initiatives and responsible journalism are vital in countering the spread of fake news. Fact-checkers play a crucial role in verifying information, debunking false claims, and providing accurate context. Fact-checking can be an effective way to curb the spread of misinformation (Pennycook and Rand, 2019). Collaborations between media organizations, independent fact-checkers, and technology platforms can help ensure the availability of accurate information and provide corrections to misleading claims. Furthermore, technology platforms have a responsibility to address the spread of fake news through proactive measures. Algorithmic transparency and adjustments can help reduce the visibility of false information and prioritize reliable sources. Modifying social media algorithms can help in limiting the proliferation of misinformation (Del Vicario et al., 2016). Platforms can also implement user-friendly reporting mechanisms, enable fact-checking partnerships, and provide clear indicators for verified information. Social and collective interventions are another strategy to combat the spread of fake news. Research has shown that interventions that provide corrective information and foster a sense of social consensus can be effective in countering false beliefs. Emphasizing the agreed-upon information among specialists can aid in rectifying misunderstandings and reducing dependence on false information (van der Linden, 2020). Promoting positive norms around truth-seeking and encouraging discussions that challenge misinformation within social networks can help mitigate the influence of fake news. In conclusion, strategies to combat the dissemination of fake news involve promoting media literacy, fact-checking initiatives, responsible journalism, technology platform interventions, and collective efforts. By empowering individuals with critical thinking skills, ensuring accurate information is readily available, and fostering a culture that values truth and accuracy, society can work towards mitigating the impact of fake news and promoting a more informed public. 3. Conclusion and Directions for Future Work As the challenge of fake news persists in the social media era, it is crucial to look ahead and explore future approaches to combat its dissemination. The development and implementation of innovative strategies will play a pivotal role in addressing this complex issue. One future approach lies in the advancement of technology and artificial intelligence (AI). AIpowered algorithms have the potential to detect and flag misleading or false information more efficiently, thereby reducing the spread of fake news. Ongoing research and development in natural language processing, machine learning, and data analytics can enhance the capabilities of AI systems to identify and counteract misinformation effectively. 50 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Furthermore, collaborations between technology platforms, fact-checking organizations, and academic institutions can foster stronger partnerships and information sharing. By combining their expertise, these stakeholders can work together to develop comprehensive tools and frameworks for identifying and verifying the accuracy of news content. Such collaborations can enhance the efficiency and accuracy of fact-checking processes, enabling more timely debunking of fake news. Education will continue to play a pivotal role in countering fake news. As part of the curriculum, media literacy programs can be further integrated into schools and educational institutions. These programs should equip individuals with critical thinking skills, digital literacy, and the ability to evaluate and discern reliable sources of information. Additionally, media literacy initiatives should adapt to the evolving digital landscape, addressing emerging challenges such as deepfakes and AIgenerated content. Ethical considerations and responsible practices among media organizations and social media platforms are essential for combating fake news effectively. Emphasizing journalistic integrity, transparency, and accountability can help build trust and credibility among audiences. Social media platforms should prioritize the development and implementation of policies that promote accurate information, reduce the visibility of fake news, and address the challenges posed by misinformation without compromising freedom of speech. 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How influencer signaling affects engagement with COVID-19 misinformation.” Social Science & Medicine, vol. 315, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.115497. Wolverton, C., and D. Stevens. “The impact of personality in recognizing disinformation.” Online information review, vol. 44, no. 1, 2020, pp. 181-191. Zhang, X., and A. A. Ghorbani. “An overview of online fake news: characterization, detection, and discussion.” Inf. Process. Manag., vol. 52, no. 2, 2020, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306457318306794?via%3Dihub. 54 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Paraphrasing as a Means of Avoiding Plagiarism Isabelle Nicole Voicu Abstract: Plagiarism remains a persistent problem in academia, with an increasing number of students resorting to it not only in exams but also in their diploma papers. This unethical practice has led to the revocation of degrees for some well-known public figures. The motivations behind plagiarism are diverse, including improper citation, time constraints, and inadequate understanding of the topic. However, many students are oblivious to the severe consequences that plagiarism can have on their future careers, and they often lack awareness of proper prevention methods. This paper aims to explore the significance of paraphrasing as an effective means to avoid plagiarism when appropriately employed. Correct citation of sources and proper paraphrasing are essential to prevent unintentional plagiarism. The paper will delve into the definition of plagiarism, its consequences, and the importance of adopting ethical writing practices. By highlighting the benefits of paraphrasing and its role in curbing plagiarism, this study emphasizes the need for academic integrity and the responsibility of students to uphold it. Keywords: plagiarism; plagiarism avoidance; paraphrasing; paraphrasing tools; patchwriting Plagiarism, a topic that often evokes thoughts of public shame and the loss of earned degrees, has become increasingly common, particularly with the widespread use of technology. Over time, it has emerged as a significant problem within the academic world. Students are increasingly prone to committing plagiarism, not only in their essays for various exams but also in their diploma papers. Unfortunately, even well-known public figures have faced repercussions, losing their degrees due to acts of plagiarism. Such an example is no other than Harvard’s now-former President, Claudine Gay, who was accused of plagiarism and under the circumstances was forced to resign. The motivations behind committing plagiarism are diverse and may include improper citation practices, time constraints, and inadequate understanding of the subject matter. Surprisingly, many students remain unaware of the far-reaching consequences that plagiarism can impose on their future careers. Moreover, a lack of familiarity with appropriate strategies to avoid plagiarism contributes to its prevalence. Regardless of the reasons behind it, plagiarism remains unacceptable. There are several effective approaches exist to prevent it. One method involves correctly citing all sources properly to make sure that unintended plagiarism is avoided. Additionally, proper paraphrasing serves as another valuable technique to prevent plagiarism. It is essential to understand that paraphrasing is only accepted when done correctly and accurately. Consequently, this paper aims to demonstrate how paraphrasing can effectively serve as a means to prevent plagiarism when used appropriately. It also discusses one of the most famous cases of plagiarism that has shaken the entire academic world. Throughout this paper, the focus will be on exploring the definition of plagiarism, as well as its significant consequences. By emphasizing the importance of avoiding plagiarism and the role of paraphrasing as an effective solution, this study aims to promote academic integrity and provide guidance for those seeking to uphold it. 55 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 In their work entitled Framing Plagiarism, Linda Adler-Kassner, Chris M. Anson, and Rebecca More Howard (2008) present a unique perspective on plagiarism, emphasizing the importance of teaching and guiding students rather than solely relying on anti-plagiarism checkers to catch them in the act. They argue that educators should prioritize helping students understand the serious implications of plagiarism for their future, rather than just identifying instances of academic dishonesty. The issue of plagiarism among students has become increasingly alluring. In their 2008 article Study shows plagiarism ‘epidemic’, the BBC metaphorically likened plagiarism to a disease, referring to it as an epidemic that has the potential to transform into a pandemic. The advent of technology has made it effortless for students to access vast amounts of information with a simple click, reducing the necessity of reading books for research and undermining the development of essential writing skills to create original work. Plagiarism also includes what Farah Stockman and Carlos Mureithi referred to in their 2019 work as the term, “contract cheating” – the practice of submitting work not authored by the student. This form of plagiarism has also been referred to as “contract cheating” in the Higher Education System (Ibid.). Studies have shown a significant prevalence of this type of plagiarism, with a survey in 2005 revealing that 7 percent of undergraduates in North America admitted to turning in papers written by someone else, while 3 percent obtained essays from essay mills, notes Mureithi in 2019. Such actions constitute fraud and may lead to severe consequences if detected by educational institutions. In 2004, Lauren Mechling contributed an insightful article, “Plagiarism is the Sin du Jour” to The New York Sun. In her piece, Mechling delves into the pervasive issue of plagiarism and copyright trials, shedding light on the involvement of famous figures, including renowned novelists and Harvard professors, in such controversies. She highlights a notable rise in students’ engagement in plagiarism, drawing attention to a statistic from a New York Times article: According to a recent article in the New York Times, Duke University's Center for Academic Integrity says 40% of college students admit to plagiarizing off the Internet, up from 10% in 1999. Students don't have to find old papers or copy passages off the Internet, either - they can buy readymade papers for a couple of hundred dollars from Web sites like aceyourpaper.com and schoolsucks.com. With unmanageable workloads and the knowledge that classmates are buying their B-pluses, the siren call can be difficult to ignore. (Mechling n.p.) Through her commentary, Mechling underscores the gravity of plagiarism’s prevalence and its implications for the academic landscape. Technology, especially the accessibility of the World Wide Web, offers a variety of resources for those engaged in research and writing, provided they use it responsibly. Unfortunately, many students give in to the temptation of taking shortcuts rather than utilizing technology to enhance their understanding and writing abilities. Instead of viewing technology as a valuable tool for studying and research, some resort to the unethical practice of copy-pasting content from the internet and presenting it as their work, disregarding the importance of proper citation and attribution. This behavior often leads to what is known as paraphrasing, where students attempt to alter a few words or phrases from an existing source, believing it to be a legitimate way of presenting original work. However, true paraphrasing involves a thorough rephrasing of ideas, maintaining the integrity of the original content while expressing it in one’s own words. When done correctly, paraphrasing serves as a useful tool to combat plagiarism. On the other hand, when students merely 56 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 make superficial changes to copied text, it constitutes plagiarism, which is both unethical and unacceptable. In this paper, I aim to explore the concept of plagiarism and its various forms, while also emphasizing the significance of avoiding such dishonest practices. It is essential to introduce educational programs that not only discourage plagiarism but also teach students how to conduct research responsibly, cite sources accurately, and use paraphrasing appropriately. 1. Plagiarism Plagiarism has gained widespread attention across the globe due to the sensational nature of stealing others’ ideas, making it an intriguing topic for readers. In the chapter “Framing Plagiarism,” the authors highlight the prevalence of media coverage on plagiarism, with a staggering number of hits when searching on Google for “students and plagiarism” (Adler-Kasser et al. 231). Media plays a significant role in disseminating information about plagiarism, often opting for attention-grabbing headlines rather than providing in-depth explanations to readers. Addressing plagiarism awareness should begin early in a student’s education, preferably during high school or even earlier. By familiarizing students with the concept of plagiarism and its consequences before they enter university, they can better understand the importance of academic integrity. As students often face time constraints and overwhelming academic responsibilities in university, they may be more prone to resort to plagiarism if they lack prior knowledge about what constitutes plagiarism. In their article titled “EFL College Students' Plagiarism: An Assessment of their Undergraduate Research Projects and Perceptions,” Dr. Tahsin Hussein Rassul and Assistant Instructor Ihsan Saber Shafiq from the English Department at Salahaddin University-Erbil explore the perceptions and practices of plagiarism among senior EFL college students. The study, conducted during the academic year 2020-2021, focuses on understanding students’ views on the seriousness of plagiarism and the reasons behind its occurrence. Using a mixed-method approach, qualitative and quantitative research methods, the authors administered a questionnaire to 53 college students and assessed 29 of their undergraduate research projects for plagiarism using the Turnitin program and manual checks. They found that inconsistency in the similarity index percentage of research projects was attributed to instructors’ neglect of originality checks and a lack of plagiarism detection in student assignments. Moreover, the study identified four types of plagiarism, namely paraphrasing plagiarism, verbatim plagiarism, mosaic plagiarism, and incorrect citation. Verbatim plagiarism is the most prevalent and is often facilitated by the ease of copying text directly from online sources. This study sheds light on common reasons for plagiarism, including poor research skills, inadequate citation practices, and limited understanding of academic integrity. Rassul and Shafiq contribute to the ongoing discourse on plagiarism in academic settings, emphasizing the importance of addressing underlying factors and promoting academic integrity. Diane Pecorari (2010) provides a comprehensive definition of plagiarism, encompassing the reproduction or paraphrasing of someone else’s work without proper acknowledgement, regardless of its public or private nature, including material sourced from the internet (9). Wrongly paraphrasing a text, misusing citation marks, or using others’ ideas without giving credit are all examples of intentional or unintentional plagiarism. Richard Posner, in The Little Book of Plagiarism, highlights the difficulty in precisely defining plagiarism, often associated with literary theft. However, plagiarism can extend beyond written 57 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 texts to encompass various creative works, such as music and paintings (11). Academic plagiarism, in particular, involves using ideas, words, or structures without proper attribution in a setting where originality is expected (11). Despite the various justifications presented, academic plagiarism remains a pressing issue, primarily observed among students. Factors such as time constraints, pressure, disinterest, or laziness can lead students to take the path of least resistance, resorting to improper paraphrasing or copying without acknowledgement (Posner 9). While plagiarism cases may vary across different domains, it is essential to address and educate students about the ethical importance of proper citation and originality. Through awareness and education, we can foster a culture of academic integrity, where students understand the consequences of plagiarism and strive to produce work that reflects their ideas and insights. 1.1.Types of Plagiarism Plagiarism can be categorized in various ways based on the type, form, and approach. Diane Pecorari presents two primary forms of plagiarism: prototypical plagiarism and patchwriting. She identifies four fundamental criteria that aid in identifying plagiarism, including the presence of similarity between texts, the basis of later work on earlier work, the inappropriateness of the intertextual relationship, and the intention behind the act (Pecorari 12). Prototypical plagiarism fulfils all four criteria and can be considered intentional plagiarism, whereas patchwriting satisfies the first three but lacks the intentional aspect. Cryptomnesia is another form of unintentional plagiarism, wherein a writer unknowingly reproduces parts of a source, believing it to be original work (op. cit.143). Bela Gipp, in his book Citation-based Plagiarism Detection, distinguishes between two main types of plagiarism: literal plagiarism and disguised plagiarism. Literal plagiarism involves direct copying without disguise, while disguised plagiarism employs various techniques to conceal unduly copied text (Gipp 11).Literal plagiarism can manifest as “copy & paste” or “shake & paste,” the latter involving merging text segments with slight adjustments to create coherence (11). Disguised plagiarism includes forms such as paraphrasing, technical disguise (using methods to avoid detection), translated plagiarism (submitting translated content without references), structural and idea plagiarism (using compositional elements or broader concepts without acknowledgement), and self-plagiarism (reusing previous work without justification) (op. cit. 1213).These various forms of plagiarism are often employed by individuals seeking to deceive, whether students under academic pressure or those with intentional dishonesty. Detecting and understanding these different types of plagiarism can aid educators in promoting academic integrity and fostering a culture of responsible research and writing. Mike Arnold and Samantha Levin present in their article “The Difference Between Plagiarism and Copyright Infringement” the differences between plagiarism and copyright infringement. According to the authors, plagiarism implies using and appropriating one’s work without giving proper acknowledgment and it is most prevalent in academic settings. Copyright infringement, on the other hand, is a violation of the law when the content is used without permission, beyond “fair use”. Some of the consequences of plagiarism are reputational harm or academic penalties, whereas copyright infringement can have more severe consequences that can result in legal ramifications, including financial penalties and potential criminal charges. 58 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 1.2 The Consequences of Plagiarism When the act of plagiarism comes to light, people often focus on the consequences rather than the gravity of the offence itself. For students, the repercussions of plagiarism can vary significantly depending on their academic institution’s policies. Some universities may impose severe punishments, leading to expulsion for a first offence, while others might opt for milder penalties, such as assigning a low grade. In cases of more severe plagiarism, such as plagiarizing diploma papers, students may be barred from taking their final exams altogether. Acknowledged writers and professors, who commit plagiarism, face even harsher consequences. Those include public shaming, potential loss of degrees, and even copyright infringement trials if the plagiarized work is copyrighted. Claudine Gay, the former president of Harvard University, resigned amid allegations of plagiarism. The accusations stemmed from claims that she did not properly attribute sources in her academic works spanning two decades. This controversy prompted public scrutiny and calls for her resignation from various stakeholders, including alumni, donors, and members of Congress. (Green “Why some academics are reluctant”). The case involving Dr. Gay and the allegations of plagiarism has gained significant media attention, with various news outlets reporting on the accusations and their implications. Reports in the Washington Free Beacon and Substack presented instances of passages where Gay failed to cite properly, by omitting proper quotations or in-text citations thus leading to her academic integrity being questioned. The worst consequence of plagiarism lies in the loss of credibility. Regardless of the context or frequency of the act, media attention tends to magnify the negative impact, tarnishing one’s reputation. Although some instances of plagiarism might be accidental, institutions emphasize the importance of academic integrity, making excuses unacceptable. Although Gay has defended her work and insists on the integrity of her scholarship, her academic credibility has been questioned. While some individuals, including the authors of the allegedly plagiarized works, have downplayed the significance of the similarities, others view them as violations of academic integrity (Green “Why some academics are reluctant”). 2. Ways of Avoiding Plagiarism The first step in effectively avoiding plagiarism is to have a clear understanding of what it entails, and there are several essential rules that can be followed to prevent it. When taking notes, it is essential to record the source of the information used. This practice helps in avoiding unintentional plagiarism and improves the organization of ideas for a particular work. Creating an outline for the paper helps structure thoughts coherently. Learning how to express one’s ideas using personal words is an effective approach to avoid plagiarism, though it may initially seem challenging. In academic writing, it is acceptable to support personal ideas with those of others, but it must be done with precision. Paraphrasing and using quotations are two valuable methods to achieve this. Paraphrasing involves rephrasing others’ ideas in one’s own words while citing them correctly to acknowledge the source. It minimizes the risk of plagiarism. In the following sections, I will elaborate on the concept of paraphrasing, demonstrating the correct and safe ways to employ it in academic writing. 59 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 2.1. Paraphrasing Paraphrasing involves expressing the meaning of a text using one’s own words, without using the exact wording. According to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (“Avoiding Plagiarism”), it is a valuable writing tip when direct quoting may be excessive. The key to effective paraphrasing lies in maintaining the original text’s meaning while using one’s own words. However, there is a fine line between paraphrasing to avoid plagiarism and using it as a tool for committing plagiarism. The crucial aspect that distinguishes the two is attribution. Failure to acknowledge the sources used in paraphrasing would be considered plagiarism. To encourage proper paraphrasing, MIT offers valuable suggestions that, when followed, can help avoid any unintentional plagiarism. These suggestions include using synonyms for non-generic words, changing sentence structures, and switching between active and passive voice to alter the text’s form while retaining its essence. Additionally, transforming clauses into phrases or modifying parts of speech can also be effective paraphrasing techniques. Mastering these skills may require practice, and there are various resources available, such as grammar books and online exercises, to develop proficiency in paraphrasing. Following this guideline not only helps avoid plagiarism but also enhances one’s ability to express ideas more effectively. Below is a figure showcasing two versions of paraphrasing for the same text, accompanied by explanatory notes. The first version illustrates plagiarism, while the second version demonstrates proper paraphrasing. Original Plagiarism Paraphrasing Because of their unique perspective, Americans fear globalization less than anyone else, and as a consequence they think about it less than anyone else. When Americans do think about globalization, they think of the global economy as an enlarged version of the American economy. According to Lester Thurow (1993) Americans fear globalization less than people from other countries and as a consequence spend less time thinking about it. Indeed, Americans see globalization as an enlarged version of their own economy. Lester Thurow (1993) maintains that because Americans see globalization simply as a bigger form of their own economy, they are less concerned about it than is the rest of the world. (Source: Thurow, L. (1993). Fortune Favors the Bold (p. 6). New York: Harper Collins.) Why is this acceptable? The writer has kept the meaning of the original passage without copying words or structure. Words like globalization and Americans are generic terms (i.e., terms that are commonly used for the concept they illustrate - it is difficult to find synonyms for them). Thus you may use these words without placing them in quotation marks. Why is this plagiarism? The writer has used Thurow’s exact words without enclosing them in quotation marks. S/he has only substituted synonyms here and there. Even though Thurow is credited with a citation, this would be considered plagiarism. (Complete Thurow reference appears in bibliography) Figure 1 Example of Paraphrasing. Source: Academic Integrity at MIT, a Handbook for Students, “Avoiding PlagiarismParaphrasing As shown in the figure, both ways of paraphrasing mention the source from which the information was taken. However, only the second version is considered acceptable as it adheres to the rules of paraphrasing correctly. The first version may resemble unintentional plagiarism due to the writer’s 60 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 lack of writing skill or experience, somewhat resembling patchwriting. Intent plays a crucial role in distinguishing intentional and unintentional plagiarism, and context analysis is necessary to establish it. Nonetheless, intentional plagiarism exists, and Bela Gipp categorizes paraphrasing as a form of disguised plagiarism, defined as “the intentional rewriting of foreign thoughts in the vocabulary and style of the plagiarist without acknowledging the source” (Gipp 11). In conclusion, paraphrasing can serve two different purposes, and it is crucial to use it correctly to avoid plagiarism. Employed appropriately, paraphrasing becomes a valuable means of expressing ideas while giving proper credit to the original sources. However, if misused, the risk of committing plagiarism increases significantly. 2.2. Online Paraphrasing Tools In a rapidly advancing technological world, numerous tools have been developed to facilitate the writing process. One such example is the availability of online paraphrasing tools, accessible to anyone with a computer and internet connection. A simple Google search finds numerous online paraphrasing tools, each claiming to be the best choice for various reasons. However, the question arises whether using such tools can be considered plagiarism. Zoe Nixon, in her 2018 online article, 3 Easy Steps to Avoid Plagiarism with Online Paraphrase Tools, presents these paraphrasing tools as a means of avoiding plagiarism. She suggests that users should place complete trust in these online tools, asserting that using them is not a form of cheating, but rather a faster and more accurate alternative (Nixon “3 Easy steps”). The promise of superior speed and accuracy encourages users to rely on these tools, especially when lacking inspiration. However, dependence on paraphrasing tools can set back the development of one’s paraphrasing skills. These tools may not always produce accurate paraphrased results, leading to strange or nonsensical phrases. Essentially, the tools rearrange sentences, change the wording, and replace certain words with their synonyms. While users can make a few changes or choose appropriate synonyms, it may be wiser and safer to paraphrase manually from the outset. Although these websites may offer assistance, writers should not rely solely on them for all their paraphrasing needs. In their article, Using Internet-based Paraphrasing Tools: Original Work, Patchwriting, or Facilitated Plagiarism?, Ann M. Rogerson and Grace McCarthy analyzed two online paraphrasing tools. They found that the outcomes from both websites appeared to resemble patchwriting rather than paraphrasing (12). Patchwriting, a form of unintentional plagiarism, still qualifies as plagiarism. Thus, while these tools may be helpful for short sentences or occasional use, they may not be the best choice for academic writing assignments in the long run. In conclusion, using paraphrasing tools online does not necessarily equate to cheating, but the results they produce may not always be reliable. Proper attribution is vital, as it demonstrates acknowledgment of the original author’s work. Whether paraphrasing manually or using a tool, it remains essential to mention the source of the paraphrased information. Conclusions Plagiarism, whether intentional or unintentional, is an unforgivable act with serious consequences. It can lead to the withdrawal of degrees and damage one’s credibility within the academic community. While being aware of the repercussions may act as a deterrent, it is not enough. Students should be educated against plagiarism, cultivate their writing skills, and refrain from resorting to patchwriting or other shortcuts when under pressure. 61 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Learning how to paraphrase effectively takes time and effort, and students need to understand that paraphrasing should be used as a tool to avoid plagiarism, not as a means to commit it. Correct citation is equally crucial, and students should be familiarized with proper citation practices from their first year in university. Even a well-intentioned attempt to acknowledge the source can lead to unintentional plagiarism if quotation marks, in-text citations or page numbers are omitted. As an example of the severity of this is the case of dr. Claudine Gay. The lesson that any author, student, or person who writes an article etc. can learn from the situation involving Claudine Gay is the importance of proper citation and attribution of sources, as well as respecting the guidelines and standards set forth by the academic institution or publication. Plagiarism occurs not only when someone intentionally copies another’s work, but also when they fail to give credit to the original source, intentionally or not. This is why citing properly is essential. Dr. Gay resigned from her position at Harvard, and this way it has been emphasized how important academic integrity is and that not having it might lead to severe consequences such as this. What’s important to note is the fact that Gay admitted having made citing errors but she denied having claimed that others’ work is hers. While some academics hesitate to call her a ‘plagiarist’, there are still allegations, and according to Emma Green in her article in the New Yorker there were ongoing rumors before this piece of news reached the media, and what’s more, activist Christopher Rufo also brought some accusations in his newsletter. In order to keep Harvard’s best interests, she resigned from the position (Green “Why Some Academics are reluctant”). Throughout this paper, I have explored the concept of plagiarism and its occurrence, highlighting the crucial role of prevention in this matter. Additionally, I have emphasized the significance of proper paraphrasing techniques and the potential risks of relying solely on online paraphrasing tools, as studies have shown that their results may resemble patchwriting more than genuine paraphrasing. In light of the increasing attractiveness of plagiarism among students and the potential ramifications on academic integrity, educators must address the issue proactively. By instilling a sense of academic honesty and nurturing students’ research and writing skills, institutions can foster an environment that discourages plagiarism and promotes the pursuit of knowledge with integrity. In conclusion, academic integrity is of utmost importance, and it is the responsibility of educators and institutions to teach students how to write ethically and avoid plagiarism. By mastering paraphrasing skills and adhering to correct citation practices, students can ensure that their work remains authentic, original, and free from the shadow of plagiarism. References “Avoiding Plagiarism - Paraphrasing | Academic Integrity at MIT.” Integrity.Mit.Edu, //integrity.mit.edu/handbook/academic-writing/avoiding-plagiarism-paraphrasing. Accessed 10 April 2020. “Incorporating the Words and Ideas of Others | Academic Integrity At MIT.” Integrity.Mit.Edu, https://integrity.mit.edu/handbook/academic-writing/incorporatingwords-and- ideas-others. Accessed 10 April 2020. Arnold, Mike, and Samantha Levin. “The Difference between Plagiarism and Copyright Infringement.” Education, 22 June 2021, accessed 22 Feb. 2024.https://copyrightalliance.org/differences-copyright-infringement-plagiarism/ Adler-Kasser, Linda, Chris M. Anson, and Rebecca More Howard. “Framing Plagiarism.” In Originality, Imitation, and Plagiarism (2008), 231-246. 62 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv65sxk1.23?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents. Accessed 10 April 2020. Gipp, Béla. Citation-Based Plagiarism Detection. Wiesbaden, 2014. Green, Emma. “Why Some Academics Are Reluctant to Call Claudine Gay a Plagiarist.” The New Yorker, 5 Jan. 2024. Hamid, Rahem D., et al. “Despite Support From Corporation, Harvard President Gay Under Fire over Plagiarism Allegations.” The Crimson. 12 Dec. 2023, Updated 13 Dec. 2023.https://web.archive.org/web/20240109233800/https://www.thecrimson.com/article/ 2023/12/12/allegations-plagiarism-gay-dissertation/ Mechling, Lauren. “Plagiarism is the Sin du Jour.” The New York Sun, 2004.https://www.nysun.com/on-the-town/plagiarism-is-the-sin-du-jour/2386/. Accessed 12April 2020. Nixon, Zoe. “3 Easy Steps to Avoid Plagiarism with Online Paraphrase Tool.” Medium, 2018. https://writingcooperative.com/3-easy-steps-to-avoid-plagiarism-with-online-paraphrasetool-3b2157ad2a43. Accessed 9 April 2020. Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/. Accessed 10 April2020. Pecorari, Diane. Academic Writing and Plagiarism. New York, 2010. Pecorari, Diane. Teaching to Avoid Plagiarism. Maidenhead, Berkshire, England, 2013. Posner, Richard A. The Little Book of Plagiarism. New York, 2007. Precey, Matt. “BBC NEWS | England | Study Shows ‘Plagiarism Epidemic’." News.Bbc.Co.Uk,2008.http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/7194850.stm. Accessed 10 April2020. Rassul, Tahsin Hussein, and Ihsan Saber Shafiq. "EFL College Students' Plagiarism: An Assessment of their Undergraduate Research Projects and Perceptions." Journal of Language Studies, vol. 5, no. 1, Autumn 2021, pp. 159-180. Rogerson, Ann M., and Grace McCarthy. “Using Internet Based Paraphrasing Tools: Original Work, Patchwriting or Facilitated Plagiarism?” International Journal for Educational Integrity, vol. 13, no. 1, 2017. Stockman, Farah, and Carlos Mureihti. “Cheating, Inc.: How Writing Papers For American College Students Has Become A Lucrative Profession Overseas (Published 2019).” Nytimes.Com, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/07/us/college-cheatingpapers.html. Accessed 13 April 2020. 63 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Interlanguage Pragmatics Andreea Dietrich (Cotîrlea) Abstract: The starting point and prerequisite for this work is the assumption that the mastery of a language - in addition to competence in the areas of phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and lexicon (roughly in Chomsky’s sense) – the communicative (pragmatic) competence (e.g., according to Hymes) is decisive. Research results in the context of intercultural pragmatics have made it clear that the realization of speech acts depends on language-specific norms and principles of politeness, which is a source in intercultural communication of potential misunderstandings and conflicts. Since the description and analysis of pragmatic competence, which is expressed through the realization of certain speech acts by selected language users, is the focus of interest in this article, it first explains the term pragmatics and the sub-area pragmatic competence in more detail. Subsequently, the speech act theoretical approach, as it is to be applied in this work, is presented and discussed. The basics of speech act theory are mentioned and the phenomenon of indirect speech acts is explained. Keywords: pragmatics, politeness, competence, speech acts, interlanguage. Introduction The research area of Interlanguage Pragmatics (ILP) is defined as a discipline that aims to study the production and comprehension of speech acts in non-native speakers and how their L2-related speech act knowledge is acquired. Since the founding of this discipline in the early 1980s, there have been various investigations into the pragmatic competence of non-native speakers, which include a large number of speech acts as the subject of investigation. However, the majority of these studies deal with the production of speech acts. Up to now, there has been little research into how the pragmatic competence of learners develops or which learner-specific characteristics play a role, and thus one of the main goals of ILP has not been sufficiently taken into account. There are some studies that deal with development aspects and comparing data from different groups of informants at a certain point in time, so-called cross-sectional studies, but longitudinal studies, which follow the development of a certain group of informants over a certain period of time, have remained even rarer. Due to this imbalance, the demand for corresponding studies in this research area has increased in recent years, Gabrielle Kasper, for example, puts it as follows: “Many more theoretical and empirical studies of interlanguage pragmatics are needed in order to discover how learners do things with words in a second language“ (1989, 37-58)5. Nevertheless, to date there has been neither a German-American contrastive-pragmatic study in which requests, apologies and complaints are examined in a comparative manner, nor a study that 5 Kasper, Gabriele, Variation in interlanguage speech act realization, In S. M. Gass / C. G. Madden / D. Preston / L. Selinker (eds.), 1989, 37-58. 64 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 deals with the development of pragmatic competence in German learners of American English in the cultural context of the United States of America. Pragmatic Failures in Intercultural Communication The realization that people from different cultures prefer different communication styles (communicative styles) that reflect different cultural values and norms is of central importance, especially for language pedagogy; because difficulties or pragmatic failures in intercultural communication often occur as a consequence of culturally determined different communication styles. Studies have shown that even advanced language learners make pragmatic mistakes that can lead to misunderstandings and discomfort in intercultural communication. Jenny Thomas defines pragmatic failures as the inability to understand what is meant by what is said. She differentiates between pragma-linguistic and socio-pragmatic failures: “[…] pragma-linguistic failure is basically a linguistic problem, caused by differences in the linguistic encoding of pragmatic force, socio-pragmatic failure stems from cross-culturally different perceptions of what constitutes appropriate linguistic behaviour” (91-112)6. The description of pragma-linguistic errors thus relates more to the form and function of utterances, while the description of socio-pragmatic errors aims at the social conditions in language use and thus that through the process of socialization includes the learner’s internalized orientation system. In other words, socio-pragmatic decisions are “social before they are linguistic” (ibid.)7. Kasper (58) and Edmondson and House (1981, 105-133) have already investigated the question, which is particularly relevant in this context and for this work, as to why German learners of British English often behave pragmatically inappropriately. It is reported that pragmatic failures are primarily due to pragmatic transfer, overgeneralization and foreign language introduction. Since these learner-specific characteristics are also possible explanatory hypotheses used for certain pragmatic aspects in the performance of German learners of American English, these are to be explained below. Pragmatic transfer In this article, pragmatic transfer is referred to as interlingual, i.e. cross-system transfer - from the mother tongue (L1) to the target language (L2) - in situations of intercultural communication. Based on Kasper (67), who describes this process as basic language transfer, it is important to differentiate between intralingual, i.e., systemic transfer, which can be described as overgeneralization. In addition, as is customary in the literature, a distinction is made between negative and positive transfer and thus the statement is made as to the effect of transfer. In both cases, the processes involved are the same. However, while the transfer result leads to appropriate utterances in the target language in the case of positive transfer, pragmatic failures can occur in the case of negative transfer. In second language acquisition research, attention was therefore mainly paid to negative transfer. 6 Thomas, Jenny, Cross-cultural pragmatic failure, 1983, Applied Linguistics 4 (2): 91-112. 7 Thomas, Jenny, Cross-cultural pragmatic failure, 1983, Applied Linguistics 4 (2): 91-112. 65 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Depending on the learning-theoretical frame of reference, there are different views regarding the presence or absence of cognitive control of transfer. While transfer is viewed as a conscious problem-solving activity within a cognitive transfer model, negative transfer, which is often equated with interference, is not subject to cognitive control within a behaviourist transfer concept. Since the transfer result (as described above) is decisive for the present work, this distinction plays a subordinate role in the description of learner-specific characteristics. Thus, such realizations of native-speaker expressions in the target language are also described as pragmatic transfer, which may be unconscious, highly automated or interference-controlled. Finally, based on the distinction made by Thomas (96) between pragma-linguistic and sociopragmatic failures, a distinction must also be made between pragma-linguistic and socio-pragmatic transfer. Similarly, pragma-linguistic transfer refers to transfer processes that concern the form and function of a way of expression, while socio-pragmatic transfer takes place when transfer processes relate to social conditions. An example of pragma-linguistic transfer would be the transfer of a specific speech act strategy, e.g., the choice of a more direct request or complaint strategy by German learners with their own culture instead of a more indirect strategy more appropriate to British English in the relevant situations. An example of socio-pragmatic transfer would be the decision of German learners to make a complaint more often in certain situations than speakers of American English, who, in contrast, express themselves more often in the same situations, e.g., in praise. Concerning the conditions for transferability, similarity relationships between the mother tongue and the target language are mentioned, as well as the requirement that the learner regards his own culturally shaped pragmatic knowledge as not language-specific. It is assumed that the learner’s willingness to transfer is based in particular on his subjective perception, whereby the learner is inclined to overlook the differences that also exist due to the similarities he has recognized. The environment or context in which a language is learned or acquired is also crucial. While a natural employment context is less favourable to the influence of the mother tongue, the context of the classroom tends to have the opposite effect due to the latent presence of the mother tongue. In general, however, it can be assumed that beginners who have little linguistic competence in the target language are more likely to use their mother tongue than advanced learners, as they correspond to the sample of this study. Overgeneralization Overgeneralization refers to the incorrect application of already acquired forms and functions of the interim language to new contexts. Kasper (69) points out that this intralingual process takes place because the learner is not sufficiently aware of and does not automate the specific selection conditions of the existing interlinguistic material. She, therefore, argues that it „[seems] more appropriate from the learner's perspective to speak of the generalization of interim linguistic forms/functions”8, admitting to the analyzer who, starting from foreign language rules and norms, takes a different perspective, however, to use the term overgeneralization. It is important to note this differentiated perspective in what follows. 8 Kasper, Gabriele, Pragmatische Aspekte in der Interimsprache, Tübingen: Narr, 1981. 66 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Kasper (72) identifies three different areas of pragmatic deficits that lead to “inappropriate” communication behaviour and can be explained by pragmatic generalization. These concern the use of discourse-functional gambits, the realization of speech acts and discourse functions that are more explicit in their propositions than in the target language, and the choice of a speech act modality that differs from the target language. While for the first area, e.g., in the case of using the starter “well” as an introduction to a speech that is not introduced with a start signal in either German or British English, it assumes a metalinguistic motif that derives from a learner-specific perception or idea of being British English interaction norms, it refers to the context of school communication in both the second and third areas, which has the effect of triggering generalization in the cases mentioned. Kasper (77) lists the strategy of least effort as a further motive that triggers pragmatic generalization, which means that the learner prefers to choose forms and functions from his interim language system that are well automated and with high range and thus a high guarantee of success in communication. This usage preference for forms and functions that are subjectively easy to memorize and produce is in turn motivated by risk avoidance. In this context, Kasper refers to the risk-avoiding strategies listed by Pit Corder (1976, 161-170) and to the avoidance behaviour of “playing it safe” described by Gerda Lauerbach (2007, 1388-1419). Thomas (103) argues that pragmatic overgeneralization occurs particularly when a small range of structures in the native language allows for a wider range of translations in the target language. For illustrative purposes, she gives an example of inappropriate speech act modality (the use of perhaps “Perhaps you could do instead of do you think you could?” or “Could you possibly?” by Russian learners of English) and the under-differentiated use of modal verbs to establish an obligation through learners of the English language. In the case of the choice of a specific speech act modality, which leads to (unintentional) inappropriate communication behaviour, one can only speak of pragmatic overgeneralization, contrary to Thomas' assumption cited above, if pragmatic norms in the basic and foreign language match, otherwise pragmatic transfer is more likely to be the cause. This also applies to the example given by Thomas (105). For the second example she mentioned, pragmatic overgeneralization is also unlikely to be the cause. Gabriele Kasper, who also finds an under-differentiated use of modal verbs among German learners of British English, attributes this primarily to basic language transfer (1981:65). To summarise, pragmatic overgeneralization causally occurs when learners have a small repertoire of alternative realization elements at their disposal and not (as described by Thomas 1983, 107) when there is a narrower range of possible equivalents in the target language in the native tongue because this would be causally due to pragmatic transfer. Foreign Language Introduction in Secondary School as an Indirect Cause of Pragmatic Failures As shown in the interviews with the participants of the present study, it is true for the learners that the school mediation conditions have almost exclusively determined the foreign language learning process up to the beginning of the stay in the target culture. Other learner-specific products, some of which are inappropriate, can be explained indirectly through the influence of this specific 67 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 learning context. Kasper names two groups of learner-specific characteristics that can arise through the influence of teaching materials on the one hand and through the lesson-specific discourse in the classroom on the other. Accordingly, the primary reason for the under-differentiated use of certain modal verbs in English - e.g., by German learners of must instead of other modal verbs that would be more appropriate in the relevant contexts when establishing an obligation - is to be seen in pragmatic transfer. Kasper (89) also emphasizes the influence of the textbook as a secondary cause, which can also cause the learners to use the equation müssen = must and thus fossilization tendencies through unsuitable progression strengthened. She assumes the factor of foreign language teaching-specific discourse as a secondary cause of certain pragmatic deficits on the one hand for pedagogical question-answer sequences that lead to incompatibility of syntax and intonation, on the other hand for inappropriate propositional explicitness (92). In addition, she highlights the learner’s tendency to completeness, which results from the teacher's requirement to answer in complete sentences, for example, to promote the ability of the students to apply morphosyntactic rules correctly (instead of also allowing elliptical structures that are adequate for communication). This requirement (to answer in the whole sentence) illustrates a conflict that arises in teaching practice between a partial learning goal to be achieved (adequate, non-elliptical answer) and an overarching learning goal (communicatively adequate, elliptical answer). However, Kasper (95) rightly points out that this conflict can be resolved “if the pupils can step out of the reactive role and are given occasions to produce initiating utterances that inevitably have non-elliptical structures.”9 This decisive finding, which was published almost 25 years ago, seems to have changed little in teaching practice. As in the past, the students are rarely given the required occasions to produce initiating statements. This, in turn, also explains – at least in part – another characteristic of foreignlanguage discourse, namely the non-marking of speech act modality. This is also because that in foreign language teaching the referential (propositional) function is almost exclusively in the foreground, while the interpersonal (expressive) function plays a subordinate role and is mostly realized in the mother tongue. In this respect, the learners hardly get the opportunity to learn those linguistic-functional means in the classroom that a communicative situation that is adequate for the target language requires. Not only the quality but also the quantity of communication in the classroom is the subject of investigation in the field of teaching research. It is reported that the speaking time given to the students in face-to-face teaching – the dominant method in foreign language teaching to date, is very little. Anna Trosborg, who assumes in a calculation example that the teacher takes up about 80% of the speaking time for himself, while the students have a total of 20%, summarizes that this (with a group size of 20 students and 5 hours per week) would mean on average no more than one hour and forty minutes per student per year, which is far too little (1995: 146). It is therefore important to finally put into practice what second language acquisition researchers and foreign language didactics have been demanding for years, namely, “[...] to free secondary school lessons from their 9 Kasper, Gabriele, Pragmatische Aspekte in der Interimsprache, Tübingen: Narr, 1981. 68 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 one-sided cognitive-analytical design and still dominant orientation towards grammar and textbook and to make them more pragmatic and situational and thus also more interesting and learner-centred in terms of content.”10 (Brusch, 1997: 49) As an opportunity English teaching in primary school can be understood as an impetus for changing foreign language teaching as a whole. Conclusion The present work represents one of the very few longitudinal studies in the field of learner language pragmatics. It is to be hoped that further (comparable) studies will follow in the future: since the present study has already provided a contrastively pragmatic comparison of German and American native speakers in this field of the speech acts examined here, a follow-up study in which the development of pragmatic competence of American exchange students in Germany is followed is a good choice. Of course, the pragmatic competence of German and American students was not captured in its entirety. Future studies should examine other aspects of pragmatic competence in addition to other speech acts. References Arundale, B. Robert, Face as relational and interactional: A communication framework for research in face, facework, and politeness, Journal of Politeness Research 2 (2006), 193216. Brown, Penelope, and Levinson, Stephan, Universals of language use: Politeness phenomena, in E. Goody, eds., Questions and politeness, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), 56-324. Brusch, Wilfried, Fremdsprachen in der Grundschule. Ergebnis einer Umfrage, 1997, Grundschule 2: 48-49. Goffman, Erving, Strategic interaction (Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press 1969). Kasper, Gabriele, Pragmatische Aspekte in der Interimsprache, Tübingen: Narr, 1981. Leech, N. Geoffrey, Principles of Pragmatics (London/New York: Longman, 1983). Thomas, Jenny, Cross-cultural pragmatic failure, 1983, Applied Linguistics 4 (2): 91-112. Watts, Richard, Politeness (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003). 10 Brusch, Wilfried, Fremdsprachen in der Grundschule. Ergebnis einer Umfrage, 1997, Grundschule 2: 48-49. 69 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Camaraderie vs. Dissent: A Sociolinguistic Comparative Analysis of SameGender Interviews and Opposite-Gender Interviews across Political Divides Emilian Tîrban Abstract Using sociolinguistic and communication theories as a framework, this article will analyze excerpts from two same-sex, and two opposite-sex interviews, each with different conversational trajectories and outcomes. One of each pair of interviews under scrutiny features interlocutors of differing political ideologies, whereas the others are conversations between people of contiguous political leanings. Using insights from sociolinguistics, the four different group interactions will be shown to either progress and develop coherent arguments or digress and devolve into incoherent disagreements. Conversational camaraderie (considerateness) or dissent (agonism) between the interlocutors (in terms of rapport-talk, report-talk, genderlect, idiolect, the overall effectiveness of communication, etc.) will be considered. Keywords: communication, genderlect, rapport-talk, report-talk, group interaction Introduction The goal of this essay is to study (from the perspective of sociolinguistics and communication theories) two same-sex podcast interviews between two men, and two opposite-sex encounters between a female interviewer and a male interviewee, each with different conversational trajectories and outcomes (perhaps due to political affinities or lack thereof). Using insights from linguists such as Tannen, Yule, Grice and Lakoff (among others), the four different group interactions will be shown to either progress and develop coherent arguments or digress and devolve into incoherent disagreements. As a conclusion, means of increasing camaraderie between diverse interlocutors (in terms of rapport, the effectiveness of communication, etc.) will be considered. Literature Review/Theoretical Framework Sociolinguistic studies of social variation and gender/cultural differences in language, such as Dong Jinyu’s Study on Gender Differences in Language Under the Sociolinguistics, Penelope Eckert and Sally McConnell-Ginet’s Language and Gender, Deborah Tannen’s You Just don’t Understand and others will help explain some of the sociolinguistic features and their role in describing the conversational habits of the parties involved in the interviews under scrutiny. Deborah Tannen’s research helps demystify the implications of interruptions and the potential disruptive connotations they may carry for interaction since the usual view of interruption says that it “is interpreted as violating normal conversational rules, as being negative or undesirable behaviour, and as constituting an attempt to exercise power and to dominate and control the interaction through control of the floor and the topic of conversation” (2007b: 232). This study aims to investigate sociolinguistic variations by analyzing transcripts of discussions in mixed and homogeneous groups. 70 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Building on Deborah Tannen's research on genderlects which describes the different values men and women hold in conversational language (2007a: 51). According to Tannen, men tend to display ‘status and independence’ in language, whereas women display ‘connection and intimacy’ (ibid. 51). However, given the conversational agon displayed by the interlocutors in some of the following transcripts, these conversational values may fluctuate in favour of a competitive conversational style to fit a political agenda or to reassert one’s control of the floor. In addition to examining surface-level features like intonation, interruptions, and speech patterns, the analysis considers linguistic elements such as tone, topic, and agonism (Kendall & Tannen, 644), with a focus on the speakers’ ideological stance. By exploring linguistic patterns in this way, the research provides a more thorough understanding of the nuances of (gendered) communication employed in popular forms of ‘infotainment’ (Demers 143) such as podcasts and tendentious political interviews. The first mixed-gender group interaction under scrutiny in this article, the British GQ interview, sees the degradation of the initial high-involvement style into a digressive quarrel-like interaction that downplays Lakoff’s maxims of politeness in that there are a lot of impositions on the subject matter discussed (two digressing political views clashing – liberal/progressive vs. conservative); the two participants, through their digressions and voicings of conflicting political beliefs, reach the boiling point of the debate by tergiversation – one of the parties equivocates and withholds answers and explanations, and instead resorts to shifting topicality after a long series of interruptions and non-constructive overlaps, possibly intending to alleviate the debate, or just to evade a constricting question that would reveal the weakness of their argument (Lakoff, 2014). Interruptions as supportive and cooperative speech acts will be analysed in the podcast discussion between Joe Rogan and Elon Musk. Verbal and non-verbal equivalents or utterances will be shown to indicate “interest and attention to what the speaker is saying” (Tannen, 2007a: 238). George Yule’s The Study of Language provides insight into the cooperative principle of conversational style by offering Paul Grice’s definition of the principle “Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged” (Grice,1975: 45, qtd. in Yule 147). The principle is supported by the “Gricean maxims”, which offer some useful directions for adapting one’s conversational pattern or, conversely, of analyzing the conversational style of others; they are: The Quantity maxim: Make your contribution as informative as is required, but not more, or less, than is required. The Quality maxim: Do not say that which you believe to be false or for which you lack adequate evidence. The Relation maxim: Be relevant. The Manner maxim: Be clear, brief, and orderly. (ibid. 147) The maxims help show the interlocutors' high-involvement style and cooperative conversational patterns, especially those in Joe Rogan’s podcast transcript, to be heavily charged with cues that adhere to Grice’s maxims. Conversely, the GQ interview showcases strong conversational styles with high levels of intrepid involvement and low levels of considerateness that do not always enrich the flow and the topic of the discussion but undermine the political implications of each interlocutor’s discourse to vindicate a biased or popular idea. 71 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Segments of recorded data and their analysis The first transcript under scrutiny comes from one of Joe Rogan’s Podcasts, The Joe Rogan Experience, made available on his YouTube channel boasting 67 million views, in which he discusses the future of humanity and technology with the business magnate Elon Musk. The podcast opens cursorily with Joe Rogan’s (JR) question about Elon Musk’s (EM) free time and how he organizes his ideas and project planning amidst so many projects that he has released and plans on releasing, from the “not a flamethrower” flamethrower, electric cars, underground tunnels, spaceships to finally populating Mars: JR: how do you have the time to do that though I mean I understand that it's not a big deal in terms of all the other things you do but how do you have time to do anything just I don't understand your time management skills. EM: I mean I didn't spend much time on this flamethrower. I mean to be totally frank it's just a roofing torch with an air rifle cover it's not a real flamethrower – JR: which is why it says not a flamethrower –11 EM: that's why we were very clear this is not actually a flamethrower and also we're told uh that various countries would ban the shipping of it but they would not they would ban flamethrowers so we very to solve this problem for all the customs agencies we labeled it not at flamethrower… JR: did it work? was it effective? EM: i i i don't know i think so yeah so far yes now but you said you cannot serve a flamethrower. JR: but you do so many different things forget about the flamethrower like how do you do all that other [__] like how do you, how does one decide to fix LA (Los Angeles) traffic by drilling holes in the ground and who do you even approach with that like when you have this idea who do you talk to about that?” (PowerfulJRE, 2018, 3:40) The second paragraph of the transcript displays Joe Rogan’s unobtrusive high-involvement style. He provides his interlocutor with constructive feedback through additional interfering comments meant to build on what Elon Musk is currently saying “which is why it says not a flamethrower”. Interruption is here a show of enthusiasm (Tannen 2005: 77) and curiosity on Joe Rogan’s part, and it seems that both interlocutors share the same sense of the high-involvement conversation style since none of them is rebuffed by each other’s incursions over the floor; the floor passes from one speaker to the other seamlessly without conflict. Another characteristic of Joe Rogan’s highinvolvement style, according to Deborah Tannen, is the habit of asking questions as cooperative prompting (2005: 149; 2014: 360). The conversation features several instances of overlapping speech, where JR and EM interrupt each other. Tannen's research suggests that men tend to engage in competitive overlapping, seeking opportunities to assert themselves in conversation (2007: 443). However, as shown, the interruptions here may indicate a friendly competition or an eagerness to contribute to the discussion. Instead, this interaction displays a high degree of conversational polysemy which Deborah Tannen describes as overlapping speech that is mutually interruptive but in which “the exuberant mutual interruption builds on and creates rapport” (2005: 202). Joe Rogan does not shy away from a question even if it interrupts, or, at best, slightly overlaps with the interlocutor’s speech flow; had it not been for the questions, the speech flow might have continued unobtrusively since there were no linguistic markers of completion of the idea and thus the questions immediately after Elon Musk possesses the floor “Did it work? Was it effective?”. According to Deborah Tannen, “For these high-involvement speakers, questions indicate enthusiastic listening, and speakers are not obligated to stop mid-sentence to answer them – nor even to answer them at all” (2007a: 360). JR's initial inquiry about time management and The JR and EM abbreviations stand for the interlocutors’ names, Joe Rogan and Elon Musk, respectively. Interruptions are marked with a long dash “−“. All of the transcript excerpts are taken from videos uploaded by the public YouTube accounts mentioned. 11 72 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 questioning EM's ability to do various tasks echoes Tannen's concept of "report-talk" associated with male communication (ibid.: 123). JR seems focused on information and the practicalities of EM's activities, emphasizing accomplishments and skills. EM, in response, employs a more explanatory style and provides technical details about the flamethrower emphasizing its construction. This aligns with Tannen's notion of "rapport-talk," often associated with female communication, where building connections and sharing experiences are prioritized (ibid.: 123, 206). Accordingly, Elon Musk responds to the questions anyhow, fulfilling the expectation of the passionate queries by providing a considerate response to Joe Rogan's and perhaps other viewers' curiosity. In terms of the communication strategies perceived in the transcript, EM's detailed explanation about the flamethrower and the labelling strategy to navigate customs regulations reflects a communicative strategy focused on problem-solving and providing information (Erikson in Tannen et al 2015: 423). JR's follow-up question about fixing LA traffic showcases his interest in understanding decision-making processes and problem-solving strategies (Tannen 2007: 231, 269), aligning with a more task-oriented communicative approach. So far, we have looked at a podcast interview between two males high in libertarian political agreement engaged in friendly conversation. The conversation is mainly directed by rapport rather than ideological agonism in which either party seeks to reinforce and establish the ‘dominance’ or veracity of its political leaning. The next transcript is a conversation between Joe Rogan, an established libertarian, and the well-known conservative talk show host, Matt Walsh (MW). In this section of the interview, the male interlocutors openly disagree and argue over traditional views of marriage as opposed to same-sex marriages. Matt Walsh begins by articulating a traditional view of marriage, emphasizing its historical importance as a setting for procreation and the establishment of the nuclear family. His idea is that every married couple should be open to life brought about by same-sex intercourse, which aligns with the core, traditional definitions of marriage: MW: I think of marriage as a certain thing, which is the context for, uh, for procreation, for the building of the nuclear family. - JR: What about people that get married that don't have kids? Are you opposed to that? What if they get married, they decide, you know, we don't need kids, I'm going to get fixed, you get your tubes tied, let's travel the world. MW: Well, what do you mean, am I opposed to it? I mean, I think that every married couple should be open to life. JR: but what if they don't want to do? Are you opposed to them being married if marriage is only for procreation and to bond a family together? What about people that are deeply in love that never want to have children? MW: I don't think it's only procreation, but that is one of the fundamental definitional uh aspects of it. Of course, there's more to marriage than just that. – JR: And what about people that are infertile? They've fallen in love and they realize that they can't have babies. They don't necessarily want to adopt. - MW: Well – that – JR: Is that okay for them to be married? Because then, by definition, marriage falls into a completely different thing because then it's a bond of love, it's a union of love. MW: Sure, I mean, that doesn't change the nature of marriage, though. (PowerfulJRE 2022: 0:11-1:54) First of all, the conversation exhibits a power dynamic (Mayr in Tannen et al. 765; Tannen 2005: 202-4) with Joe Rogan as the interviewer and Matt Walsh as the interviewee. Rogan leads the discussion by posing questions and steering the conversation at will, representing a higher conversational power. Matt Walsh tends to be more direct, expressing his conservative views with a clear stance on the importance of procreation in marriage. In contrast, Joe Rogan explores hypothetical scenarios, using indirect language to question Walsh's perspective and challenge his viewpoints. Tannen notes that indirectness is a technique of filling in unstated information (2005: 197) which would otherwise be Rogan’s voiced disagreement with his interlocutor’s ideas. The conversation does not heavily focus on building rapport. Instead, it leans towards a heated debate, with Rogan challenging Walsh's conservative stance through hypothetical questions and Walsh defending his position. As shown, Tannen's research recognizes the role of rapport in 73 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 communication, which may not be the primary goal in this context. There is an evident disagreement between the speakers on the role of procreation in marriage. Matt Walsh asserts his conservative views, while Joe Rogan challenges them indirectly, leading to a more confrontational communication style which lessens, in effect, the camaraderie between interlocutors (Tannen 2007a: 232). Secondly, both speakers exhibit a certain degree of miscommunication due to their differing viewpoints as opposed to Joe Rogan’s interaction with Elon Musk where a high-considerate style led to a high degree of rapport-talk. Rodney H. Jones discusses misunderstandings through the lens of interactional sociolinguistics as the “result of the different expectations people bring to interactions regarding discourses (including such issues as turn-taking, topic management, and the appropriate ways information should be structured.)” (in Tannen et al. 2015: 846 brackets in the original). Walsh's direct approach may be perceived as rigid, while Rogan's indirect questions may lead to misunderstandings or differing interpretations of the discussion's focus. The conversation includes instances of interruption, particularly when Joe Rogan interjects with additional questions or comments. This reflects a conversational style where the interviewer actively guides the flow of the discussion, as noted earlier. The conversation, notwithstanding the political discrepancies, is similar to that in the first transcript given that interruptions are rather rare and each speaker is given the floor and the time to put forward their arguments or questions cooperatively. Though they are not in political agreement, the conversational style aligns with Grice’s definition of the cooperative principle. In contrast, the following transcripts from a GQ interview between Lewis Helen (HL) and Jordan Peterson (JP) show the conversational dynamics of an interview meant to challenge and actively seek to disprove Jordan Peterson’s conservative viewpoints, gaining him an immense following on various online platforms. This time, the libertarian political agenda is voiced by a woman. The interview opens with Helen Lewis underscoring Peterson’s commercial success implicitly challenging Peterson’s intellectual veracity as a marketable craze for outspoken traditional viewpoints: HL: you've sold 2 million copies of 12 rules for life, you have 800 000 followers on twitter 1.4 million followers on YouTube what is it that you're selling that so many people want to buy? JP: I don't think I'm selling anything HL: well, I went to a show where you were selling tickets to your show so people are willing to pay a lot of money to see you speak, you know, what is it that you think that people are hungry for, they want to hear from you? JP: they're hungry for a discussion of the relationship between responsibility and, meaning and we haven't had that discussion in our culture for 50 years we've concentrated on rights and privileges of freedom and impulsive pleasure and those are all useful in their place, but they're shallow, and that's not good because if people are more shallow then storms wreck them and storms come along, so I'm talking to people about how they can build a foundation underneath them that works, and people need to know that because otherwise, their lives are harder than they need to be. (British GQ, 2018, 0:20) Helen Lewis opens her interview by questioning Jordan Peterson’s cultural impact as a wholesale product placement by asking “What it is you’re selling?”. This introduction oversteps the Quality Maxim because it undermines, and subtly politically downplays the reputation of the interviewee, who is a notorious advocate for conservative principles anathema to the progressive ideology exhibited by Helen Lewis who is constantly alluding to Peterson’s book 12 Rules for Life to possibly discover some invalidating details that might overthrow his confidence in his conservative views. Lewis, however, shows a high degree of considerateness by giving Peterson uninterrupted control over the floor in his protracted answer to her second question. The turn-taking is levelled 74 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 here with either party’s implicit political leanings they represent here in a collaborative way rather than a form of conversational agonism. Conversely, political leanings gradually come to a boil giving way to antagonism on the parts of both interlocutors as their political standings, cultural values, and genderlects clash as shown in the following transcript, HL: where is well I think I'm benefiting actually from a lot of things that I don't support that are unearned privileges in my life I think that's absolutely true – JP: like your job? HL: like, I have a very good job, I had a loving family who – JP: quit! – H: I don't think that's going to do the world any good is it – JP: that's a hell of a fine rationalization for your privileged position. H: oh well, fair enough but like you know if – JP: you could trade it off with someone who's less privileged, that would be a start – HL: I could, I could, I could do that and, and but I don’t, I don't want to, and I won't – JP: why not? – HL: and I don't think I should be expected to - JP: why not? is it okay for you to occupy a position of privilege in the patriarchal tyranny and if it is, is it because you're female, or is it just because it's convenient? HL: let me tell you my political philosophy… (British GQ, 2018, 45:00)12 As can be observed, the flow of the discussion is incessantly interrupted, now by Jordan Peterson as a rebuttal to the previous ideological attack on his cultural and political convictions that go against Helen Lewis’ left-leaning political views. For this reason, it should be noted that the continual interruptions and domination over the floor are politically inspired and are not a product of gender differences in this case, Peterson being a very collaborative interlocutor with men and women alike. The high-involvement style with a lack of consideration is used by the male interviewee to force his interviewer to react to the tenets of her political considerations – if the patriarchy is so dominant, how come the female interviewer is not relinquishing her position to someone less privileged? Nevertheless, the abrupt “quit!” shows the power dynamic involved in this segment in that JP employs interruptions as a communicative strategy to guide the discussion and assert dominance. As expected, the floor soon becomes a back-and-forth clash in which the arguments lose their credibility and the natural flow of speech turns into a series of repetitions, showcasing doubt or incertitude, and back-channel cues mixed with reproachful overlaps coming from Jordan Peterson. The Manner Maxim is grossly disregarded and Helen Lewis’s arguments give way to repetition when she observes that she is at a loss by continuing to answer the questions directed at her arguments. She switches the subject in a sudden shifting of style and topicality, allowing for the previous floor to end abruptly seeking to curb JP’s confrontational communicative style. In what concerns Jordan Peterson’s constant interruptions, the progress of the interview presents him as a rather mellow interlocutor, but the above transcript displays his need to keep taking the floor to further inquire into the sensibilities of a left-leaning ‘militant’ political activist, by asking sudden, inflammatory questions to the detriment of a high-considerate style. This excerpt displays Tannen’s idea of a male genderlect focused on establishing dominance over the communicative situation, whereas the woman’s contributions are constantly interrupted downplaying effective communication. Lewis, however, maintains a polite and explanatory approach in this exchange in accord with Tannen’s concept of rapport talk. The final excerpt is from a podcast interview transcript that shows the communicative discrepancies in a mixed-sex group interaction between the liberal Joe Rogan and the conservative political commentator, Candance Owens, on the issue of global climate change. Candance Owens expresses skepticism about the validity of climate change as a human-driven environmental issue ascribing it to political and market motivations. Joe Rogan, on the other hand, counters her seemingly insouciant arguments by constantly trying to competitively inform Candance that The abbreviations HL and JP henceforward stand for the two interlocutor’s names: Hellen Lewis and Jordan Peterson, respectively. Interruptions are marked with a long dash “−“. 12 75 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 climate change is a widely studied phenomenon within Environmental Sciences and should therefore be taken seriously as an environmental crisis, JR13: If you want to step outside of the scientific consensus, ~ CO: right ~ which is vast and involves ten thousand three hundred and six scientists, and just say, "I don't believe in it..." Yeah, Yeah, ~ JR: even if you're right – even if you’re right, you don't have enough information to say that – CO: Right ~ JR: Even if you are correct ~ CO: That’s why I said that – So, you're saying you don't believe? Co: I would have to have someone sit down and convince me that it was real. ~ JR: but ~ I personally don't believe it ~ JR: but, but, why ~ CO: And that's okay. Why is it good to start from a place of not believing something? CO: No, it's not. CO: You think you should start with believing everything? JR: No, not believe either or, not believe yes, not believe no. ~ CO: Yeah ~ But don't say you don't believe. ~ CO: Yeah ~ JR: Learn about it, ~ CO: yeah - JR: Learn about it and then have an opinion. But you're stating this opinion without having any real understanding of what climate science ~ CO: well, yeah ~ is. CO: Okay but that's exactly what an opinion is. I'm not going, like I said, if you said that Candance you went on to 10,000 college campuses and said that global warming wasn't real, then we'd have a problem. JR: hmhmm. CO: You and I are just having a conversation. JR: Yeah, I have an opinion on something that you don't have data about ~ CO: Right ~ This is my question ~ CO: Yeah. JR: I don't necessarily have an opinion ~ CO: Right ~ on climate science. I really don't. ~ CO: Yeah. ~ JR: Because I don't know much about it. But what I do know ~ CO: My opin is that ~ CO: Yeah ~ what I've read is that the vast majority of people who study it are in agreement that human ~ CO: Yeah ~ beings are affecting it. (JRE Clips, 2018: 10:03 – 11:16) Candance Owens repeatedly attempts to establish rapport through cooperative overlaps. Interruptions, on the other hand, occur whenever a speaker wishes to assert dominance over the floor. In this case, Joe Rogan seems to use a confrontational communicative style constantly trying to assert the importance of researching the climate change phenomenon before one can state an opinion about its existence as a natural fact or a political scheme. Accordingly, interruptions play a role in seizing control of the conversation with the express purpose of challenging the other’s speaker’s viewpoint. As such, from the genderlect perspective, CO's use of overlapping speech (~) and agreement (Yeah, Yeah, Right) aligns with a cooperative and rapport-oriented communication style often associated with women, according to Tannen. Conversely, JR's interruptions and challenges reflect a more independent and competitive style associated with men. Joe Rogan’s extended speech, then, aligns with Tannen’s concept of report-talk (2007a: 312) as indicative of male genderlect. An interesting aspect discussed in interactional linguistics is Bateson’s concept of metacommunication (Maschler and Schriffin in Tannen et al. 2015: 194) as communication about communication or interpretation of metalanguage (ibid.: 194). In this case, CO's acknowledgement of the nature of opinions in the context of the conversation can be seen as a cooperative and reflective element, characteristic of a more female genderlect, meaning to detract from the confrontational style permeating the discussion at this point. JR's metacommunication, on the other hand, involves direct challenges and seeking clarification, aligning with a more stereotypically male communication style seeking to superimpose a subjectively accepted opinion about a contentious topic. Compared to Joe Rogan’s talk with Matt Walsh, the gender communicative dynamics Tanner discusses around her concept of genderlect show prominently in the latter transcript given the numerous one-sided overlaps and interruptions made by the male interlocutor. Conclusions In conclusion, the sociolinguistic analysis of the provided transcripts sheds light on the complex dynamics of language use in popular conversational contexts. Deborah Tannen's work on genderlects is particularly relevant, as it reveals distinct communication styles between men and women, emphasizing rapport-oriented talk and collaborative speech patterns in women and a more The JR and CO abbreviations stand for Joe Rogan and Candance Owens, respectively. The winding dashes “~” and the sentences between them represent overlaps while long dashes “-“ show interruptions. 13 76 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 competitive and independent communication style in men. However, the first transcript has shown that men can also use rapport-talk when their political leanings align and the conversation is centred around congenial topics. The analysis of transcripts featuring Joe Rogan and Candance Owens, Elon Musk, Matt Walsh, Helen Lewis, and Jordan Peterson, therefore, showcases how gender, political ideology, and conversational context influence communication. The examination of interruptions, overlaps, and shifts in conversational styles underscores the intricate interplay of linguistic elements shaping the dynamics of podcast discussions and interviews. Additionally, the application of sociolinguistic concepts such as Grice's cooperative principle and maxims further elucidates the communicative strategies employed by the interlocutors. Overall, this analysis, admittedly limited in scope, contributes to an understanding of sociolinguistic variations and gender/cultural differences in language use in popular forms of ‘infotainment’ such as podcasts and interviews, offering insights into how language reflects and shapes sociocultural and gender dynamics in such media. References Demers, David, Dictionary of Mass Communication and Media Research: a Guide for Students, Scholars and Professionals. Marquette, 2005. Yule, George. The Study of Language. 4th ed. Cambridge University Press. 2010 Hall-Lew, Lauren, and Malcah Yaeger-Dror. “New Perspectives on Linguistic Variation and Ethnic Identity in North America.” Language & Communication, Elsevier BV, Mar. 2014, pp. 1– 8. doi:10.1016/j.langcom.2013.11.001. Gender and Conversational Interaction. Edited by Deborah Tannen. Oxford University Press. 1993. Eckert, Penelope and Sally McConnell-Ginet. Language and Gender. Cambridge University Press. 2003. Tannen, Deborah. Language and Culture in An Introduction to Language and Linguistics. Edited by Fasold, Ralph W. and Connor-Linton, Jeff. Cambridge University Press. 2014. ---. Conversational Style. Analyzing Talk among Friends. New Edition. Oxford University Press. 2005. ---. You Just Don’t Understand. Women and Men in Conversation. William Morrow Paperbacks; 1st edition. 2007a. ---. Talking Voices. Repetition, dialogue, and imagery in conversational discourse. Cambridge University Press. 2007b. ---. Heidi E. Hamilton, and Deborah Schiffrin Eds. The Handbook of Discourse Analysis. Second Edition. Volume 2. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2015. Lakoff, George. The All New Don't Think of an Elephant!: Know Your Values and Frame the Debate. Tenth-anniversary edition. White River Junction, Vermont, Chelsea Green Publishing, 2014. [PowerfulJRE]. (2018, September 7). Joe Rogan Experience #1169 - Elon Musk [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ycPr5-27vSI&t=211s 77 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 [PowerfulJRE]. (2022, November 8). Joe and Matt Walsh Disagree Over Gay Marriage [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I957o08voU0&list=LL [JRE Clips]. (2018, June 1). Joe Rogan and Candance Owens Argue over Climate Change [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9lD29jqH078&list=LL&index=2&t=500s [British GQ]. (2018, October 30). Jordan Peterson: “There was plenty of motivation to take me out. It just didn't work" | British GQ [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yZYQpge1W5s&t=5170s 78 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 III. Book Reviews 79 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Review of Khandakar Qudrat-I Elahi’s Economics for Democracy in the 21st Century: A Critical Review of Definition and Scope. (Victoria, BC CA: Tellwell Talent. 2021). xxvii-357 pp. Thomas Muthucattu Paul The book under review, according to author Elahi, undertakes an exploratory attempt to address the question of the definition and scope of “our subject - Economics”. The author takes the model of democracy from John Locke (1690). The origin of this model is the Social Contract theory. The author questions the general presumption of the production and distribution theory that the dependents and the Senior citizens have to be excluded from the theory of distribution as they are not participating in the production process. Thus, the question of “who will take care of such people and their needs and consumption?” is raised. The idea of distribution was irrelevant for Greeks such as Aristotle because slaves were producing for society. David Ricardo (1817) pioneered the theory of distribution for the factors of production, viz, the Land, Labour and Capital, and the rewards to the factors of production according to the marginal productivity and demand and supply. But, according to our author “treating unskilled labour as an input not only misinterprets facts but also violates the principle of governance from a democratic perspective”( Chapter Prologue page Xi ). However, we should not forget that all economists recognise different kinds of labour and their productivity differs depending on the use of technology and capital. However, the author asserts that the modern theory of distribution conflicts with the democratic system of governance.( Chapter Prologue page Xi) The main contention of the author is that the fundamental paradigm of modern economics is inconsistent with the welfare social policies in modern democracies such as Canada. This book makes an exploratory attempt to argue that some of the impressions of modern economics methodologies have to be re-examined. According to the author, firstly, we must modify the idea of our economic man or homo economicus, who is understood as a Robinson Crusoe ruled by his instincts. He has equal rights and obligations. So, this homo economicus, being an independent citizen of a democratic country must be treated equally with others who want to hire its skills for any production purposes. Therefore, “we can no longer treat labour as an input like other non-human factors of production.” (Chapter Prologue page Xii) However, the author’s ideas are apparently in conflict with neo-classical economists’ vision of the marginal productivity theory and different qualities of labour units depending on their productivity differences and therefore they are treated differently. With this research about the definition and scope of Economics, the author surveys the developments in the conceptions of the influential economists since the 19th century. Those economists included John Neville Keynes (1904; 2018) and his son John Maynard Keynes (1924; 1936), Alfred Marshall (1890), Lionel Robbins (1945, 1981), and Paul, A. Samuelson (1963, 2010). Lionel Robbins (1945) criticizing Alfred Marshall’s Principles of Economics (1890), gave a working definition of Economics, ‘Economics is the science that studies human behaviour as a relationship between ends and scarce means that have alternative uses. However, Elahi concludes that economists widely disagree on any particular definition of economics, and therefore, Jacob Viner, a Canadian economist (1892-1970) has written that ‘economics is what economists do’.( Source https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Viner) 80 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 In the second chapter, “Why Economists Disagree: An Empirical Inspection”, the author discusses the issue in detail. John Locke (1690) in his Second Treatise on Government, recommends a formal framework for the economy based on his cherished governance system based on the institution of private property. Owning and accumulating private property is treated as an individual right. But according to the author Locke (1690) did not decide how the institution of private property fulfils both individual ambitions and social goals. But Adam Smith (1776) fulfilled this role. Adam Smith lucidly describes how and why an economy founded on the institution of private property should prosper by producing necessities and conveniences for both individuals who supply labour in the production process as well as the government who depends on that wealth. Following Adam Smith, several economists including David Ricardo (1772 to 1823), J.B. Say (1767 to 1832), and J.S. Mill (1806 to 1873) made significant contributions to expand both descriptive and normative aspects of the new social science of economics. However, economists also disagreed considerably concerning both theoretical and policy issues related to the new subject of Economics. A remarkable example is Thomas Malthus’ (1798) Essay on Population in which he painted a gloomy picture of population growth, economic growth and development. Some began to call economics ‘a dismal science’. Karal Marx (1848; 1859) had taken this disagreement to its pinnacle. Unlike Adam Smith, Marx had seen everything wrong in the institution of private property and believed that the institution of private property had to be abolished. Then, the author discusses the differences between normative economics and positive economics. In normative economics, value judgements differ and influence the outcome and conclusion. Milton Friedman (1953) pushed the theoretical disagreement debate to another level. Friedman recommended using abstract theory in economic analysis to argue that a theory and its adequacy should be judged by its ability to explain the phenomenon under investigation, and not by its “realism of assumptions “. However, Paul Samuelson (1963) has questioned the ability to explain the phenomenon as “F-test”. Then, the author focuses that the differences among economists are based on value judgements which lead to differences in policy making. Machlup (1965) argues that even the same assumptions of facts would not generate agreeable recommendations if the advisers foster different value judgments. The author explores the empirical theories of John Locke (1690) and David Hume (1748) to examine the puzzles of differing value judgements. The main messages of Locke’s theory of human understanding can be summarized as follows: Knowledge consists of agreement or disagreement among ideas present in our mind, which are of two kinds – simple, and complex. The mind is passive in receiving simple ideas; but active in generating complex ideas. David Hume (1748) has raised the field of inquiry from pure deductive to the employment of experimental science to human behaviour and actions. Hume notably expounded upon the distinctions between the natural sciences, where empirical research can be precise, and the social and political sciences, where experimental investigation is inherently imprecise. The author then briefly mentions Alfred Marshall (1890) and his contributions through the Principles of Economics to the subjects of Political Economy and Moral Science. (Marshall, although originally began his education as a mathematician ended up as a moral scientist.) The author then discusses John Neville Keynes (father of John Maynard Keynes) (2018) and the application of deductive and inductive methods in Economics. Deduction is theoretical prediction, and the inductive method is empirical and experimental. Subsequently, the London School of Economics (LSE) lecturer Lionel Robbins’ contributions to Economics are discussed by the author. Lionel Robbins consolidated the definition of Economics. 81 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 The author then discusses the famous economist John Maynard Keynes (1924) and his contributions to economics. Though J.M. Keynes went for civil service in East India Company to India, he was said to have gotten bored and returned to academia, was then appointed as the editor of the Economic Journal, and wrote his first book on Indian currency and finance. In 1922, J.M Keynes published a Revision of the Treatise, and in 1923, he published a Tract on Monetary Reforms, wherein he attacked the post-World War 1 deflation policies in Europe and America. He published a Treatise on Money in the 1930s in which the central idea was that unemployment would rise if the quantity of money saved exceeded the quantity of money invested. But J.M. Keynes’s outstanding contribution was the General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money published in 1936 which brought into prominence the concept of aggregate demand, and the role of government and fiscal policy in boosting aggregate demand and alleviating unemployment. Thereafter, J M. Keynes contributed to public policy, and practically in the creation of the international monetary system and institutions. J.M. Keynes’ main idea was that classical full employment is just one possibility only and otherwise the general tendency is for unemployment equilibrium. The less than full employment is mainly due to the ‘stickiness’ of prices in the labour markets – money wages – and the prices of commodities fall during the recession and depression, making real wages also sticky. The classical assumption was that the general level of real wages depends on the money wages bargained between employers and employees/workers. Another presumption of Keynes is that the marginal productivity theory and prices are governed by marginal prime costs in terms of money and that money wages largely govern the prime costs. However, classical economists believed in the opposite thinking that labour is in a position to determine its own real wages and partly preoccupied with the idea that ‘prices depend on the quantity of money’. Thus, classical economists believe that real wages will always to full employment and that if money wages are reduced, real wages will not go in the opposite direction or prices will not fall when nominal wages are reduced. Keynes differs fundamentally from the classical economists on the equilibrium between aggregate demand and aggregate supply – the demand price of goods, and the supply price of goods. He focuses on the point that the effective demand will lag being aggregate supply and advocates the government fiscal policy and public expenditure to fill the gap. However, according to the author of this book. Keynes does not go deeply into the distribution of income and wealth in society and how it will affect aggregate demand. The author fears that the national wealth will be concentrated in a few hands, while the government will immense in tom ever-increasing public debt. The author feels that the tenets of modern welfare economics were ignored and not considered by Keynes. The author very nicely describes the political theories of sovereignty. John Locke (1690) developed the idea of the ‘people of the country as sovereign and the government as temporary holders of sovereignty’. The author’s major criticism against Keynes’s economics is that there is no new idea added to the classical model to justify the government‘s public work. And it added to huge public wealth in advanced countries with a huge disparity in the distribution of wealth and income. The author argues that many of the public policies such as universal medical care are outside the scope of classical economics and even Keynesian economics though Keynesian economics differs from classical economics regarding the cure for the great depression. The penultimate chapter deals with “Economics for Democracy in the 21st Century: a paradigm search”. The author very rightly points out that the COVID-19 pandemic created world recessions in advanced countries – which were first aggregate supply-induced and aggregate demandinduced. This has led to huge government fiscal deficits as revenues declined. This has led to huge government fiscal deficits as revenues declined and expenditures increased. For example, Japan’s 82 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 national debts amounted to about 237% of gross domestic product in 2018. The author’s main interest and contributions are about ‘democracy in the 21st century: the political paradigm ‘. They evolve around ‘dependents’ and ‘retirees’ needs in a modern society and economy. Finally, the author examines the role of Paul Anthony Samuelson (1963/2010) a contemporary economist in the context of the issues discussed so far. In his latest textbook, Economics he (and co-authors) advocated a mixed economy. According to Samuelson, economics is the study of how societies use scarce resources to produce valuable goods and services and distribute them among different individuals. All economists explain scarcity. Then, comes efficiency in the use of scarce resources for production. Efficiency requires that the economy produces at the highest isoquant available to achieve the highest possible production of goods and services, given technology and scarce resources. Then, the author discusses Samuelson’s contributions to microeconomics, macroeconomics, market economy, and the mixed economy. Samuelson elaborates on the circumstances where the market fails and government intervention is needed such as imperfections of the markets, monopolistic structures of the markets, and positive and negative externalities. Samuelson also elaborates on the circumstances where private property rights cannot be unlimited. However, the author points out that the modern healthcare systems of a democratic country such as Canada are not covered in Samuelson’s circular flow model of the economy. The author strongly believes that the model of the modern economy shown by Samuelson cannot explain the huge disparity in income and wealth, especially in the US economy. The crux of the author’s argument is that the science of political economy, which was developed in 16th century Europe and flourished gradually worldwide has most often demonstrated the capability of the market economy to accelerate economic affluence; but hardly discusses the issues of dependents and retirees .and their needs. According to the author, the modern economist should address these issues. Their needs for health care are ignored in the discourse on political economy. Elahi’s major point is that the new paradigm of economics must treat the working people as citizens of a democratic country, not as automatons selling mechanical labour in the market. Therefore, the author is of the view that Ricardo’s theory of distribution does not apply to modern democracy. The author emphasises the need for practising the principles of social contract developed and refined by John Locke and Rousseau. The junior citizens, the senior citizens who are dependent, and the independent citizens who work all have a place in this social contract. The author finally gives his own definition of economics which is a ‘Social Science that studies the production, exchange, distribution and consumption of wealth following the fundamental principles of democracy’. The author emphasises that Economics should be “following fundamental principles of democracy”. To conclude, this is a very good and novel book delving deeply into various streams of economics, analysing most of the great economists’ unique contributions to the subject of economics, and finally adding the author’s contributions to the definition of economics in the context of modern democracies in the 21st century. As a reviewer, I am of the view that the author’s contributions are substantial and the book is of very good pedagogical relevance, though one may wonder whether the solutions offered are significant, and how practically the issues of ‘dependents and retirees’ can be incorporated into mainstream economics. However, the author has raised profoundly the importance of such issues in modern democracies. There is a very good bibliography of pedagogical relevance to students and lecturers in Economics included in the book. 83 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 References Primary Sources: Elahi, Khandakar Qudrat-l. Economics for Democracy in the 21st Century: A Critical Review of Definition and Scope. Tellwell Talent. 2021 Secondary Sources: Adam Smith (1776). An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Available from http://geolib.com/smith.adam/woncont.html Alfred Marshall (1890). Principles of Economics (8th ed). The Online Library of Liberty - A Project of Liberty Fund, Inc. Available from https://oll-resources.s3.us-east2.amazonaws.com Aristotle (350 BCE). Politics. Available from http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/politics.6.six.html (accessed on 18 February 2021)/oll3/store/titles/1676/Marshall 0197 EBk v6.0.pdf David Hume (1748). An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. Available from https://www.gutenberg.org/ files/9662/9662-h/9662-h.htm David Ricardo (1817). Principles of Political Economy and Taxation. Available from https://books.google.ca/books?id=cUBKAAAAYAAJ&q=editions:y8vXR4oK9R8C&pg = PR1&redir esc=y#v=onepage&q= editions%3Ay8vXR4oK9R8C&f=false Friedman, Milton (1953). The Methodology of Positive Economics. Available from https://www.sfu.ca/~dandolfa/friedman-1966.pdf (accessed on 04 December 2020). Friedman, Milton (1962). Capitalism and Freedom. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Hume, David (1739-40). Treatise of Human Nature. The Project Gutenberg eBook Series. Available from https:// www.gutenberg.org/files/4705/4705-h/4705-h.htm (accessed on 04 December 2020). • Hume, David (1748). An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. Available from https://www.gutenberg.org/ files/9662/9662-h/9662-h.htm (accessed on 28 July 2021) Hobbes (1651). Leviathan or the Matter, Forme, and Power of a Common-wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil. London: Andrew Crooke. Available from https://socialsciences.mcmaster. ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/hobbes/Leviathan.pdf Joyce, Hellen (2001). Adam Smith and the iInvisible Hand. Available from https://plus.maths.org/content/ adam-smith-and-invisible-hand (accessed on 04 April 2021). John Neville Keynes (2018). New World Encyclopedia. Available from https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/ entry/Special: CiteThisPage?page=John Neville Keynes (Accessed on 05 December 2020). Kant, Immanuel (1788). The Critique of Pure Reason. London: The Macmillan Company. Available from http:// files.libertyfund.org/files/1442/0330 Bk.pdf (accessed on 04 December 2020). 84 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Keynes, J. M. (1936). The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money. https://www.files.ethz.ch/ isn/125515/1366 KeynesTheoryofEmployment.pdf (accessed on 28 July 2021). 351 Keynes, J. M. (1924). Alfred Marshall, 1842-1924. The Economic Journal, Vol. 34(135): 311-372. Available from https://delong.typepad.com/files/keynes-marshall.pdf (Accessed on 05 December 2020). Keynes, J. N. (1884). Studies and Exercises in Formal Logic, Including a Generalization of Logical Processes in Their Application to Complex Inferences. The Project Gutenberg eBook. Available from http://www.gutenberg. org/files/59590/59590-h/59590-h.htm (Accessed on 03 December 2020). Keynes, J. N. (1904). Scope and Method of Political Economy, Third Edition, Revised. London: Macmillan And Co., Limited. Available from https://ia802907.us.archive. org/22/items/in.ernet.dli.2015.553477/2015.553477. Locke, John (1690). An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Available from https://socialsciences. mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/locke/Essay.htm Locke, John (1690). Second Treatise of Government. The Project Gutenberg eBook Project. Available from https://english.hku.hk/staff/kjohnson/PDF/LockeJohnSECONDTREATISE1690.pdf Machlup, F. (1965). Why Economists Disagree. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 109(1): 1-7. Available from http://www.jstor.org/stable/985773 Malthus, Thomas (1798). Principles of Political Economy with some of their Applications to Social Philosophy. The Online Library of Liberty. Available from https://ollresources.s3.us-east2.amazonaws.com/oll3/store/ titles/101/Mill 0199 EBk v6.0.pdf Marx, Karl (1859). Preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy. Available from https:// www.marxist.com/classics-preface-to-a-contributionto-the-critique-of-politicaleconomy.htm (accessed on 25 February 2021). Marx, Karl and Engels, Fedrick (1848). Manifesto of the Communist Party. Available from https://www.marxists. org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto Mill, John Stuart (1848). Principles of Political Economy with some of their Applications to Social Philosophy. The Online Library of Liberty. Available from https://oll-resources. s3.us-east2.amazonaws.com/oll3/store/titles/101/ Mill 0199 EBk v6.0.pdf (accessed on 04 December 2020). Mill, John Stuart (1874). Essays on Some Unsettled Questions of Political Economy. Available from https://www.econlib. org/library/Mill/mlUQP.html?chapter num=6#book-reader (accessed on 28 July 2020) Plato (375 BCE). The Republic. New York: THE COLONIAL PRESS. Available from https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/ The Republic of Plato (accessed on 04 December 2020). • Pareto, Vilfredo (1971). Manual of Political Economy. New York: Augustus M. Kelley Publisher Robbins, Lionel (1945). An Essay on the Nature and Significance of Economic Science. Second Edition, Revised and Extended. London: Macmillan and Co., Limited. Available from 85 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 https://milescorak.files.wordpress.com/2020/02/ robbins-essay-nature-significanceeconomic-science.pdf (Accessed on 06 December 2020). • Robbins, Lionel (1981). Economics and Political Economy. The American Economic Review, Vol. 71(2):1-10. Romer, Christina and Pells, Richard (2020). Great Depression. Encyclopædia Britannica. Available from https:// www.britannica.com/event/Great-Depression Rousseau, Jean Jacques (1762). The Social Contract Or Principles of Political Right. Available from https:// socialpolicy.ucc.ie/Rousseau contrat-social.pdf (accessed on 29 July 2021) Rousseau, Jean Jacques (1763). Emile, or On Education. https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/rousseau-emile-or-education Available from Samuelson, Paul (1963). Problems of Methodology – Discussion. American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings. Volume 53 (May): 231-6. Samuelson, Paul and Nordhaus, William D. (2010). Economics, Nineteenth Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill/ Irwin. Available from http://pombo.free.fr/samunord19.pdf (accessed on 27 February 2021). Say, Jean-Baptiste (1880). A Treatise on Political Economy; or the Production, Distribution, and Consumption of Wealth. Kitchener: Batoche Books. Available from https://socialsciences.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/say/treatise.pdf Smith, Adam (1776). An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Available from http://geolib.com/ smith.adam/woncont.html 86 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Review of Sorina Chiper’s Performative Selves, Performative Poses: Gertrude Stein, Norman Mailer and Philip Roth as Autobiographers (2020). Iaşi, Romania: Institutul European 326 pp. Daniela Matei In her book Performative Self, Performative Poses. Gertrude Stein, Norman Mailer and Philip Roth as Autobiographers, Sorina Chiper unfolds the concept of “autobiographical selves”. It has been observed that the three novelists and autobiographers that Chiper has analyzed share a common theme of performativity. The author holds that Gertrude Stein and Philip Roth have envisaged the topic of “celebrity culture and ethical issues in autobiography” (Chiper, pg. 9). Chiper disproves that the works of Norman Mailer have not received the attention they deserve from critics, possibly due to the perception that his writing is controversial in light of the prevailing norms of political correctness in academia. Chiper strongly underscores the unfaltering accuracy and relevance of every sentence in Philip Roth’s 1994 work. It's worth stating that the sentences were initially found on a piece of paper in a café and subsequently published in Portnoy's Complaint, further validating their unwavering quality. In her book, Chiper argues that the relegation of autobiographies to an inferior genre in the 1950s and 1960s by English departments in the United States was a misguided notion. Autobiography is a genre that deserves respect and recognition, and it is wrong to consider it as lacking in creative imagination in contrast to poetry or novels. It is essential to acknowledge that an autobiography can be a work of art that requires great intention, truth, and aesthetic merit. The intellectual debate should not focus on whether autobiographies are inferior or not to other written works, but rather on how they can be evaluated on their own terms. To address the gaps in autobiography, Chiper wanted a more comprehensive view, thus she adopted the views of New Criticism, the dominant critical paradigm in literary studies at the time, which categorically dismissed autobiography as an inferior form of literature, citing its inclusion of the "intentional fallacy" (12). Chiper says that the text covers almost half of the 20th century, definitively commencing with the era of High Modernism with Gertrude Stein’s The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas (1932) and Everybody’s Autobiography (1937), through Norman Mailer’s Performative Selves, Performative Poses Mailer’s Advertisements for Myself (1959), to postmodernism with Philip Roth’s The Facts: A Novelist’s Autobiography (1988), Operation Shylock: A Confession (1993), and Patrimony: A True Story (1991. However, the majority of these books do not follow Lejeune's structuralist genre description. Their deviation from the "norm" makes them distinctive and remarkable. The book has been thoughtfully organized around different topics, with each chapter focusing on a specific misconception by critics. The author has taken a thorough approach to examining and deconstructing these misunderstandings, which in turn provides readers with fresh perspectives. Chiper stated that Lejeune's significant contribution to the field of autobiography lies in the establishment of a lucid definition and the introduction of a distinctive structural feature commonly known as the ‘autobiographical agreement’. After the mid-1970s, it can be argued that autobiography might not always capture the true voice and perspective of an author. As Rousseau 87 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 suggested, Chiper considers that autobiographical writing can often serve as a medium for conveying the perspectives of both the author and a second individual, thereby creating an alterego that is associated with a deceased person through the act of writing. Although later versions of The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas acknowledge that Gertrude Stein is the author, the first page of the book can be misleading for those who are unfamiliar with Stein or Toklas' lives. According to Stein, autobiography is a way for "everyone" to express their shared experiences. Since experiences are universal and not limited to a single individual, everyone possesses knowledge and emotions that others can understand. Hence, the question of authorship, individuality, and uniqueness becomes irrelevant. Any person can write the life story of someone else, as anyone can be both a regular person and a notable figure. Stein resolves the tension between exceptional individuals and the general public by depicting the America of the mid-1930s as a society where the line between genius and fame has been blurred, making it easy for people to blend in and be forgotten. Throughout Performative self, Performative poses. Gertrude Stein, Norman Mailer and Philip Roth as Autobiographers, Chiper claims that Philip Roth and Gertrude Stein strongly believe that writing an autobiography is an effortless process that does not require any fictionalization. Both authors relinquish control in their complex and transformed autobiographical agreements, allowing their readers to become more engaged with the story. However, it is worth noting that by giving up control, they also emphasize it. With this in mind, the author says that Stein's use of writing in the third person has been evaluated by some literary critics as a thinly veiled form of autobiography. This narrative technique has been deemed as a self-promoting tool by which Stein constructed a monument of her own persona. It is argued that she achieved this by exploiting the accounts of her boyfriend and editor as a means of advancing her own interests. Stein's interpretation of identity builds upon Jacques Lacan's theory of subject formation via visual perception, also known as "the mirror stage." According to Lacan, identity is established through a complex interplay between the self and the other. The author highlights the vital relationship between biographies and written records, as well as their interdependence. The current trend of replacing the term "autobiography" with "life writing" or "life narrative" underscores the importance of exploring memory and time, literary innovation, and the dynamic relationship between "bios" and "graphē" in forming literary identities. It should be noted that evaluating autobiographies based only on the writers' expressed aims is a mistake that has hindered autobiographical criticism. Chiper says that a more comprehensive novel approach to evaluating such works to understand their true literary value, namely topoi of life narrative, is required. Chiper shows in her book that Mailer's writing style was intentionally provocative and offensive, aimed at eliciting a strong response from readers of the journal. It was not just a display of his superiority as a writer over other columnists or the average reader. Rather, he was expressing his anger towards the intellectual weakness that he perceived was prevalent in his era. A legacy like the concept of mnēmē and anamnēsis originated from ancient Greek and referred to the emergence of memory as a feeling and memory as a subject of deliberate search in recollection, respectively. In the first chapter, Chiper discussed Stein's challenge to Lejeune's original concept of autobiographical agreement, which focuses on the self-identity of the author, narrator, and subject of the story. However, the Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas and Everybody's 88 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Autobiography appear to lack clear linguistic indicators that would enable readers to establish their historical contexts. Typically, an autobiography is a cohesive piece of writing organized into chapters with titles reflecting their central theme. One effective approach to introducing each chapter could involve beginning with a personal anecdote, which can gradually help the reader become familiar with the subject’s harsh realities. The chapter's conclusion could then be enhanced by providing contemporary illustrations to demonstrate the ongoing relevance of the topic. In the final chapter of the book, the author discusses how writers such as Gertrude Stein, Norman Mailer, and Philip Roth shape their public image through performative selves while also facing the challenges that come with fame. The cultural output of a writer is restricted to topics that are considered to be of high status, popular, approved, and respected. This output is determined by the interplay between knowledge and recognition, and to succeed in a particular field, one must possess the necessary skills and attributes to establish and sustain a successful career. For instance, in his latest autobiography, Mailer innovatively utilizes ellipses and a fragmented style to present his personal story. The carefully curated excerpts not only serve to promote his literary work but also provide readers with an insightful context to better understand his challenges with language, publishers, and the media. The diverse selection of texts powerfully highlights the organic link between an author's life, their autobiography, and their art. The term "Mailerism" has come to be widely recognized as an embodiment of the author's distinctive style, both in his fictional works and his contributions as a public intellectual. By "style" we refer to the unique expression of attitudes, character traits, and mental characteristics exclusive to the creator of a given piece or body of work. The publishing industry faces the challenge of limited opportunities to develop audiences for autobiographical texts. As a result, publishers often focus on promoting authors through various marketing channels such as author tours, media profiles, and festival appearances. While social media has emerged as a potential exception in the current context, authors often have to present in front of live audiences, taking them away from their writing space. Writing success requires not only literary talent but also an exceptional stage presence, an extraordinary life, and a meticulously maintained public image. Esteemed authors like Stein, Mailer, and Roth have demonstrated their mastery in areas such as these. 89 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 List of Contributors Imelda Ambelye, Lecturer, Department of Communication and Development Studies, Papua New Guinea University of Technology, Email: imelda.ambelye@pnguot.ac.pg Andreea Dietrich (Cotîrlea), PhD Candidate, Faculty of Letters and Arts, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Email: andreea.dietrich@ulbsibiu.ro Ecaterina Ilis, PhD Candidate, Faculty of Letters and Arts, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Email: ecaterina.ilis@ulbsibiu.ro Daniela Matei, PhD Candidate, Faculty of Letters and Arts, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Email: daniela.matei@ulbsibiu.ro Thomas Muthucattu Paul, (former) Professor of Economics, PNG University of Technology, Email: tommypaul50@gmail.com Garry Sali, Associate Professor, Department of Communication and Development Studies, Papua New Guinea University of Technology, Email: garry.sali@pnguot.ac.pg Emilian Tîrban, PhD Candidate, Faculty of Letters and Arts, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Email: emilian.tirban@ulbsibiu.ro Isabelle Nicole Voicu, PhD Candidate, Faculty of Letters and Arts, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Email: voicu_nicole@yahoo.com 90 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Guidelines for Contributors Manuscript Preparation Manuscripts, which must be original work that have not been published (and are not being considered for publication) elsewhere, should be redacted double-spaced on A4 size paper using font Times New Roman (size 12), with pages numbered consecutively. The length of the manuscript should be between 3000-5000 words, including references and footnotes. Electronic submissions (in Word format) are strongly encouraged. Send to emails: <eric.gilder@pnguot.ac.pg> and <silvia.florea@ulbsibiu.ro>. If you must send submission by postal mail, please send three (3) copies with detachable cover sheets with complete author(s) data, including address, email, telephone, and fax information to the address below. Title and Title Page: Each manuscript should be headed by a concise title. Because the papers are blind-reviewed, the text of the paper itself should not reveal the author(s). Therefore, please include the full name of the author(s), complete mailing address(es), email addresses (as well as phone and fax numbers, if available) on a separate cover sheet. (In cases of multiple authors, please indicate the main author to whom all correspondence concerning the paper should be directed.) 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(While the journal normally uses the latest APA referencing system, the latest MLA or other recognized reference style can also be accepted at the discretion of the Editor-in-Chief.) 91 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Other Issues 1. Periods are not needed after headings, sub-headings or figure and table captions. 2. Italics should be used for book/journal/newspaper titles. They can also be used to add emphasis in running text (rather than bold type) for important key words, but, with the aim of producing a ‘reader-friendly’ text, please keep this to a minimum. 3. Bold Type should be restricted to title, subtitles, and headings (to be aligned left) and table headings. Do not use for highlighting words within the text. 4. Quotation marks: double quotation marks should be used throughout, with single quotation marks for quotes appearing within quotes; revert to double quotation marks for a third level of quoted material. The closing quotation mark should precede any punctuation. 5. Spacing: full stops, commas, colons and semi-colons should be followed by one character space only. 6. Spelling (UK English Microsoft Language setting) 7. Foreign phrases should be typed with the corresponding diacritic signs. 8. Quotations over two lines should be indented left 1 tab (1.25 cm) and written in font TNR 10. They should be separated from the text (one double-space above and one doublespace below). Inverted commas should not be used in this case. (The editors reserve the right to limit the number of these.) 9. Examples should be indented left 1 tab (1.25 cm) and written in font TNR 10. They should be separated from the text (one double-space above and one double-space below). Inverted commas should not be used in this case. N.B.: Authors are responsible for the accuracy of all references given. All submissions should be addressed to: The Editors JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies The Papua New Guinea University of Technology Mail Code 411 Private Mail Bag, Lae, Morobe Province Papua New Guinea Emails: eric.gilder@pnguot.ac.pg, silvia.florea@ulbsibiu.ro 92 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 Subscription Information (for Print) All print subscriptions to JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies are made by prepayment. 1. Institutional subscription is 60 Kina per copy (within Papua New Guinea) or 70 US dollars (for overseas subscribers) and individual subscription is 40 Kina (within Papua New Guinea) or 50 US dollars (for overseas subscribers). 2. Please address all subscription-related mail to: JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Department of Communication and Development Studies The Papua New Guinea University of Technology Private Mail Bag – Lae 411 Morobe Province Papua New Guinea Attn: Maliso Lero <maliso.lero@pnguot.ac.pg> 93 JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development Studies Vols IX-X (2022-2023) ISSN 1992-1322 THE PAPUA NEW GUINEA ISSN 1992-1322 UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY JCDS: Journal of Communication and Development, Volumes IX-X (2022-2023) Department of Communication and Development Studies TABLE OF CONTENTS Editorial……………………………………………………………………………(pp. 2-3) Impacts of COVID-19 on Increased Household Inequality in Papua New Guinea (PNG) by Imelda Ambelye …………………………………………………………………………. (pp. 5-21) Understanding the Escalation of Tribal Fighting in the Enga Province: Is Control Slipping Away from the Papua New Guinea Government? by Garry Sali …………………….. (pp. 22-40) The Rise of Fake News in the Social Media Era by Ecaterina Ilis……………… (pp. 42-54) Paraphrasing as a Means of Avoiding Plagiarism by Isabelle Nicole Voicu…….(pp. 55-63) Interlanguage Pragmatics by Andreea Dietrich (Cotîrlea) ………………………(pp. 64-69) Camaraderie vs. Dissent: A Sociolinguistic Comparative Analysis of Same-Gender Interviews and Opposite-Gender Interviews across Political Divides by Emilian Tîrban………. (pp. 70-78) Review of Khandakar Qudrat-I Elahi’s Economics for Democracy in the 21st Century: A Critical Review of Definition and Scope by Thomas Muthucattu Paul…………………… (pp. 80-86) Review of Sorina Chiper’s Performative Selves, Performative Poses: Gertrude Stein, Norman Mailer and Philip Roth as Autobiographers (2020) by Daniela Matei………….. (pp. 87-89) List of Contributors……………………………………………………………….. (p. 90) Guidelines for Contributors………………………………………………………. (pp. 91-92) Subscription Information…………………………………………………………. (p. 93) Published by: Department of Communication and Development Studies The Papua New Guinea University of Technology, in cooperation with: Cover and Page Design by: Printed by: Lexion Paivano and Elvis Jack PNGUoT Print Shop Print Date: Final Print 08 07 2024 94