sustainability
Article
Gathering and Cooking Seaweeds in Contemporary Ireland:
Beyond Plant Foraging and Trendy Gastronomies
Dauro M. Zocchi 1, * , Giulia Mattalia 2 , Jeovana Santos Nascimento 1 , Ryan Marley Grant 1 ,
Jack Edwin Martin 1 , Regina Sexton 3 , Chiara Romano 1 and Andrea Pieroni 1,4, *
1
2
3
4
*
Citation: Zocchi, D.M.; Mattalia, G.;
Santos Nascimento, J.; Grant, R.M.;
Martin, J.E.; Sexton, R.; Romano, C.;
Pieroni, A. Gathering and Cooking
Seaweeds in Contemporary Ireland:
Beyond Plant Foraging and Trendy
Gastronomies. Sustainability 2024, 16,
3337. https://doi.org/10.3390/
University of Gastronomic Sciences, Piazza Vittorio Emanuele II 9, Pollenzo, 12042 Bra, Italy;
j.santsnascimento@gmail.com (J.S.N.); r.marley.grant@gmail.com (R.M.G.);
jack.edwin89@gmail.com (J.E.M.); c.romano@unisg.it (C.R.)
Institut de Ciència i Tecnología Ambientals (ICTA-UAB), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona,
08193 Barcelona, Spain; giulia.mattalia@uab.cat
Adult Continuing Education, Department of Folklore and Ethnology and School of History,
University College Cork, Western Road, T12 EH31 Cork, Ireland; r.sexton@ucc.ie
Department of Medical Analysis, Tishk International University, Erbil 4401, Iraq
Correspondence: d.zocchi@unisg.it (D.M.Z.); a.pieroni@unisg.it (A.P.)
Abstract: Seaweed has historically been essential for coastal communities worldwide. Following a
period of decline in the last century, Ireland has seen a recent resurgence in the appreciation and use
of seaweed. This research explores the evolution in seaweed foraging practices, with a specific focus
on gastronomical uses in two Irish regions: the southwest and the west and midwest. It examines
the diversity of seaweed and its present and past uses, comparing abandonment, continuation and
revitalisation trajectories. Qualitative data were gathered through semi-structured interviews with
27 individuals who forage seaweed for commercial or personal use. We identified 22 seaweed species
across the study areas, predominantly from the Fucaceae, Laminariaceae and Ulvaceae families. There
was a fair divergence between the seaweed species used in the two study areas (16 seaweed species
in the southwest region and 17 seaweed species in the west and midwest region), with 11 species
mentioned in both areas. Different trajectories of resurgence were identified. In the west and midwest
region, the revitalisation of local ecological and gastronomic knowledge related to seaweeds seems
to be deeply entrenched in the territory’s historical legacy, showing a sort of continuation with
the past and having followed a more commercially oriented path. Conversely, in the southwest
region, the revival seems to be fostered by new knowledge holders with a contemporary interest
in reconnecting with the marine landscape and promoting educational activities centred around
seaweed. This research contributes to discussions on sustainable food systems and food heritage
promotion, emphasising seaweed’s potential role in Irish coastal communities’ foodscapes.
su16083337
Academic Editor: Jaspreet Singh
Keywords: food heritage; wild food; algae; ethnobotany; sustainable revitalisation
Received: 28 February 2024
Revised: 10 April 2024
Accepted: 15 April 2024
1. Introduction
Published: 16 April 2024
Seaweed has a long history as a vital component of the subsistence of coastal communities worldwide, being a part of traditional foodscape and serving as an important
source of food, medicine and fodder [1,2]. This holds true in different geographical contexts,
as documented in the Americas (Abbott [3] and Turner [4] in Canada; Dillehay et al. [5]
in South America; Noriega Cardó [6] in Peru; Pérez-Lloréns [7] in the Americas), Asia
(Bangmei & Abbott [8] and Tseng [9] in China; Nisizawa et al. [10] in Japan; Dumilag &
Javier [11] in the Philippines) and Australia [12], as well as in Europe, with a specific focus
on the Mediterranean [13–16] and northern parts of the continent [17,18].
Among those countries which have a long history of the use of seaweed, Ireland
harbours a vital reservoir of algal diversity [19–25]. This resource has been an integral part
of the traditional livelihood and food culture of local dwellers for generations.
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16083337
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
2 of 30
The use of seaweed experienced a notable decline in the last century in Ireland, and its
consumption is still somewhat associated with times of famine [24,26]. However, along with
other European and non-European countries, Ireland has recently witnessed an incipient
process of revitalisation and valorisation of this resource [27,28].
Seaweeds have been pointed out as the “promising food source of the millennium”,
given their long history of use coupled with nutritional value, sustainable farming solutions
and versatility in culinary applications [29]. This transformation is connected to concurrent
phenomena, including the growing interest in the hospitality industry in exploring innovative
applications of marine ingredients and the global rise of locavore movements [24].
This revival of seaweed harvesting and related commercial and gastronomic practices
has proven a powerful strategy for sustainable development [30–33], coastal community
empowerment [34–37] and culinary innovation [38–42]. Reinvigorating the local ecological
knowledge and practices regarding seaweed and incorporating them into local food systems
could create novel economic opportunities while promoting environmental sustainability
and preserving cultural identity.
While the long-term relationship of Irish people with seaweed is well described, less
attention has been paid thus far to the dynamics of changes, continuation and revitalisation
of seaweed and the related foodscapes in Ireland.
In order to contribute to filling this gap in the literature, this research aimed to document and analyse changes in seaweed foraging practices, with particular reference to the
gastronomical uses of wild seaweed in two selected areas of Ireland.
More specifically, this study aimed at the following:
•
•
•
To document the diversity of seaweed and associated food and non-food uses that are
still in use today or at least still present in living memory in two Irish regions;
To explore the perceived trajectories of evolution of the role of seaweed and associated
practices, identifying the main drivers behind any observed changes in two Irish
regions;
To identify similarities and differences in the trajectories of abandonment, continuation
and revitalisation of seaweed-based products and practices, through a geographical
comparison between the two study areas.
Among Irish regions, the southwest (SW) and the west and midwest (W) regions are
ideal for research and stand as the geographical focus of our study.
By presenting specific case studies, this research contributes to the broader dialogue on
sustainable food systems and food heritage revitalisation, particularly regarding wild-foodrelated resources. Specifically, it highlights a promising avenue for fostering the revitalisation
of seaweed-related foodscapes in Irish coastal communities, identifying different trajectories
underpinning this phenomenon and certain perceived sustainability implications.
2. Background: Understanding the Economic, Cultural and Culinary Significance of
Seaweed in Ireland
The exploitation of seaweed has a long history in the culture of Irish coastal communities, giving a distinctive identity to agricultural, cookery, medicinal and small-scale
commercial practices in areas where seaweeds were harvested and gathered. However,
despite its notable economic and sociocultural significance, seaweed embodied elements of
privation, underdevelopment and hardship that characterised life patterns in Irish coastal
communities, and consequently, it has a complicated identity and presence.
The potential of seaweed to promote and support small-scale industries in areas of
underdevelopment was recognised by the late 19th century. At the end of thiscentury, the
use of seaweeds as one of the main forms of income for the people along the west coast
was documented, particularly in the form of “black weed” sold and used as fertiliser [43].
Moreover, during the famines of the 18th and 19th centuries, seaweed provided a vital
source of income and food security [26,44,45]. As a result, eating seaweed has long been
associated with poverty and hunger [46].
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
3 of 30
The versatility and usefulness of the resource in coastal and island areas is evident in
the following account gathered in the 1930s from County Kerry, contributed to the National
Folklore Commission Schools’ Collection:
The people long ago used to gather a lot of seaweed because they used it for mostly
everything. They used it as manure for the land—and long ago, the people used to give it
to their horses and cattle to eat. They used it as food for themselves also. In the time of the
famine, when the people were very poor and they had not enough of money to buy food
for themselves they used eat seaweed. They used first pick the soft part of the seaweeds
and boil it in pots. They used put very little water in it. They used leave it boil well and
it used get thick like porridge. Then they used take it off the fire and eat it out of enamel
plates. It was also very good for [a] cold or cough (NFCSC 0432:341, Co. Kerry).
This account illustrates the complex relationship between coastal communities and this
versatile resource. It also depicts practices and attitudes rooted in a traditional society that failed
to successfully transfer or survive in more modern socioeconomic systems and cultural settings.
The importance of seaweeds is also reflected in the customary rights, wherein the
ancient social relations of Ireland regarded each stand of sea wrack as the inherent right
of every territory and the property of every person. However, the people’s right to the
harvesting of seaweeds was traditional and not legal [47]. Currently, the lack of clarity
regarding the management of the rights to seaweed harvesting is considered to be the main
obstacle in further developing the seaweed industry in Ireland.
2.1. Economic Relevance: The Industry of the Kelp
The primary recorded use of seaweed in Ireland was for kelp ash, with the kelpburning industry flourishing along the Irish coast [43]. Kelp, at this point, was the name for
the product that was derived from the burning of different species of seaweed for sodium
or iodine used for different industrial processes. The term kelp is now commonly used
for the family Laminariaceae of seaweeds, which were favoured for burning, including the
species Laminaria digitata and Laminaria hyperborea [44,48].
The commercial production of kelp lasted into the late 19th century, after which industrial
use of seaweed shifted to focus on alginate for food and cosmetics purposes and largely
heralded the end of the production of kelp ash [48,49]. Writers such as Tim Robinson [50] and
Séamas Mac an Iomaire [51] reported the best seaweeds used for kelp (i.e., those with the
highest amount of iodine) and described the burning of kelp for ash in Connemara and the
Aran Islands. The changing demand for seaweed biomass in the middle of the 20th century
resulted in the evolution of modern harvesting methods and tools [52].
2.2. Cultural Relevance: Artistic Depictions of Seaweed
The historical and cultural significance of seaweed in Ireland is deeply rooted in artistic
depictions, folk culture, the literature and movies [53].
The folk song Dúlamán illustrates the vernacular practice of collecting seaweed as a
defence against famine, showcasing its nutritional and socioeconomic significance in times
of scarcity. Additionally, the traditional folk song An Carraigín underscores the financial
value of carrageenan (i.e., polysaccharides that are extracted from edible red seaweed and
used in the food industry) in Connemara culture [54].
Literary works shed light on the 20th-century usage and values of seaweed. For instance,
Mac an Iomaire stated that the disappearance of carraigín (Chondrus crispus) would have been
“the greatest deprivation for the human race” due to its medicinal benefits [51]. Robinson [50]
noted that carraigín was a trusted cure for coughs and colds among the Aran people, likening
its importance to whiskey. Leon Uris’ novel Trinity [55] offered a narrative that portrays the
diverse uses of seaweed during famine times, from animal fodder to soap production.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
4 of 30
2.3. Gastronomic Relevance: Seaweed in Past and Present Irish Cuisine
Irish cuisine has a rich tradition of incorporating various seaweeds. Irish coastal
people collected shellfish and added seaweeds, vegetables and herbs to make a soup that
was left to simmer for several hours and consumed with oat bread [56].
Sloke, sea lettuce, dulse and carrageen moss were the main seaweeds used for culinary
purposes. These were often boiled together with limpets and oatmeal to make a dish
called cruasach (meaning strength or vigour), and the cooking juice was used as a relish for
potatoes. Dried dulse was often simply chewed, and as a snack-type product, it was sold
by street-hawkers or at fairs and was taken by emigrants to America. Burnt seaweed ash
also played a minor role in food preservation for meats, fish and rolling cheese [57].
Currently, various dishes featuring seaweed, including stews like schlock and crusach,
showcase the diverse culinary applications of seaweeds in Irish cuisine [27]. Some red
seaweeds (Rhodophyta), like dulse (Palmaria palmata), carrageen (Chondrus crispus) and
sleabhac (Pyropia spp.), are still used in a variety of dishes [27,28,56,58–61].
Palmaria palmata was traditionally eaten together with butter and fish, boiled in milk
with rye flour or incorporated into dishes like the Northern Ireland dulse sandwich or dulse
champ (a mixture of mashed potatoes, milk, butter and chopped dulse) [28]. It was also
enjoyed plain or dried as a snack, added to mashed potatoes, soups or fish stews or served
between buttered bread. Despite its gastronomic potential, this species is surprisingly
underused in modern cuisine [62].
Chondrus crispus, known for its gelatinous quality, is used as a milk thickener and in
sweet and savoury jelly puddings [27,41].
On Inishmurray Island (NW Irish Coast), Pyropia spp. underwent a traditional harvest
after the first frost, followed by hours of simmering and seasoning, and it was consumed
alone or with potato or bread [28,58].
In recent times, there has been a surge in the publication of both contemporary and
historical recipe books, aiming to rekindle interest in the utilisation of seaweed in culinary
practices, such as the books of Darina Allen [60], Sally McKenna [59] and Prannie Rhatigan [58]. Notably, these works also emphasise sustainability, recognising the changing
landscape of seaweed harvesting practices and offering practical instructions and recipes
that blend traditional knowledge of seaweed usage with modern sustainable approaches.
3. Materials and Methods
Adopting qualitative comparative case methods [63], this research explored two sets
of interviews gathered during fieldwork activities carried out between 2017 and 2022 in two
different Irish regions, namely the southwest (coastal West Cork) and west and midwest
(County Claire, County Galway and the Aran Islands) regions. Figure 1 shows the key
locations of the two field studies.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
5 of 30
Figure 1. Map showing the study areas within Ireland (file credit: Creative Commons AttributionFigure 1. Map showing the study areas within Ireland (file credit: Creative Commons AttributionShare Alike 3.0 licence).
3.1. Study Areas
The southwest (SW) and west and midwest (W) regions were chosen as case studies
because they have previously been reported as areas where seaweeds have historically
played an important role in the livelihoods, diets and food cultures of local communities.
Guiry and Hession [64] identify the western coast, warmed by the fertile currents of the Gulf
Stream, as a particular hotspot of seaweed biodiversity in Ireland with between 330 and
570 different species of seaweed. However, very few are used as food [65]. The remoteness
of these areas in the past led the population to turn to the sea for sustenance, utilising
seaweed for human consumption, crop fertiliser, animal feed and as a product to sell for
iodine [23,64].
In the SW region, County Cork (most specifically the West Cork coastal region), has
historically been shaped by maritime activities and fishing. The local economy now sees a
rise in sustainable seaweed cultivation, contributing to economic diversity, with products
like biofertilisers and cosmetics.
W regions such as County Clare have traditionally relied on fishing, with seaweed
used for its nutrient-rich properties in agriculture. Today, there is a growing focus on
sustainable seaweed harvesting, influencing local cuisine, with chefs incorporating various
seaweed species in their menus [61]. Off the coast of County Galway, the inhabitants
of the Aran Islands have long relied on agriculture, fishing and kelp making for their
livelihoods. They traditionally employed seaweed for food, medicine and in agricultural
activities [66,67].
3.2. Fieldwork, Data Collection and Analysis of Sociodemographic Data
Ethnographic and ethnobotanical data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 11 people in the SW region and 16 in the W region.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
6 of 30
Interviewees were selected via convenience sampling with the constraint that they
were practising any kind of foraging/harvesting of seaweeds within the region for commercial or personal purposes. Specifically, the interviewees were asked about the local name(s),
harvesting and processing practices and food and non-food uses (e.g., medical, farming,
cosmetic) of the species they harvest(ed) and/or consume. Moreover, the interviews investigated the perceived changes in the dietary roles and socioeconomic values of seaweed
and seaweed-based products and the main reasons underlying these phenomena.
Co-authors JSN and JEM conducted the interviews in both English and Irish. Before
each interview, informed consent was obtained from each informant, as recommended by
the International Society of Ethnobiology Code of Ethics [68].
This research was conducted during the off-season for the main harvesting of seaweed.
While harvesting was witnessed during fieldwork activities, it was primarily for demonstrational purposes and not to the same extent as it would be conducted during the main
harvesting times of spring and autumn.
The subjects interviewed in the SW region were between 30 and 60 years old (Table 1).
All the interviewees declared they started their foraging practices in the West Cork area.
Two of the subjects declared that they started foraging as children, but the remaining nine
claimed to have started after they were eighteen or twenty years old. Only one interviewee
earns their sole income through seaweed harvesting, and very few people officially declare
themselves as commercial harvesters.
Table 1. List of the sociodemographic characteristics of the interviewees.
Interview Number
Region
Location of the Interview
Origin
Age
Occupation
1
W
County Cork
England
50s
Seaweed harvester and
cultivator of seaweed
2
W
Inis Meáin, the Aran Islands
Inis Meáin, the
Aran Islands
70s
Farmer
3
W
Inis Meáin, the Aran Islands
Inis Meáin, the
Aran Islands
60s
Stone wall builder, boat
builder and seaweed
harvester
4
W
Inis Mór, the Aran Islands
Inis Mór, the Aran
Islands
60s
Seaweed harvester with
business
5
W
Inis Mór, the Aran Islands
Inis Mór, the Aran
Islands
40s
Public relations of
seaweed-related business
6
W
Inis Mór, the Aran Islands
New Zealand
40s
Marine biologist and seaweed
harvester
7
W
Kinvarra, Galway Bay
Kinvarra, Galway
Bay
40s
Dairy farmer and seaweed
cutter (third generation of
farmers in area)
8
W
Lahinch, County Claire
Unknown
40s
Forager and cook
9
W
Leitir Mealláin, Connemara
Connemara
60s
Irish Gaelic historian and
retired marine biologist
10
W
Leitir Mealláin, Connemara
Leitir Mealláin,
Connemara
60s
Fisherman and seaweed
harvester and cutter
11
W
Leitir Móir, Connemara
Leitir Móir,
Connemara
50s
Village shop owner (seven
generations of family owning
the shop)
12
W
Leitir Móir, Connemara
Leitir Móir,
Connemara
80s
Retired seaweed harvester
13
W
Moy, County Claire
Donegal, Northern,
Ireland
20s
Pro surfer and organic
vegetable farmer
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
7 of 30
Table 1. Cont.
Interview Number
14
Region
W
Location of the Interview
Origin
Age
Occupation
Moy, County Claire
Connemara
90s
Unknown
40s
Seaweed harvester with
business (third generation of
four generations of seaweed
harvesters)
15
W
Quilty, County Claire
Quilty, County
Claire;
16
W
Quilty, County Claire
County Claire
70s
Retired, but formerly a
seaweed harvester and buyer
17
SW
Clonakilty
Dublin
30s
Herbalist
18
SW
Clonakilty
Northern Ireland
50s
Chef/cook
19
SW
Ballydehob
Unknown
30s
Chef/cook
20
SW
Baltimore
England
60s
Retired (harvests seaweed for
personal use)
21
SW
Rosscarbery
Cork
60s
Writer
22
SW
Bantry
Unknown
30s
Farmer
23
SW
Glandore
Glandore
60s
Farmer
24
SW
Schull
Unknown
40s
Musician and actor (harvests
seaweed for personal use)
25
SW
Skibbereen
Dublin
30s
Chef, activist and harvester
26
SW
Skibbereen
Unknown
50s
Fisherman
27
SW
Ballydehob
Northern Ireland
40s
Chef/cook
Keys: SW (southwest region), W (west and midwest).
In the W region, most of the interviews were in the age group between 30 and 70 years
old, although outliers included one under 30 and four on the west coast over 70, including
one 98-year-old (Table 1). Roughly one-third of respondents were current professional
seaweed harvesters; another third were farmers who harvested seaweed. The remainder
were a mix of professionals and retired persons who gathered seaweed for personal use.
The interviews and the field notes were transcribed and anonymised into NVivo
version 12.5.0 [69]. Codes, concepts and nodes were generated during the qualitative data
analysis. For each of the surveyed areas, field data were organised into tables that outline
the following information: scientific name, local name(s), main use categories, specific uses
and frequency of citations. This allowed the identification of similarities and differences
regarding the diversity of seaweed species, their food and non-food uses and the perceived
trajectories of abandonment, continuation and/or evolution of seaweed-based products
and associated practices.
The scientific names of seaweed species were identified according to local names and
morphological characteristics. For taxonomic nomenclature, we followed the criteria set by
the World Register of Marine Species [70].
4. Results
4.1. Southwest Region
In the SW region, interviewees reported 16 seaweed species belonging to 10 families
(Table 2). Noteworthy species most frequently mentioned included Chondrus crispus, Laminaria
hyperborea, Osmundea pinnatifida, Himanthalia elongata, Fucus spiralis and Palmaria palmata.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
8 of 30
Table 2. Mentioned species by class, family, scientific name, common name(s), use categories, description and frequency of citation in the key locations of this study in the southwest region of Ireland.
Phylum/Class
Family
Scientific
Name
Alariaceae
Alaria esculenta
(Linnaeus)
Greville, 1830
Common
Names
Uses
Notes
Frequency
of Citation *
Used as a
Brown algae
Brown algae
Brown algae
Fucaceae
Fucaceae
Ascophyllum
nodosum
(Linnaeus) Le
Jolis, 1863
Fucus serratus
Linnaeus, 1753
Atlantic
wakame (EN)
Food
Bladderwrack
(EN);
Feamainn
bhoilgíneach
(IG)
Toothed wrack
(EN);
Cosmetic,
Medicinal
Agriculture,
Cosmetic
Míoránach (IG)
Brown algae
Brown algae
Fucaceae
Fucaceae
Fucus spiralis
Linnaeus, 1753
Fucus
vesiculosus
Linnaeus, 1753
Spiral wrack
(EN)
Bladderwrack
(EN);
Feamainn
bhoilgíneach
(IG)
Cosmetic
Agriculture,
Cosmetic, Food,
Medicinal
Incorporated
into bread
dough
Used to
stimulate the
thyroid and
consequently
boost
metabolism, to
treat
rheumatism
(external
application)
+
++
Agriculture:
fertiliser
++
Cosmetic: baths
and skin masks
-
++
Cosmetic:
infusions, baths
and tinctures
++
Medicinal: to
regulate
hormones
Agriculture:
fertiliser feed
for livestock
(especially pigs)
Brown algae
Brown algae
Fucaceae
Himanthaliaceae
Pelvetia
canaliculata
(Linnaeus)
Decaisne &
Thuret, 1845
Himanthalia
elongata
(Linnaeus)
S.F.Gray, 1821
Channelled
wrack (EN);
Caisíneach,
Dúlamán (IG)
Sea spaghetti
(EN);
Agriculture,
Cosmetic
Food
Brown algae
Laminariaceae
Pickled
++
++
Ríseach (IG)
Kelp (EN);
Laminaria
hyperborea
(Gunnerus)
Foslie, 1885
Cosmetic: bath,
a skin
preparation of
blitzed
channelled
wrack, sea salt
and neutral oil
for skin
ailments
Leathach
buídhonn,
Feamainn
gheimhridh
(IG)
Agriculture:
fertiliser
Agriculture,
Cosmetic,
Food
Food: broths,
stews,
flavouring
enhancer
+++
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
9 of 30
Table 2. Cont.
Phylum/Class
Brown algae
Brown algae
Family
Scientific
Name
Laminariaceae
Saccharina
latissima
(Linnaeus)
C.E.Lane,
C.Mayes,
Druehl &
G.W.Saunders,
2006
Sargassaceae
Sargassum
muticum
(Yendo)
Fensholt, 1955
Common
Names
Sugar kelp
(EN);
Claíomh (IG)
Uses
Notes
Frequency
of Citation *
Agriculture,
Cosmetic,
Food
Food: broths,
stews
++
Medicinal
Infusions,
tinctures
+
Japanese
wireweed (EN);
Feamainn
ghuaireach,
Sheapánach
(IG)
Baked
Gut-weed (EN);
Green algae
Ulvaceae
Ulva intestinalis
Linnaeus, 1753
Líneáil ghorm
(IG)
Food
Butter infusion
(seaweed lemon
butter, usually
mixed with
Chondrus crispus
and Ulva
lactuca)
+
Baked
Green algae
Red
algae
Ulvaceae
Ulva lactuca
Linnaeus, 1753
Bangiaceae
Porphyra
umbilicalis
Kützing, 1843
Sea lettuce (EN)
Food
Butter infusion
(seaweed lemon
butter, usually
mixed with
Chondrus crispus
and Ulva
lactuca)
+
Used dried
Nori (EN);
Food
Sleabhac (IG)
Salads (mostly
in the past)
+
Cosmetic:
lubricants and
soap-making,
shampoos
Red
algae
Gigartinaceae
Chondrus crispus
Stackhouse,
1797
Food: soup,
infused butter
Carrageen, Irish
Moss (EN)
Cosmetic, Food,
Medicinal
Medicinal:
infusion (boiled
with water or
milk and
honey) to
relieve sore
throats, coughs
and colds
+++
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
10 of 30
Table 2. Cont.
Phylum/Class
Red
algae
Scientific
Name
Family
Palmariaceae
Palmaria palmata
(Linnaeus)
F.Weber &
D.Mohr, 1805
Common
Names
Uses
Frequency
of Citation *
Butter/oil
infusion (e.g.,
dulse and wild
garlic oil)
Dulse (EN);
Dillisk,
Duileasc (IG)
Notes
Food
Garnish
++
Added to salads
Soups (e.g.,
dulse soup)
Regarded as
“truffle of the
sea”
Red
algae
Rhodomelaceae
Osmundea
pinnatifida
(Hudson)
Stackhouse,
1809
Pepper dulse
(EN)
Food
Used fresh (on
white fish
cooked with
butter), dried or
powder as
garnish
+++
Added to
shellfish and
pasta dishes
Keys: EN (English), IG (Irish Gaelic); * (+++ > 50% of interviewees; ++ > 30% of interviewees; + < 20% of interviewees).
The primary usage categories revealed eleven species used for food, nine for cosmetics,
five for farming and three for medical purposes.
Interviewees provided insights into both personal and commercial applications. Notably, Laminaria digitata, Alaria esculenta, Saccharina latissima and Laminaria digitata were
highlighted as the most important commercial species (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Sundried seaweeds collected on Squince Beach, West Cork, SW (Photo: Jeovana Santos
Figure 2. Sundried seaweeds collected on Squince Beach, West Cork, SW (Photo: Jeovana Santos Nascimento).
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
11 of 30
4.1.1. The Contemporary Gastronomy of Seaweed
The seaweed foraged and/or consumed by the interviewees was used in either its
fresh or dried form in culinary preparations such as soups, broths and stews, as well as in
infusions, as garnish or as seasoning.
Dry and reconstituted seaweed seemed to be preferred for taste and nutrition (Figure 2).
According to one interviewee in Schull, seaweeds taste better and retain more vitamin D if
dried in sunlight (i.e., hung out to dry naturally). However, the drying can be carried out
in a dehydrator or even in a low oven with the fan on.
Some seaweed species, such as Chondrus crispus, hold a traditional role as both food and
medicine in the local diet. As stated by a 60-year-old interviewee in Glandore: “Traditionally,
carrageenan was boiled in milk, and honey added to it as a nourishing, mineral-rich drink, used
as a winter drink when food was scarce during the colder months”. Even nowadays, different
people declare that they use it in syrup and hot drinks (e.g., adding it to a lemon and honey
beverage) as an effective remedy for a sore throat.
As far as the taste of seaweed is concerned, two main points should be emphasised.
First, two interviewees stressed the strong relationship between seasonality and the perceived taste of the seaweed, as in the case of Himanthalia elongata, which has been considered
tastier when collected young in spring. Second, clear associations and detailed knowledge
emerged regarding the mentioned seaweeds and their traditional and modern culinary
uses. For instance, Ulva intestinalis keeps its distinctive taste in baking, and “it works very
well in the butter and flavoured breads”, as one interviewee in Clonakilty reported. Osmundea
pinnatifida, which was sometimes credited as the “truffle of the sea”, reinforces mineral and
marine flavours of the dishes where it is added, such as with shellfish, potatoes and pasta.
Another interviewee in Ballydehob presented this seaweed as follows: “Super fresh pepper
dulse on any white fish cooked with butter is my favourite. Its truffle aroma is incredible. Also,
butter infused with fresh pepper [dulse]”.
4.1.2. Medical and Cosmetic Uses
A limited number of species employed in traditional medicine were recorded while the
emergence of modern applications in cosmetics, mainly in infusions, baths and tinctures,
was documented.
Chondrus crispus was used in soap-making, shampoos and lubricants. Moreover, the
cosmetic benefits of Fucus serratus were described by one interviewee in Clonakilty, who
reported “a skin preparation of blitzed channelled wrack, sea salt, and neutral oil for skin ailments”,
and that “it is also good to use in baths”.
Another method for gaining the seaweeds’ benefits that involves no preparation was
described by an interviewee in Skibbereen, who reported “swimming in the sea in September
for the iodine released from broken up seaweed”, which is also considered to have medicinal
potency, particularly for women’s health.
An interviewee in Clonakilty emphasised the numerous benefits of seaweeds for
women’s health, particularly highlighting their positive impact on thyroid health due to
their iodine content. However, it is crucial to note that while iodine can be beneficial
for thyroid health, it may not be suitable for every individual and excessive iodine intake can lead to complications. For instance, people with hyperthyroidism should avoid
consuming seaweed.
4.1.3. Traditional Ecological Knowledge Related to Seaweed Harvesting and Use
In the SW area, seaweed harvesting typically involves selectively cutting monospecific
strands of seaweed (e.g., rockweeds and kelps) or gathering storm-cast fronds (resulting in
mixed species).
According to an interviewee in Clonakilty: “Four things are important to consider when
foraging seaweed: understanding the general distribution—where along the coast does the seaweed
grow? What kind of substrate does the seaweed attach to? How strong are the currents, and how
exposed is the location? The seasonality of each seaweed must as well be considered”. He followed
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
12 of 30
this up by saying, “When the sun and moon are aligned, Spring tides happen. Spring, in this
context, refers not to the time of year but to the elasticity of the tides. The highest and lowest highs
usually occur a day or two after a full moon in spring and autumn”.
Information on specific ecological niches, harvesting techniques and seasons was
offered by our respondents for several of the mentioned species, highlighting specific
attention to the sustainability of this practice.
In the case of Ascophyllum nodosum (Figure 3), which grows in the mid-littoral zone
in wave-sheltered rocky shores, interviewees instructed us that when cutting the weed,
one should leave 20 cm of the frond attached to the rock to allow regrowth and that it is
important to avoid harvesting fertile individuals as much as possible.
Figure 3. Ascophyllum nodosum (Photo: Jeovana Santos Nascimento).
For Chondrus crispus, which is harvested at low tide by plucking or cutting the small
plants from the lower intertidal range, recommendations from an interviewee in Clonakilty
include harvesting at exposed sites every two years and in sheltered sites with an interval
of four years, leaving the mature plants to grow to at least two metres.
Seaweed usage as animal feed or agricultural fertiliser (e.g., seaweed strands washed
onto the beaches at high tide and then spread to decay on croplands) was seldom recalled
during the interviews, and only a few informants still carry out these practices.
One interviewee from Ballydehob said that her grandparents used to collect strewn
pieces of seaweed from the shore and combine them with good soil to create raised beds,
locally known as “lazy beds”, to cultivate potatoes and other crops.
Among the mentioned species whose current or past uses were connected to agricultural activities, Pelvetia canaliculata was commonly used as food for livestock, especially
pigs, and was mentioned as a food source during the Great Hunger. Moreover, several
interviewees recalled that local dwellers gathered Laminaria hyperborea from the shoreline,
especially after a storm, and burned it in stone circles known as kelp kilns, the ruins of
which are still visible along the west coast. The ash that remained contained soda and
potash, which could be used as a fertiliser and in industrial applications, as mentioned
above, such as glazing pottery and making glass and soap. These practices were abundant
in times of crisis when seaweed became vital in the absence of an adequate supply of other
organic manures.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
13 of 30
4.1.4. Evolution and Perceived Changes in Seaweed-Related Foodscape
While our interviewees acknowledged the significance of seaweed in the food culture
and livelihoods of past generations, we observed the abandonment of many seaweedrelated practices among the two past generations. One interviewee in Rosscarbery pointed
out, “For a few generations, they [seaweeds] have not been used or very seldom. I would say in the
recent past, it has almost been discouraged as a ‘backwards’ way of gathering food compared to
‘clean’ modern supermarket foods”.
In the SW region, most interviewees claimed that traditional seaweed uses and knowledge are no longer easily accessible, mainly because they were not often passed down
through generations. Only two of these subjects started foraging as a child, while the
rest reported starting after reaching adulthood. They pursued harvesting practices out of
personal interest and curiosity about their local identity and resources, meaning that the
collective awareness about the importance of seaweed has begun to present itself again.
Over half of the interviewees in the SW region began foraging seaweed at some point well
into the 20th century or even early 21st century. They declared not to have had a significant
consumption of seaweed growing up, with it mainly eaten in fast food sushi restaurants
(especially nori), unknowingly in ice creams as carrageen or in the form of a snack.
One interviewee in Rosscarbery claimed: “Sometimes the older generations remember uses.
They used to feed themselves with wild seaweed; nowadays, it is more of an interesting garnish or
used to stand out on social media platforms, which weirdly is a good thing”! Indeed, seaweed has
begun to be seen as a delicacy, fostering its revival and diffusion in the local food sector.
As observed during the fieldwork, small and micro-businesses related to seaweed have
grown in the last decade. For instance, different types of dehydrated seaweed can be found
in local shops, including healthy food snacks. Moreover, hard cheeses aged with seaweed
and other dairy products, such as seaweed butter, have been developed. Seaweeds are also
used in a few restaurants as an ingredient in traditional and modern culinary preparations.
Moreover, artisanal seaweed soaps and different types of bodycare products have been
spreading in Irish shops, and seaweed baths (Fucus serratus is used for this purpose) are
also becoming common.
Seaweed farming is also expanding in the SW region, focusing on some species that
are more suitable for this activity. One respondent who runs a seaweed farm in Bantry said
that Alaria esculenta adapts very well to being cultivated and gives a good and consistent
crop in an otherwise difficult and highly experimental aquaculture. While no interviewees
mentioned any particular ways they use this seaweed at home, it is currently sold as a food
item for use, similar to its position in Japanese cuisine.
Some interviewees raised issues regarding the sustainable management and harvesting of seaweed. “Although there are vast amounts of seaweeds around our coasts, we should
always remember that complex and important ecosystems are intricately entwined around that
abundance”, said one of the interviewees when discussing the importance of sustainable
harvesting practices in the SW region. Moreover, the long-term sustainability of mechanised seaweed harvesting was discussed in County Cork, where the local community has
demanded the suspension of the licence of an Irish company to harvest the kelp forest in
Bantry mechanically.
The impact of water pollution was also mentioned more than once during interviews,
especially that created by livestock contamination and chemical fertilisers, which can
generate food safety issues linked to the harvesting and consumption of wild seaweeds.
4.2. West and Midwest Region
The interviewees of this region reported a total of 17 seaweed species distributed
across 11 families (Table 6). Among the most frequently mentioned species were Chondrus
crispus, Palmaria palmata, Laminaria digitata, Laminaria hyperborea, Pelvetia canaliculata, Fucus
vesiculosus, Ascophyllum nodosum and Porphyra spp.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
14 of 30
Table 3. Mentioned species by class, family, scientific name, common name(s), use categories,
description and frequency of citation in the key locations of the study in the west and midwest
regions of Ireland.
Phylum/Class
Brown algae
Brown algae
Family
Scientific Name
Alariaceae
Undaria pinnatifida
(Harvey)
Suringar, 1873
Fucaceae
Ascophyllum
nodosum
(Linnaeus) Le
Jolis, 1863
Common Names
Atlantic wakame
(EN)
Yellow weed, Egg
wrack, Knotted
wrack,
Bladderwrack
(EN);
Uses
Notes
Frequency of
Citation *
Dried and
rehydrated
Food
++
Eaten raw or
cooked
Agriculture
Fertiliser, mulch,
animal feed,
cash crop,
alginate
+++
Medicinal
Used in baths for
absorption of the
nutrients and
soothing effect
++
Agriculture
Fertiliser
Food
Flavouring in
food
Medicinal
Gel in bubbles
used for
antiinflammatory
purposes on skin
Agriculture
Food for
livestock,
particularly pigs
Feamainn Bhuí
(IG)
Brown algae
Brown algae
Brown algae
Fucaceae
Fucaceae
Fucaceae
Fucus serratus
Linnaeus, 1753
Fucus vesiculosus
Linnaeus, 1753
Pelvetia
canaliculata
(Linnaeus)
Decaisne &
Thuret, 1845
Serrated wrack
(EN)
Bladderwrack
(EN)
Channel wrack
(EN);
Caisíneach (IG)
Eaten as famine
food
Food
+++
++
Similar uses as
those of
Sargassum
fusiforme in Japan
Dried and
rehydrated
Brown algae
Himanthaliaceae
Himanthalia
elongata
(Linnaeus)
S.F.Gray, 1821
Sea spaghetti
(EN);
Food
Ríseach (IG)
Eaten raw as
salad or cooked
++
Not traditionally
harvested or used
by respondents
Agriculture
As fertiliser,
mulch and crop
cover
Flavouring (not
traditional)
Brown algae
Laminariaceae
Laminaria digitata
(Hudson)
J.V.Lamouroux,
1813
Kelp, Kombu,
Oarweed, Long
kelp, Laminaria
(EN);
Food
Copóg (IG)
Medicinal
Main type of kelp
used now, often
referred to as
kombu and used
as such
Old treatment for
varicose veins, by
being wrapped
around the leg
+++
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
15 of 30
Table 4. Cont.
Phylum/Class
Family
Scientific Name
Laminariaceae
Laminaria
hyperborea
(Gunnerus) Foslie,
1885
Common Names
Uses
Notes
Frequency of
Citation *
Flavouring
Brown algae
Brown algae
Laminariaceae
Saccharina
latissima
(Linnaeus)
C.E.Lane,
C.Mayes, Druehl
& G.W.Saunders,
2006
Kelp, Kombu,
Laminaria,
Mayweed (EN);
Food
Scothach (IG)
Often used
interchangeably
with Laminaria
digitata but less
preferred
+++
Cooked
Sugar kelp (EN);
Food
Claíomh (IG)
As a dried snack
+++
Not traditionally
used as food
Stewed fresh with
salt and water or
pork fat
Accompanied
with potatoes,
bacon and butter
Red algae
Bangiaceae
Porphyra spp.
C.Agardh, 1824
Nori, laver (EN);
Food
Sleabhcán (IG)
Reported in the
past to have been
cooked all day
with turf (peat)
on the beach
while harvesters
were harvesting
+++
Dried and milled
into a seasoning
(a modern
invention for
commercial
purposes)
Dried and then
reconstituted
during the boiling
process
Agriculture
Red algae
Gigartinaceae
Chondrus crispus
Stackhouse, 1797
Irish moss,
Carrageen (EN);
Feed, with milk
for nutrients,
especially for
calves
With milk as a set
pudding
Carraigín (IG)
Food
In stews as a
thickener
+++
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
16 of 30
Table 5. Cont.
Phylum/Class
Family
Scientific Name
Common Names
Uses
Notes
Frequency of
Citation *
Antiviral and
antibacterial
properties
As a drink, it is
soaked, boiled
(water/milk),
strained (or not)
and flavoured
with
combinations of
lemon, honey,
whiskey, garlic,
cocoa and brown
sugar
Medicinal
Boiled in milk
and drunk with
similar
flavourings as
above
Boiled in water
and then left to
go cold after
straining. The
resulting liquid
will cool into a
gel, which can
then be dissolved
spoon by spoon
into hot water or
kept
Agriculture
Animal feed
Eaten raw, dried
as a snack or
cooked
Red algae
Palmariaceae
Palmaria palmata
(Linnaeus)
F.Weber &
D.Mohr, 1805
Dulse, Dillisk,
(EN);
Bar snack with
stout beer
Food
Duileasc,
Séagrass,
Creathnach (IG)
Red algae
Rhodomelaceae
Pepper dulse
(EN)
+++
Simmered
together with
milk or fried with
butter
Medicinal
Osmundea
pinnatifida
(Hudson)
Stackhouse, 1809
Boiled with
potatoes
Food
Traditionally a
cure for worms
because of iodine
content
Eaten fresh as
flavouring or
snack
Not sold or
traditionally used
Green algae
Cladophoraceae
Cladophora spp.
Kützing, 1843
Slobán (IG)
Green algae
Ulvaceae
Ulva intestinalis
Linnaeus, 1753
Gutweed (EN)
Agriculture
Fertiliser
Food
-
Medicinal
Referred to as sea
spirulina
+
+
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
17 of 30
Table 6. Cont.
Phylum/Class
Family
Scientific Name
Common Names
Uses
Notes
Frequency of
Citation *
Green algae
Ulvaceae
Ulva spp.
Linnaeus, 1753
Sea lettuce (EN)
Food
-
++
Porifera
Codiaceae
Iotrochota
birotulata (Higgin,
1877)
Green sponge
fingers (EN)
Food
Identified as
edible but not
used by any
respondent
+
Keys: EN (English), IG (Irish Gaelic); * (+ > 50% of interviewees; ++ > 30% of interviewees; +++ < 20% of
interviewees).
We also recorded seaweed species that, according to the interviewees, were not traditionally prevalent or utilised in the past, including Alaria esculenta, some species of the
genus Laminaria, Saccharina latissima, Ulva spp. and Osmundea pinnatifida.
In terms of usage, fourteen species were identified for culinary purposes, nine species
were associated with farming practices and seven species were linked to folk medical uses.
Overall, five species were identified as multipurpose species (i.e., used for food,
medicinal and farming purposes) and six species with dual functionality, serving both food
and medicinal uses, notably Chondrus crispus and Palmaria palmata.
4.2.1. The Contemporary Gastronomy of Seaweed
Among the recorded gastronomic applications of seaweeds, the main uses encompass
raw consumption, cooking, flavouring, stewing and thickening. In this context, most newly
introduced/adopted seaweed species are used raw, either fresh, dry or rehydrated, and
often in salads or as snacks.
Palmaria palmata stands out as the most frequently mentioned species among local
respondents. It is hailed as “the cream of the crop” according to two interviewees in County
Claire. Its preparation involves diverse methods, from the common practice of eating it
as a dried snack to pan-frying, baking or incorporating it into dough. Traditional recipes
include boiling with potatoes, simmering with milk and frying with butter. Innovative uses
extend to eating it as a bar snack with stout beer. An interviewee from Quilty described
Palmaria palmata as something that “enhances flavour and even our perception of texture. It makes
things seem more meaty”.
Porphyra spp. plays a distinct role in local gastronomy, especially in slow-cooking
preparations such as stews (Figure 4). A long cooking process, lasting a minimum of five
hours with water and salt, results in a dish served with butter, boiled potatoes and pork.
Variations include cooking with pork fat or turf (peat) on the beach during harvesting,
though this practice was most common in the past. Preservation methods involve freezing
or drying for reconstitution during boiling.
Regarding Chondrus crispus, one of the mentioned preparations involves soaking, hydrating and boiling to make a tea, often flavoured with lemon, honey, garlic, sugar, whiskey
or cocoa. Milk-based preparations include boiling milk with various flavourings or using it
in set milk puddings. However, this latter use was less commonly recorded. According
to two interviewees in Kinvarra and Quilty, milk simmered with a bit of carrageen was
traditionally prepared for babies in the past.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
18 of 30
Figure 4. Porphyra spp. cooked in seawater with potatoes in Quilty, County Claire (photo: Jack
Figure 4. Porphyra spp. cooked in seawater with potatoes in Quilty, County Claire (photo: Jack
Edwin Martin).
4.2.2. Medical and Cosmetic Uses
The limited vernacular medical applications of seaweed recorded during the interviews primarily centre around its anti-inflammatory, antiviral and antibacterial properties,
along with its potential use in addressing varicose veins, acting as a vermifuge and providing soothing effects.
Only Fucus serratus was exclusively mentioned among the six identified species for
medical purposes, particularly in therapeutic baths for nutrient absorption. The remaining
species also found applications in both culinary and agricultural contexts.
Palmaria palmata was consumed either on its own or simmered in milk, creating
a healthful tonic. The respondents in Leitir Mealláin mentioned Laminaria digitata as a
traditional treatment for varicose veins, where it is applied by wrapping around the affected
leg. Fucus vesiculosus was reported during some interviews to be employed to stimulate
the thyroid gland, thereby boosting metabolism and controlling hypertension. It is also
utilised in treating rheumatism, particularly when formulated into external applications
for inflammations.
4.2.3. Traditional Ecological Knowledge Related to Seaweed Harvesting and Use
Interviewees in the Aran Islands categorised different harvesting practices, which
differ according to the seaweed species and its intended use, corresponding to distinct
terminologies. In particular, we documented four terms employed for this purpose: cutting,
harvesting, gathering and picking.
The term “cutting” is used for species of Fucaceae, which are harvested by hand and
cut using a knife at low tide, several centimetres above the holdfast. In Connemara, they
were referred to as weeds and are utilised as fertiliser or sold commercially.
“Harvesting”, used somewhat interchangeably with “gathering” and “picking”, is
a term used for collecting seaweed for home use or sale, either for food or medicinal
purposes. “Gathering” and “picking” denote the practice of collecting driftweed washed
up on beaches by storms. This mixture of different species (mainly wracks and kelps) is
mainly used for fertiliser. Particularly noteworthy is the collection of storm weeds following
intense weather events, especially during or after winter (winter weed).
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
19 of 30
More detailed information was recorded for a few seaweed species, such as Palmaria palmata and Porphyra spp. The former is harvested at low tides and collected separately from other seaweeds. Our interviewees described a specific small type of this species,
known as creathnach, that usually grows on juvenile mussels latched onto rocks at the low
tide mark and is harvested from August to early December. Moreover, one interviewee in
Quilty described a traditional practice of “cleaning the dillisk” (another folk name generally
referring to Palmaria palmata), involving spending one low tide picking all the bad growth
and obscuring cover so that by the next tide, the regrowth will be healthier.
Concerning Porphyra spp., two interviewees in Quilty distinguished two types: “wild”
and “domesticated”, which are harvested differently. The wild type is pulled from the
rocks on the beach, while the domesticated one is found on granite rocks further out at low
tide. This latter grows from the rocks and can be picked rather than pulled off the rocks.
This enables it to be managed similarly to the process described for cleaning the dillisk.
Interviewees demonstrated considerable knowledge regarding the use of seaweeds
in agricultural pursuits, employing them as fertiliser, animal feed and mulch (Figure 5).
While most of these applications have been abandoned, these practices are still recalled
and used by a few individuals. An interviewee in County Clare, who grew up on the
coast of Connemara, recounted stories of dragging driftweed to decay in potato beds
to serve as fertiliser for growing her family’s vegetables, as there were no alternative
fertilisation sources.
Figure 5. Potato bed fertilised with seaweed in Kinvarra, Galway Bay (photo: Jack Edwin Martin
Figure 5. Potato bed fertilised with seaweed in Kinvarra, Galway Bay (photo: Jack Edwin Martin).
Chondrus crispus was used to provide essential nutrients for baby calves. After extracting the fat for butter, it was simmered in the skimmed milk returned from local creameries.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
20 of 30
One interviewee in Quilty mentioned that this species was fed to bulls or cows before going
to market, as it had a bloating effect that increased their size for a better price at sale.
On the other hand, Ascophyllum nodosum was dried and milled into animal feed or
sold for alginate production. Farmers in the study area also claimed to spread this seaweed
on fields as partial cover and for nutrient absorption into the soil during winter.
Fucus vesiculosus was occasionally employed by farmers as a manure alternative.
In addition, one interviewee in Kinvarra mentioned using it in cattle feed because the
animals seemed to enjoy it, believing it would provide nutrients and salt to their diet.
4.2.4. Evolution and Perceived Changes in Seaweed-Related Foodscape
When exploring the patterns of evolution and changes in seaweed-related traditional
ecological and gastronomical knowledge, several trends emerged.
First, seaweed-based traditional activities have lost their centrality in the local foodscape, particularly in their applications in farming activities. Seaweed cutting is now a
supplementary act to farming or other professions. In the collective memory remains
the kelp industry and the extensive gathering of seaweed, and a large number of harvesters recalled lining the beaches during childhood experiences or in the narratives of
their ancestors.
Second, we observed increased formal commercialisation of seaweed products, particularly on the west coast, where some harvesters have expanded their businesses, selling
seaweed to shops across Ireland and exporting it abroad. Seaweed is transforming from
a subsistence crop to one experiencing heightened commercial demand in the food and
agricultural sector. This shift is evidenced by various seaweed companies run by multiple
generations of harvesters. In addition to selling whole seaweed, companies have diversified their offerings by creating value-added products via repurposing unsuitable harvests
into seasonings and cosmetic products. These processes are exemplified by Porphyra spp.,
considered by most interviewees as a type commonly consumed in the past but now less
popular. One respondent markets it milled into dried flakes and labelled as nori.
The entry of local companies into more formalised markets has influenced traditional
practices related to seaweed processing, such as those associated with Palmaria palmata.
Interviewees engaged in commercial seaweed sales are forced by food safety regulations to
dry seaweed indoors to prevent contamination. A small shop in Connemara, run by a family
for seven generations, continues to sell hand-sealed plastic bags of seaweed. Seaweeds
are dried traditionally, either outdoors on rocks (creathnach) or in the field (carraigín).
However, modern food safety regulations and processing times hinder these products’
market presence.
Concurrently, the present seaweed industry, focused primarily on seaweed for alginate
and animal feed, heavily relies on the species Ascophyllum nodosum. In this context, new
harvesting technologies have been introduced. These changes include using rakes from
boats to collect this species and adopting mechanical kelp harvesting [71].
According to one farmer in Kinvarra, the growing commercial importance of seaweed
has attracted new economic players who have entered the Irish seaweed market by acquiring traditional family-owned businesses. For example, there is the case of a company in
Connemara, which was initially set up by the state to purchase and process cut Ascophyllum
nodosum from Galway Bay and Clew Bay for export to Scotland (see also [49]). In 2017, this
company was acquired by a Canadian multinational company. The sale of the company
has raised concerns among seaweed cutters regarding the future of hand-cutting. Traditionally, the right to harvest seaweed rested with the landowner whose property touched
the seashore, a regulation seldom enforced today.
During field research, it was observed that these developments have also affected
the availability of specific seaweed species due to changes in local ecology and climatic
conditions. Interviewees from the Aran Islands, Connemara and County Clare noted a
decrease in the supply of Palmaria palmata and a significant reduction in the availability of
this seaweed on the Atlantic-facing side of the island in recent years.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
21 of 30
4.3. Comparison of Species Diversity and Uses between the Study Areas
During our two field studies, we recorded 22 seaweed species used or mentioned
by interviewees, with the majority of them belonging to the Fucaceae (5), Laminariaceae
(3) and Ulvaceae (3) families. Among the most frequently mentioned species across both
study areas were Chondrus crispus, Laminaria hyperborea, Osmundea pinnatifida, Ascophyllum
nodosum, Fucus vesiculosus, Laminaria saccharina and Palmaria palmata.
Five species were exclusively mentioned by respondents in the SW area: Alaria esculenta, Fucus spiralis, Sargassum muticum, Porphyra umbilicalis and Ulva lactuca (Figure 6).
Conversely, another six species were solely reported by interviewees in field locations
within the W region: Undaria pinnatifida, Porphyra spp., Cladophora spp., Iotrochota birotulata,
Laminaria digitata and Ulva spp.
Figure 6. Chord diagram showing the overlaps and differences in the species mentioned by the
respondents in the two study areas. Key: SW (southwest), W (west and midwest).
In total, we documented seventeen species used as food, ten for farming, eight for
medical applications and eight as cosmetics (Table 7).
In both case studies, food uses were prominent compared to the uses of seaweed in
agricultural and medical domains. In this regard, our interviewees reported traditional uses
of seaweed (as thickener, seasoning as well as ingredients in soups, stews and puddings),
especially those of Palmaria palmata, Chondrus crispus and Pyropia spp.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
22 of 30
Table 7. Comparison of the uses of the seaweed species recorded in the two study areas.
Family
Scientific Name
Food
Agriculture
Medicinal
Cosmetic
Alariaceae
Alariaceae
Alaria esculenta (Linnaeus) Greville, 1830
SW
-
-
-
Undaria pinnatifida (Harvey) Suringar, 1873
W
-
-
-
Bangiaceae
Porphyra spp. C.Agardh, 1824
W
-
-
-
Bangiaceae
Porphyra umbilicalis Kützing, 1843
SW
-
-
-
Cladophoraceae
Cladophora spp. Kützing, 1843
Codiaceae
Iotrochota birotulata (Higgin, 1877)
Fucaceae
-
W
-
-
W
-
-
-
Ascophyllum nodosum (Linnaeus) Le Jolis, 1863
-
W
SW
SW
Fucaceae
Fucus serratus Linnaeus, 1753
-
SW
W
SW
Fucaceae
Fucus spiralis Linnaeus, 1753
-
-
-
SW
Fucaceae
Fucus vesiculosus Linnaeus, 1753
SW|W
SW|W
SW|W
SW
Fucaceae
Pelvetia canaliculata (Linnaeus) Decaisne & Thuret, 1845
W
SW|W
-
SW
Gigartinaceae
Chondrus crispus Stackhouse, 1797
SW|W
W
SW
SW
Himanthaliaceae
Himanthalia elongata (Linnaeus) S.F.Gray, 1821
SW|W
-
-
-
Laminariaceae
Laminaria digitata (Hudson) J.V.Lamouroux, 1813
W
W
W
-
Laminariaceae
Laminaria hyperborea (Gunnerus) Foslie, 1885
SW|W
SW|W
W
SW
Laminariaceae
Saccharina latissima (Linnaeus) C.E.Lane, C.Mayes,
Druehl & G.W.Saunders, 2006
SW|W
SW
-
SW
Palmariaceae
Palmaria palmata (Linnaeus) F.Weber & D.Mohr, 1805
SW|W
W
W
-
Rhodomelaceae
Osmundea pinnatifida (Hudson) Stackhouse, 1809
SW|W
-
-
-
Sargassaceae
Sargassum muticum (Yendo) Fensholt, 1955
-
-
SW
-
Ulvaceae
Ulva intestinalis Linnaeus, 1753
SW|W
W
-
-
Ulvaceae
Ulva lactuca Linnaeus, 1753
SW
-
-
-
Ulvaceae
Ulva spp. Linnaeus, 1753
W
-
-
Keys: SW (southwest), W (west and midwest).
5. Discussion
Our field studies revealed two main findings, namely, a fair divergence between the
seaweed species used in the two Irish study areas and a revitalisation of loca ecological
and gastronomic knowledge related to seaweed with slightly different trajectories in the
two case studies.
In both study areas, we documented the popularity of eight species for gastronomic
use: Chondrus crispus, Fucus vesiculosus, Laminaria digitata and hyperborea, Osmundea pinnatifida, Palmaria palmata, Porphyra spp. and Saccharina latissima. We found that Palmaria palmata,
Chondrus crispus and Pyropia spp. were documented in other historical and contemporary
works on Irish seaweed cuisine and gastronomy (see [27,28,56,57,59,60]). The food significance of Palmaria palmata lies not only in its versatility but also in its perceived nutritional
richness (high in vitamins, minerals and protein), which has been confirmed by different
studies [32,72]. This seaweed has been traditionally linked to the Irish diet and cuisine, and
it is still among the principal seaweeds consumed in contemporary Ireland [62].
The gastronomic use of seaweeds slightly diverges in the two study areas, with novel
uses (i.e., not traditionally present in the past according to the interviewees) prevalent
in areas located in the SW region. According to our respondents, species such as Alaria
esculenta, Laminaria spp., Saccharina latissima, Ulva spp. and Osmundea pinnatifida were not
traditionally prevalent or utilised in the past. The emerging uses of these species may be
attributed to evolving market demands and growing commercial interest in recent decades,
especially within the food industry and gastronomic sector [41].
The detailed local ecological knowledge (LEK) related to seaweed harvesting showed
a more robust continuation of this practice over time in the SW region, where, according
to our respondents, seaweed-related practices and uses were stigmatised and abandoned
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
23 of 30
for several decades. These dynamics have possibly led to seaweed’s LEK and, specifically,
TGK (traditional gastronomic knowledge) erosion. Our field study in the W region showed
that this situation could possibly be linked to the profile of the interviewees, who were
directly involved in harvesting activities but showed limited first-hand experiences in the
culinary uses of seaweed. The scarce attachment to traditional seaweed gastronomy in the
SW region could be related to the stigmatisation of seaweed among older generations due
to its association with poverty and especially the times of famine in Ireland [24,26], similar
to in other countries such as Iceland and Peru [26,43].
Among non-food uses of seaweeds, Ascophyllum nodosum was often mentioned in both
areas and is at present the main seaweed harvested in Ireland for commercial processing
(e.g., plant biostimulants, animal feed and organic fertiliser, [73]) and may open new
opportunities of development for Irish coastal communities.
In W locations, a richer knowledge and memory of the uses of seaweed in agricultural
activities, especially as fertiliser and animal fodder, was recalled during the interviews.
This circumstance could be linked to a strong legacy of agricultural activities in the recent
past, as is the case for the Aran Islands, where agriculture and the kelp industry permeated
the livelihoods of local dwellers until the first half of the XXth century [66,67].
Traditional and modern cosmetic uses were mentioned, especially by interviewees
in the SW area. This trend could be explained by considering the specific backgrounds of
our interviewees, including newcomers or local people who have recently revived specific
elements of the seaweed-related foodscape, contextualising them within current trends that
promote seaweed as novel and healthy food ingredients [31,40]. Additionally, overarching
trends in the food tourism industry, where experiential activities linked to nature (e.g.,
foraging wild plants and fungi) [74] have also emerged in the last decade, may have
contributed to this phenomenon.
5.1. Trajectories of the Revitalisation of Seaweed: Dynamics behind the Divergent Trajectories
Seaweed-related foodscapes and associated systems have undergone significant evolution in recent decades, driven by the growing global demand for seaweeds, especially
in the food industry and gastronomic sector [39,52,75]. This trend seemed to have shaped
and prompted the revitalisation of seaweeds in our two study areas, with slightly different trajectories.
In the W region, interviewees (mainly seaweed harvesters and their families of a
generation or more in the trade or who have learnt directly from someone of a previous generation of knowledge) saw their practices as continuing traditional knowledge.
In contrast, in the SW region, most interviewees claimed that traditional seaweed-related
knowledge is no longer easily accessible, and they do not have a strong familiar legacy
with this practice. They engaged in harvesting practices driven by personal interest and a
curiosity about their local identity and resources. This resurgence in collective awareness
about the importance of seaweed has led to the emergence of a modern seaweed foraging
tradition. Similar trends have been noted in the research conducted by Łuczaj et al. [76]
among contemporary British foragers, as well as in other studies exploring the revival of
wild food foraging, where recreational and leisure pursuits play a significant role in this
process [77]. This divergence in the loss/continuation of traditional knowledge related
to seaweed and associated practices translates into different dynamics of revitalisation of
these resources.
In the W locations, the revitalisation of the seaweed and seaweed-related foodscape
is deeply entrenched in the region’s historical legacy, showing a continuation of the past.
From being a traditional livelihood activity, seaweed harvesting has transitioned into a
blend of leisure pursuits and commercially driven enterprise. This evolution has led to
the professionalisation and industrialisation of the seaweed-based economy, revitalising
certain elements of the traditional seaweed foodscape. However, alongside this resurgence,
external economic actors have entered the scene, potentially marginalising local stakeholders from the benefits of promoting seaweed and its associated heritage. This mirrors
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
24 of 30
trends observed in other contexts where the promotion of traditional and heritage foods
sometimes excludes local actors from the benefits stemming from the promotion of these
elements [78,79].
Conversely, in the SW region, traditional seaweed practices had been largely abandoned, only to be recently rediscovered and revitalised through modern lenses of sustainability, healthiness, wellness and connection with the natural landscape, which have
been identified elsewhere as key drivers fostering the revival of wild foods and wildfood-based products [40,80,81]. The revival here is driven by a contemporary interest
in reconnecting with the marine landscape and promoting educational activities centred
around seaweed. New knowledge holders are pivotal in spearheading these initiatives,
fostering a renewed appreciation for seaweed’s role in the local ecosystem. As observed by
Łuczaj and Pieroni [82], this knowledge is rarely exclusively related to local heritage; instead, it results from hybridisation between local and external knowledge, usually acquired
by individuals from media sources (e.g., books, websites, etc.).
During our field study, we observed that this region is witnessing a surge in initiatives
and gatherings aimed at disseminating seaweed-related knowledge, from workshops on
harvesting to communal preparation sessions on the beaches. In this context, Irish seaweed
is attracting new generations to the landscape who may appear as small-scale entrepreneurs
in elaborating and preparing foods and cosmetics with seaweed in their compositions or
“new/modern” knowledge holders, creating courses and workshops. This revival does not
entail only the food uses of seaweed but also the redefinition of the cultural significance
of seaweed for the local population, emphasising its ecological importance and fostering
community engagement in its revitalisation. This bottom-up approach seems to revitalise
seaweeds through an actualisation process, which has also been identified as one of the
dynamics underpinning the heritagisation processes in food and gastronomy [83]. Through
this process, new meanings are attributed to seaweed that redefine its past significance,
often linked to scarcity and famine, and attribute it new values associated with ideas of
wellness, leisure and sustainability [84], as also observed for other wild foods and associated
practices [85–87]. As observed in previous studies, this could reposition seaweed and other
wild food resources as an asset in the local tourism industry [88–90].
5.2. Promoting Seaweed: Sustainability Issues and Implications
As the popularity of seaweed increases, the sustainability of this resource, as well as
those of other wild food resources [91], is being questioned, bringing to the fore issues
related to the ownership of the resource, its over-exploitation and the commercial adoption
of damaging harvesting techniques [33,71,92–94]. For instance, Mourtisen et al. [28] highlighted that the growing interest in Irish seaweeds is accompanied by challenges related to
harvesting rights.
There is a fear that individuals may unexpectedly lose access to beaches due to the
sale of harvesting rights. Such worries are shared with other sociopolitical contexts such as
eastern Canada [95] or France [96].
While the resurgence of seaweed gastronomy in Western Ireland is a cause for celebration, challenges such as sustainable harvesting practices and environmental conservation
must be addressed. In addition to seaweed harvesting, other anthropogenic activities
threaten seaweed resources, like invasive species, climate change [24], coastal eutrophication and pollution; the latter was often mentioned by our interviewees. Ultimately, a
regulation and a formal national policy are urgently needed to protect seaweed resources,
to make sure their use is maintained sustainably and, at the same time, to ensure that the
harvesting seaweed tradition is protected and preserved. Collaborative efforts between
local communities, researchers and policymakers are essential to ensure the long-term
viability of seaweed as a culinary and economic asset [33].
As highlighted by Guiry [65], the sustainability of seaweed harvesting has become
a pressing issue with the growing interest of multinational companies and government
efforts to expand the industry as a major export crop. In terms of our findings, the majority
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
25 of 30
of the species quoted by the study participants are commonly available seaweeds along
the Irish shore (see [21,23,24,73]). Moreover, hand-harvesting is still the main method
used, and thus we may presume that the resources are currently reasonably well managed.
This finding could confirm a more likely sustainable nature of LEK related to seaweed
foraging, as normally happens with the majority of traditionally gathered wild food plants
in Eurasia, as a recent cross-regional analysis underlined [97], although sustainable foraging
is a much larger conceptual framework [98]. In this regard, one of the crucial issues when
addressing the sustainability of wild resource gathering is often the small-scale dimension
of the collection. When the pressure is applied of an external market requiring specific
plant items, sustainable gathering could be disrupted, as sometimes happens with wild
medicinal plants collected for foreign markets in remote areas of the Balkans [99].
In the case of the W study locations, official seaweed harvesters have been leveraging
traditional knowledge passed down through several generations of the family. Harvesting
seaweed, once a subsistence activity, has transformed into a luxury food pursuit. However,
the industrialisation and mechanisation of seaweed-related activities, which have been
pointed out by several interviewees as growing trends, could trigger an erosion of traditional
harvesting practices, also impacting the ecology of the area. Such a shift (i.e., the replacement
of manual harvesting with mechanical techniques by boat), which in Ireland is permitted
only for subtidal seaweed (e.g., Laminaria digitata, Laminaria hyperborea, Ascophyllum nodosum),
may also produce a more remarkable impact on the marine ecosystem, as the mechanical
methods are more destructive and less selective [100,101]. Garineaud [102] noted a similar
trend in a study of kelp harvesting off the coast of Brittany, where the abandonment of
hand-harvesting and the adoption of mechanical methods resulted in a loss of LEK and a
negative impact on the ecosystem.
Considering the dynamics at stake and the perceptions shared by local people, some
issues should be considered to guarantee a sustainable revitalisation process of seaweed
and the associated foodscape. Among the strategies that could support this path are
the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Co-creating a formal (regional and) national policy to ensure the sustainability of seaweed harvesting and farming and enhance communication to prevent over-exploitation;
Promoting responsible gathering techniques and implementing ad hoc regulations
about licences for harvesting;
Developing and supporting seaweed aquaculture initiatives;
Developing value-added seaweed products that cater to both local and international
markets, such as creating innovative seaweed-based food products as well as non-food
items like cosmetics and biodegradable packaging;
Encouraging culinary innovation by working with local chefs and food entrepreneurs
to incorporate seaweed into traditional and contemporary recipes, also via cooking
workshops, food festivals and educational events, which can help raise awareness and
appreciation for seaweed as a culinary ingredient;
Fostering seaweed-related hospitality initiatives, such as developing food tours, culinary
experiences and themed events that showcase the seaweed heritage and knowledge;
Promoting community engagement and active participation in the revitalisation efforts
by involving local stakeholders, such as fishermen, farmers, artisans, restaurants and
small food-related businesses;
Implementing education and awareness initiatives to inform multiple stakeholders
including both locals and visitors about the nutritional benefits, environmental importance and cultural significance of seaweed;
Advocating for supportive policies and incentives from the local and national governance to facilitate the growth of small-scale seaweed foraging and transformation.
In devising strategies, some other issues merit consideration. Firstly, it is essential
to address potential health risks associated with seaweed consumption. While seaweed
offers numerous nutritional benefits, excessive intake can lead to adverse effects on human
health. For instance, certain species of seaweed may contain high levels of compounds
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
26 of 30
like iodine, surpassing recommended daily limits and potentially causing thyroid-related
complications [103]. Moreover, the conditions under which seaweed is harvested play
a pivotal role. Seaweeds can absorb beneficial vitamins and minerals from sediments
and seawater, but they can also take up organic and inorganic chemical contaminants.
If localised sources of pollution are present, seaweed can absorb contaminants and may
pose potential health risks to consumers [104]. Therefore, comprehensive measures should
be implemented to ensure the safety and sustainability of seaweed harvesting practices,
safeguarding both human health and marine ecosystems [105].
6. Conclusions
Our study investigated the traditional ecological and gastronomic knowledge of seaweed in two areas in West Ireland. We recorded 22 seaweed species used or mentioned by
respondents. Our findings revealed a fair divergence between the seaweed species used in
the two Irish studies areas (16 seaweed species in the southwest region and 17 seaweed
species in the west and midwest region), with 11 species mentioned in both the study
areas. In both case studies, food uses were prominent compared to the uses of seaweed
in agricultural and medical domains, although some variability in specific uses was observed. Moreover, different trajectories underpinning revitalising traditional ecological
and gastronomic knowledge related to seaweeds were identified. While in the west and
midwest locations, this process showed a sort of continuation with the past and followed a
more commercially oriented path, in the southwest region, traditional seaweed practices
had been largely abandoned. The revival seems to have fostered new knowledge holders
showing a contemporary interest in promoting seaweed as healthy and sustainable food,
reconnecting with nature and fostering educational activities centred around seaweed and
associated landscapes.
Future research should broaden the geographical scope of our study to encompass additional Irish strongholds of seaweed tradition, including other locations in the Connemara
area and other regions along the west and north coasts, as well as expanding the sample of
interviewees involved in the research. Furthermore, in-depth ethnographic investigations
into specific initiatives aimed at revitalising seaweed, including local food movements,
experiential activities and workshops, could shed light on the specific motivations and
practices fostering the promotion of seaweed and associated foodscapes. Additionally,
sustainability implications stemming from the revival of seaweed-based practices deserve
closer attention, emphasising the need for nuanced analyses of the underlying dynamics
prompting this resurgence.
Author Contributions: Conceptualisation, A.P., D.M.Z. and G.M.; methodology, A.P., D.M.Z. and
G.M.; investigation, J.S.N. and J.E.M.; formal analysis, D.M.Z., J.S.N. and J.E.M.; writing—original
draft, D.M.Z.; writing—review and editing, A.P., D.M.Z., G.M., R.M.G., C.R. and R.S.; visualisation,
D.M.Z.; supervision, A.P.; project administration, A.P., D.M.Z. and G.M. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Oral informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in this study.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Acknowledgments: We warmly thank all the study participants, who kindly shared their time,
practices and memories with us.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
References
1.
2.
O’Connor, K. Seaweed: A Global History; Reaction Books: London, UK, 2017.
Abbott, I.A. Ethnobotany of Seaweeds: Clues to Uses of Seaweeds. Hydrobiologia 1996, 326–327, 15–20. [CrossRef]
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
27 of 30
Abbott, I.A. The Uses of Seaweed as Food in Hawaii. Econ. Bot. 1978, 32, 409–412. [CrossRef]
Turner, N.J. The Ethnobotany of Edible Seaweed (Porphyra Abbottae and Related Species; Rhodophyta: Bangiales) and Its Use by
First Nations on the Pacific Coast of Canada. Can. J. Bot. 2003, 81, 283–293. [CrossRef]
Dillehay, T.D.; Ramírez, C.; Pino, M.; Collins, M.B.; Rossen, J.; Pino-Navarro, J.D. Monte Verde: Seaweed, Food, Medicine, and the
Peopling of South America. Science 2008, 320, 784–786. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Noriega Cardó, C. Algas Marinas Para La Alimentación de Los Peruanos. Tur. Patrim. 2016, 10, 55–68. [CrossRef]
Pérez-Lloréns, J.L. Seaweed Consumption in the Americas. Gastronomica 2019, 19, 49–59. [CrossRef]
Bangmei, X.; Abbott, I.A. Edible Seaweeds of China and Their Place in the Chinese Diet. Econ. Bot. 1987, 41, 341–353. [CrossRef]
Tseng, C.K. Modern Seaweeds of China; Science Press: Beijing, China, 1984.
Nisizawa, K.; Noda, H.; Kikuchi, R.; Watanabe, T. The Main Seaweed Foods in Japan. Hydrobiologia 1987, 151, 5–29. [CrossRef]
Dumilag, R.V.; Javier, R.F. Ethnobotany of Medicinal Seaweeds of Ilocos Norte, Philippines. Philipp. J. Sci. 2022, 151, 1135–1156.
[CrossRef]
Thurstan, R.H.; Brittain, Z.; Jones, D.S.; Cameron, E.; Dearnaley, J.; Bellgrove, A. Aboriginal Uses of Seaweeds in Temperate
Australia: An Archival Assessment. J. Appl. Phycol. 2018, 30, 1821–1832. [CrossRef]
Cappellani, S. Il Mauru Ossia Alghe Rosse Commestibili Nella Sicilia Centro-Orientale; CITEM: Metro Manila, Philippines, 1960.
Sousa-Pinto, I. The Seaweed Resources of Portugal. In Seaweed Resources of the World; Critchley, A., Ohno, M., Eds.; JICA: Tokyo,
Japan, 1998; pp. 176–184.
Lentini, F.; Venza, F. Wild Food Plants of Popular Use in Sicily. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 2007, 3, 15. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Gaspar, R.; Pereira, L.; Sousa-Pinto, I. The Seaweed Resources of Portugal. Bot. Mar. 2019, 62, 499–525. [CrossRef]
Svanberg, I.; Ægisson, S. Edible Wild Plant Use in the Faroe Islands and Iceland. Acta Soc. Bot. Pol. 2012, 81, 233–238. [CrossRef]
Lambert, R. Seaweed Foraging in Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly; Alison Hodge: Cornwal, UK, 2016.
Burrows, E.M.; Blackler, H.; Dixon, P.S.; Powell, H.T. List of Marine Algae from the West of Ireland Collected by Members of the
Third International Seaweed Symposium. Br. Phycol. Bull. 1959, 1, 47–60. [CrossRef]
Morton, O. Marine Algae of Northern Ireland; Ulster Museum Botanic Gardens: Belfast, Ireland, 1994.
Morrissey, J.; Kraan, S.; Guiry, M.D. A Guide to Commercially Important Seaweeds on the Irish Coast; Bord Iascaigh Mhara/Irish Sea
Fisheris Board: Dublin, Ireland, 2001.
Dhonncha, E.N.; Guiry, M.D. Algaebase: Documenting Seaweed Biodiversity in Ireland and the World. Biol. Environ. 2002, 102,
185–188. [CrossRef]
Guiry, M.D.; Hardy, F. A Check-List and Atlas of the Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland; The British Phycological Society: London, UK, 2013.
Binchy, D. Críth Gablach; Dublin Institute for Advanced Studie: Dublin, Ireland, 1941.
Monagail, M.M.; Morrison, L. The Seaweed Resources of Ireland: A Twenty-First Century Perspective. J. Appl. Phycol. 2020, 32,
1287–1300. [CrossRef]
Mouritsen, O.G.; Rhatigan, P.; Cornish, M.L.; Critchley, A.T.; Pérez-Lloréns, J.L. Saved by Seaweeds: Phyconomic Contributions
in Times of Crises. J. Appl. Phycol. 2021, 33, 443–458. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Field, E. Irish Seaweed Revisited. In Wild Food: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery, 2004. Oxford Symposium;
Hosking, R., Ed.; Prospect Books: Totnes, UK, 2006.
Mouritsen, O.G.; Rhatigan, P.; Pérez-Lloréns, J.L. World Cuisine of Seaweeds: Science Meets Gastronomy. Int. J. Gastron. Food Sci.
2018, 14, 55–65. [CrossRef]
Dhargalkar, V.K.; Pereira, N. Seaweed: Promising Plant of the Millennium. NIO 2005, 71, 60–66.
Mac Monagail, M.; Cornish, L.; Morrison, L.; Araújo, R.; Critchley, A.T. Sustainable Harvesting of Wild Seaweed Resources. Eur. J.
Phycol. 2017, 52, 371–390. [CrossRef]
Blikra, M.J.; Altintzoglou, T.; Løvdal, T.; Rognså, G.; Skipnes, D.; Skåra, T.; Sivertsvik, M.; Noriega Fernández, E. Seaweed
Products for the Future: Using Current Tools to Develop a Sustainable Food Industry. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2021, 118, 765–776.
[CrossRef]
Rawiwan, P.; Peng, Y.; Paramayuda, I.G.P.B.; Quek, S.Y. Red Seaweed: A Promising Alternative Protein Source for Global Food
Sustainability. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2022, 123, 37–56. [CrossRef]
Cerca, M.; Sosa, A.; Murphy, F. Responsible Supply Systems for Macroalgae: Upscaling Seaweed Cultivation in Ireland.
Aquaculture 2023, 563, 738996. [CrossRef]
Rebours, C.; Marinho-Soriano, E.; Zertuche-González, J.A.; Hayashi, L.; Vásquez, J.A.; Kradolfer, P.; Soriano, G.; Ugarte, R.; Abreu,
M.H.; Bay-Larsen, I.; et al. Seaweeds: An Opportunity for Wealth and Sustainable Livelihood for Coastal Communities. J. Appl.
Phycol. 2014, 26, 1939–1951. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Matos, S. Designing Food Cultures: Propagating the Consumption of Seaweed in the Azores Islands Through Recipes. Iridescent
2016, 2, 24–33. [CrossRef]
Aslan, L.O.M.; Supendy, R.; Taridala, S.A.A.; Hafid, H.; Sifatu, W.O.; Sailan, Z.; Niampe, L. Income of Seaweed Farming
Households: A Case Study from Lemo of Indonesia. Proc. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2018, 175, 012221. [CrossRef]
Butcher, H.; Burkhart, S.; Paul, N.; Tiitii, U.; Tamuera, K.; Eria, T.; Swanepoel, L. Role of Seaweed in Diets of Samoa and Kiribati:
Exploring Key Motivators for Consumption. Sustainability 2020, 12, 7356. [CrossRef]
Rioux, L.E.; Beaulieu, L.; Turgeon, S.L. Seaweeds: A Traditional Ingredients for New Gastronomic Sensation. Food Hydrocoll. 2017,
68, 255–265. [CrossRef]
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
28 of 30
Mouritsen, O.G.; Rhatigan, P.; Pérez-Lloréns, J.L. The Rise of Seaweed Gastronomy: Phycogastronomy. Bot. Mar. 2019, 62, 195–209.
[CrossRef]
Pérez-Lloréns, J.L. Microalgae: From Staple Foodstuff to Avant-Garde Cuisine. Int. J. Gastron. Food Sci. 2020, 21, 100221. [CrossRef]
Figueroa, V.; Farfán, M.; Aguilera, J.M. Seaweeds as Novel Foods and Source of Culinary Flavors. Food Rev. Int. 2021, 39, 1–26.
[CrossRef]
Cordeiro, C.M.; van Hal, J. A Systems Integral Approach in Exploring Creative Innovation in Culinary Research: The Example of
Seaweed in the Context of the New Nordic Cuisine. Int. J. Food Stud. 2022, 11, 106–128. [CrossRef]
Morrissey, J. On the Verge of Want: A Unique Insight into Living Conditions Along Ireland’s Western Seaboard in the Late 19th Century;
Crannog Books: Dublin, Ireland, 2001.
Pérez-Lloréns, J.L.; Critchley, A.T.; Cornish, M.L.; Mouritsen, O.G. Saved by Seaweeds (II): Traditional Knowledge, Home
Remedies, Medicine, Surgery, and Pharmacopoeia. J. Appl. Phycol. 2023, 35, 2049–2068. [CrossRef]
Woodham-Smith, C. The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845–1849; Penguin: London, UK, 1962.
O’Neill, T.P. Some Irish Techniques of Collecting Seaweed. Folk Life 1970, 8, 13–19. [CrossRef]
Pendleton, A.; Carr, L.M. Conflicts between Traditional and Modern Governance Structures in Irish Seaweed Harvesting. Local
Environ. 2023, 28, 47–64. [CrossRef]
McErlean, T.C. Archaeology of the Strangford Lough Kelp Industry in the Eighteenth- and Early-Nineteenth Centuries. Hist.
Archaeol. 2007, 41, 76–93. [CrossRef]
Guiry, M.D.; Morrison, L. The Sustainable Harvesting of Ascophyllum nodosum (Fucaceae, Phaeophyceae) in Ireland, with Notes
on the Collection and Use of Some Other Brown Algae. J. Appl. Phycol. 2013, 25, 1823–1830. [CrossRef]
Robinson, T. The Stones of Aran: Pilgrimage; The Lilliput Press Ltd.: Dublin, Ireland, 1986.
Mac an Iomaire, S. The Shores of Connamara; Tír Eolas: Kinvara, Ireland, 2004.
Araújo, R.; Vázquez Calderón, F.; Sánchez López, J.; Azevedo, I.C.; Bruhn, A.; Fluch, S.; Garcia Tasende, M.; Ghaderiardakani,
F.; Ilmjärv, T.; Laurans, M.; et al. Current Status of the Algae Production Industry in Europe: An Emerging Sector of the Blue
Bioeconomy. Front. Mar. Sci. 2021, 7, 626389. [CrossRef]
Pérez-Lloréns, J.L.; Mouritsen, O.G.; Rhatigan, P.; Cornish, M.L.; Critchley, A.T. Seaweeds in Mythology, Folklore, Poetry, and
Life. J. Appl. Phycol. 2020, 32, 3157–3182. [CrossRef]
Mac Con Iomaire, M. Gastro-Topography: Exploring Food-Related Placenames in Ireland. Can. J. Irish Stud. 2014, 38, 126–157.
Uris, L. Trinity; Doubleday: New York, NY, USA, 1976.
Sexton, R. A Little History of Irish Food; Dublin Institute of Technology: Dublin, Ireland, 1998.
Ó Catháin, S. The Festival of Brigit: Celtic Goddess and Holy Woman; Dundalgan Press: Dublin, Ireland, 1995.
Rhatigan, P. Irish Seaweed Kitchen. The Comprehensive Guide to Healthy Everyday Cooking with Seaweeds; Booklink: Holywood, FL,
USA, 2009.
McKenna, S. Extreme Greens: Understanding Seaweeds; Estragon Press: Cork, Ireland, 2013.
Allen, D. Forgotten Skills of Cooking; Kyle Books: London, UK, 2018.
Murphy, D. Exploring Evidence of Lost and Forgotten Irish Food Traditions in Irish Cookbooks 1980–2015. Folk Life 2021, 59,
161–181. [CrossRef]
Mouritsen, O.G.; Dawczynski, C.; Duelund, L.; Jahreis, G.; Vetter, W.; Schröder, M. On the Human Consumption of the Red
Seaweed Dulse (Palmaria palmata (L.) Weber & Mohr). J. Appl. Phycol. 2013, 25, 1777–1791. [CrossRef]
Eisenhardt, K.M. Building Theories from Case Study Research. Acad. Manag. Rev. 1989, 14, 532–550. [CrossRef]
Guiry, M.; Hession, C. The Seaweed Resources of Ireland. In Seaweed Resources of the World; Critchley, A., Ohno, M., Eds.; Japan
International Cooperation Agency: Hakone, Japan, 1998; pp. 210–216.
Guiry, M.D. How Many Species of Algae Are There? J. Phycol. 2012, 48, 1057–1063. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Royle, S.A. The economy and society of the aran islands county gal way in the early nineteenth century. Irish Geogr. 1983, 16,
36–54. [CrossRef]
Royle, S.A. Exploitation and Celebration of the Heritage of the Irish Islands. Irish Geogr. 2003, 36, 23–31. [CrossRef]
The ISE Code of Ethics (2008). Available online: www.ethnobiology.net/what-we-do/core-programs/ise-ethics-program/codeof-Ethics (accessed on 28 December 2023).
QSR International. NVivo Qualitative Data Analysis Software Version 12.5.0; QSR International: Melbourne, Australia, 2019.
WoRMS Editorial Board. World Register of Marine Species. 2024. Available online: https://www.marinespecies.org (accessed on
28 December 2023).
Vance, C.; Pollard, P.; Maguire, J.; Sweeney, J.; Murphy, F. Sustainable Scale-up of Irish Seaweed Production: Quantifying
Potential Environmental, Economic, and Social Impacts of Wild Harvesting and Cultivation Pathways. Algal Res. 2023, 75, 103294.
[CrossRef]
Mohammed, H.O.; O’Grady, M.N.; O’Sullivan, M.G.; Hamill, R.M.; Kilcawley, K.N.; Kerry, J.P. An Assessment of Selected
Nutritional, Bioactive, Thermal and Technological Properties of Brown and Red Irish Seaweed Species. Foods 2021, 10, 2784.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
Clean Technology Centre. Socio-Economic Study of Seaweed Harvesting in Ireland; Clean Technology Centre: Cork, Ireland, 2022.
Fusté-Forné, F. Seasonality in Food Tourism: Wild Foods in Peripheral Areas. Tour. Geogr. 2022, 24, 578–598. [CrossRef]
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
75.
29 of 30
Mendes, M.C.; Navalho, S.; Ferreira, A.; Paulino, C.; Figueiredo, D.; Silva, D.; Gao, F.; Gama, F.; Bombo, G.; Jacinto, R.; et al. Algae
as Food in Europe: An Overview of Species Diversity and Their Application†. Foods 2022, 11, 1871. [CrossRef]
76. Łuczaj, Ł.; Wilde, M.; Townsend, L. The Ethnobiology of Contemporary British Foragers: Foods They Teach, Their Sources of
Inspiration and Impact. Sustainability 2021, 13, 3478. [CrossRef]
77. Reyes-García, V.; Menendez-Baceta, G.; Aceituno-Mata, L.; Acosta-Naranjo, R.; Calvet-Mir, L.; Domínguez, P.; Garnatje, T.;
Gómez-Baggethun, E.; Molina-Bustamante, M.; Molina, M.; et al. From Famine Foods to Delicatessen: Interpreting Trends in the
Use of Wild Edible Plants through Cultural Ecosystem Services. Ecol. Econ. 2015, 120, 303–311. [CrossRef]
78. Barrionuevo, C.A.; Bernat, E.E.; Velarde, I.J. We Recovered Food Heritage, and Then? Value Enhancement and Promotion of
Local Agri-Food Products in Argentina and Spain. Br. Food J. 2019, 121, 3168–3180. [CrossRef]
79. Zocchi, D.M.; Fontefrancesco, M.F.; Corvo, P.; Pieroni, A. Recognising, Safeguarding, and Promoting Food Heritage: Challenges
and Prospects for the Future of Sustainable Food Systems. Sustainability 2021, 13, 9510. [CrossRef]
80. Madej, T.; Piroznikow, E.; Dumanowski, J.; Łuczaj, L. Juniper Beer in Poland: The Story of the Revival of a Traditional Beverage.
J. Ethnobiol. 2014, 34, 84–103. [CrossRef]
81. Pedret-Massanet, C.; López-Lago Ortiz, L.; Allen-Perkins, D. From Stigma to Haute Cuisine: Strategies, Agents, and Discourses
in the Revalorisation of Carob as a Gourmet Product. Int. J. Gastron. Food Sci. 2023, 31, 100677. [CrossRef]
82. Łuczaj, Ł.; Pieroni, A. Nutritional Ethnobotany in Europe: From Emergency Foods to Healthy Folk Cuisines and Contemporary Foraging
Trends BT—Mediterranean Wild Edible Plants: Ethnobotany and Food Composition Tables; Sánchez-Mata, M.d.C., Tardío, J., Eds.;
Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2016; pp. 33–56.
83. Bessière, J.; Tibere, L. Traditional Food and Tourism: French Tourist Experience and Food Heritage in Rural Spaces. J. Sci. Food
Agric. 2013, 93, 3420–3425. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
84. Merkel, A.; Säwe, F.; Fredriksson, C. The Seaweed Experience: Exploring the Potential and Value of a Marine Resource. Scand. J.
Hosp. Tour. 2021, 21, 391–406. [CrossRef]
85. Łuczaj, Ł.; Pieroni, A.; Tardío, J.; Pardo de Santayana, M.; Sõukand, R.; Svanberg, I.; Kalle, R. Wild Food Plant Use in 21 Century
Europe: The Disappearance of Old Traditions and the Search for New Cuisines Involving Wild Edibles. Acta-Soc. Bot. Pol. 2012,
81, 359–370. [CrossRef]
86. Magnani, N. Reconstructing Food Ways: Role of Skolt Sami Cultural Revitalization Programs in Local Plant Use. J. Ethnobiol.
2016, 36, 85–104. [CrossRef]
87. Svanberg, I.; Lindh, H. Mushroom Hunting and Consumption in Twenty-First Century Post-Industrial Sweden. J. Ethnobiol.
Ethnomed. 2019, 15, 42. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
88. de Jong, A.; Varley, P. Foraging Tourism: Critical Moments in Sustainable Consumption. J. Sustain. Tour. 2018, 26, 685–701.
[CrossRef]
89. Derek, M. Nature on a Plate: Linking Food and Tourism within the Ecosystem Services Framework. Sustainability 2021, 13, 1687.
[CrossRef]
90. Luković, M.; Kostić, M.; Dajić Stevanović, Z. Food Tourism Challenges in the Pandemic Period: Getting Back to Traditional and
Natural-Based Products. Curr. Issues Tour. 2024, 27, 428–444. [CrossRef]
91. Mina, G.; Scariot, V.; Peira, G.; Lombardi, G. Foraging Practices and Sustainable Management of Wild Food Resources in Europe:
A Systematic Review. Land 2023, 12, 1299. [CrossRef]
92. Angus, S. Modern Seaweed Harvesting and Gathering in Scotland: The Legal and Ecological Context*. Scottish Geogr. J. 2017, 133,
101–114. [CrossRef]
93. Buschmann, A.H.; Camus, C.; Infante, J.; Neori, A.; Israel, Á.; Hernández-González, M.C.; Pereda, S.V.; Gomez-Pinchetti, J.L.;
Golberg, A.; Tadmor-Shalev, N.; et al. Seaweed Production: Overview of the Global State of Exploitation, Farming and Emerging
Research Activity. Eur. J. Phycol. 2017, 52, 391–406. [CrossRef]
94. Lotze, H.K.; Milewski, I.; Fast, J.; Kay, L.; Worm, B. Ecosystem-Based Management of Seaweed Harvesting. Bot. Mar. 2019, 62,
395–409. [CrossRef]
95. Chopin, T.; Ugarte, R.A.U.L. The Seaweed Resources of Eastern Canada. In Seaweed Resources of the World; Critchley, A.T., Ohno,
M., Eds.; Japan International Cooperation Agency: Yokosuka, Japan, 1998; pp. 289–291.
96. Delaney, A.; Frangoudes, K.; Ii, S.-A. Chapter 2—Society and Seaweed: Understanding the Past and Present. In Seaweed in Health
and Disease Prevention; Fleurence, J., Levine, I., Eds.; Academic Press: San Diego, CA, USA, 2016; pp. 7–40.
97. Aziz, M.A.; Mattalia, G.; Sulaiman, N.; Shah, A.A.; Polesny, Z.; Kalle, R.; Sõukand, R.; Pieroni, A. The Nexus between Traditional
Foraging and Its Sustainability: A Qualitative Assessment among a Few Selected Eurasian Case Studies. Environ. Dev. Sustain.
2022, 28, 1–26. [CrossRef]
98. Teixidor-Toneu, I.; Giraud, N.J.; Karlsen, P.; Annes, A.; Kool, A. A Transdisciplinary Approach to Define and Assess Wild Food
Plant Sustainable Foraging in Norway. Plants People Planet 2023, 5, 112–122. [CrossRef]
99. Pieroni, A.; Nedelcheva, A.; Hajdari, A.; Mustafa, B.; Scaltriti, B.; Cianfaglione, K.; Quave, C.L. Local Knowledge on Plants and
Domestic Remedies in the Mountain Villages of Peshkopia (Eastern albania). J. Mt. Sci. 2014, 11, 180–193. [CrossRef]
100. Ang, P.O.; Sharp, G.J.; Semple, R.E. Changes in the Population Structure of Ascophyllum nodosum (L.) Le Jolis Due to Mechanical
Harvesting. Hydrobiologia 1993, 260, 321–326. [CrossRef]
Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337
30 of 30
101. Siggins, L. Canadian-Owned Seaweed Firm to Resubmit Applications for Licence. Available online: https://www.irishtimes.
com/business/agribusiness-and-food/canadian-owned-seaweed-firm-to-resubmit-applications-for-licence-1.3554256 (accessed
on 23 January 2024).
102. Garineaud, C. Pratiques Manuelles ou Mécanisées: La Part de la Main Dans les Perceptions Sensorielles et dans les Savoirs
Écologiques. Exemple des Récoltants D’algues en Bretagne. Available online: https://www.ethnographiques.org/2015
/Garineaud (accessed on 23 January 2024).
103. Cavallo, G.; Lorini, C.; Garamella, G.; Bonaccorsi, G. Seaweeds as a “Palatable” Challenge between Innovation and Sustainability:
A Systematic Review of Food Safety. Sustainability 2021, 13, 7652. [CrossRef]
104. Banach, J.L.; Hoek-van den Hil, E.F.; van der Fels-Klerx, H.J. Food Safety Hazards in the European Seaweed Chain. Compr. Rev.
Food Sci. Food Saf. 2020, 19, 332–364. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
105. Bizzaro, G.; Vatland, A.K.; Pampanin, D.M. The One-Health Approach in Seaweed Food Production. Environ. Int. 2022,
158, 106948. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.