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J Pediatr. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2018 October 01.
Published in final edited form as:
J Pediatr. 2017 October ; 189: 26–30. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2017.08.005.
Can We Prevent Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia?
Judy L. Aschner, MD1, Eduardo H. Bancalari, MD2, and Cindy T. McEvoy, MD3
1Dept
of Pediatrics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine and the Children’s Hospital at Montefiore,
Bronx NY 10467, USA
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2Dept
of Pediatrics, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
3Dept
of Pediatrics, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239-3098, USA
Keywords
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia; prevention; premature; lung health
Northway et al first described Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), a chronic condition
resulting from injury to the developing lung and pulmonary vasculature, in larger preterm
infants with severe respiratory failure after exposure to high oxygen and ventilator pressures
exposure.1 Today, BPD most commonly occurs in extremely preterm infants and is
characterized by a milder but protracted course and a different pathobiology than the BPD
described 50 years ago.2
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An evolving demographic, clinical and pathogenic picture has challenged the long-sought
goal of BPD prevention. Many antenatal factors, such as maternal hypertension, smoking
and infections that trigger preterm delivery also adversely affect in utero lung development.
After birth, preterm infants are exposed to multiple injurious factors that can disrupt
development and alter repair mechanisms of the lung and pulmonary vasculature.3 BPD
prevention will require a multi-pronged approach that combines strategies to limit lung and
vascular injury while promoting normal lung development. Over the past 50 years, multiple
preventative/therapeutic strategies have had variable success. We highlight some of these
strategies and outline opportunities for primary prevention of BPD (Figure).2
PRENATAL INTERVENTIONS
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There is evidence that individuals follow a pulmonary function trajectory established very
early in gestation and that this trajectory can be influenced by prenatal and preconception
exposures.3 BPD likely begins in-utero and may be impacted by preconception and obstetric
Corresponding Author: Judy L. Aschner, MD, Montefiore Medical Center, Department of Pediatrics, 3411 Wayne Avenue, Room 745,
Bronx, New York 10467, Office Phone Number: 718-741-2499, Office Fax: 718-741-2427, judy.aschner@einstein.yu.edu.
No reprints requested
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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Aschner et al.
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risk factors including intrauterine toxins, gene mutations, epigenetics, and gene-environment
interactions (Figure). The current operational term “BPD” represents a combination of
several chronic lung diseases, and improved endotyping to identify patient-specific
pathophysiologic mechanisms of altered lung development will allow personalized
prevention approaches, potentially prenatally. This will require precise definitions of
obstetrical conditions (such as preeclampsia and chorioamnionitis); non-invasive study of
the human fetal lung; development of surrogate markers of fetal lung injury from amniotic
fluid or maternal blood; and elucidation of the role of the placenta in fetal lung development.
Several potential causal pathways and preconception/prenatal windows for primary
prevention identified from clinical research are highlighted below.
Obstetric Practices/Prevention of Prematurity
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The most effective intervention to decrease BPD is to prevent or decrease premature
deliveries. Progesterone, smoking cessation, cervical cerclage, and changes in fertility
practice to transfer fewer embryos are effective in select patient populations.4 Studies
designed to decrease preterm births have not rigorously examined the impact on BPD.
Genetics of BPD
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Twin studies demonstrate that moderate to severe BPD has a heritability of 50–80%. Several
candidate genes have been associated with high risk for BPD, including surfactant proteins,
SPOCK2, TNF, IL-18, superoxide dismutase, and VEGF, and others,5 but validation studies
are lacking. A recent genome-wide association and gene set analysis for BPD suggest that
phenotypic differences in the severity of BPD are also manifest at the genomic level, with
distinct biologic pathways associated wtih these phenotypes. 6 Progress in BPD prevention
and its genetic underpinnings will likely require further studies with adequate validation
cohorts in order to specifically target specific pathways for intervention as identified by
“personalized genomics.”
The Barker Hypothesis, Fetal Programming, and Maternal Nutrition
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Fetal undernutrition leads to uneven fetal growth and may program persistent changes in
postnatal growth and development.7 Fetal growth restriction in extremely low gestational
age newborns is independently associated with the risk of BPD,8 which is likely due to
decreased lung growth. Protein deprivation impairs alveolarization in animal models and
maternal high fat diet during pregnancy is associated with wheeze and asthma in the
offspring.9 Although few studies have examined the effects of maternal diet on BPD risk,
past studies suggest the need for further research on the impact of maternal diet on the
premature lung, including the role of maternal vitamin deficiency in disease pathogenesis.
Prevention of BPD will require further delineation of the role of abnormal placental
pathology such as maternal vascular under-perfusion, such as occurs with preeclampsia and
fetal growth restriction, both of which are associated with increased risk of BPD.10
Environmental Exposures
Multiple environmental exposures can directly or indirectly affect lung development at any
gestational age, but preterm infants may be particularly vulnerable. Epigenetic changes
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consisting of DNA methylation, histone modifications, and microRNA changes in response
to a variety of environmental stimuli such as toxins, oxidative stress, and infection may
increase BPD susceptibility by altering the expression of genes involved in prenatal and
postnatal lung development.2 For instance, a recent study identified multiple genes
potentially regulated by DNA methylation during normal alveolar septation in the mouse
and human lung, and in BPD.11 In utero smoke exposure modifies the methylation of
specific genes, has been associated with changes in indices of global DNA methylation, and
biologic pathways impacted through epigenetic changes by in utero smoke are being
identified.12 Maternal prenatal stress, cortisol, in-utero smoke, particulate exposure, and
obesity have been shown to be independently associated with child wheeze, likely through
programming mechanisms. Longitudinal samples from patients at risk for BPD are needed
to examine longitudinal methylome and transciptome changes.
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Inflammation and Host Immune Responses
Prenatal inflammation is strongly associated with an increased risk for BPD.13 Better
understanding of the role of lung inflammation and host immune responses in BPD
pathobiology should facilitate development of inflammatory biomarker panels for BPD
prediction and intervention targets. Selective anti-inflammatory therapies and modulators of
innate immunity at the maternal-fetal interface and its impact on the subsequent lung
microbiome of the preterm infants at risk for BPD need to be further defined.
POSTNATAL INTERVENTIONS
Respiratory support at birth and strategies to reduce ventilator associated injury
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Most extremely low birth weight (ELBW) infants require respiratory support at birth.
Animal studies have demonstrated that even a brief exposure to large tidal volumes at birth
may cause significant lung injury predisposing to BPD.9 Because invasive respiratory
support is a major contributor to the development of BPD, application of non-invasive
respiratory support has become a popular strategy in its prevention. A recent meta-analysis
showed a significant decrease in the incidence of BPD or death (OR 0.83; CI: 0.71–0.96)
with early NCPAP versus mechanical ventilation.14 Studies have evaluated nasal ventilation
(NIPPV) as an alternative to NCPAP or intubation, but a large RCT did not show superiority
of this approach in reducing death or BPD compared with NCPAP (OR 1.09; CI: 0.83–1.43,
P 0.56).15,
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RCTs of approaches to minimize ventilator associated lung injury, including high frequency
oscillatory ventilation and volume-targeted ventilation have shown inconsistent effects on
the incidence of BPD. Although none of these trials showed clear differences in long-term
outcomes, a meta-analysis showed a reduction in BPD or death with the use of volume
targeting modes (RR 0.73; CI: 0.57–0.93, NNT8).16
Surfactant treatment
Exogenous surfactant replacement decreases mortality and respiratory distress syndrome
severity, but does not reduce the incidence of BPD, which may be due to enhanced survival,
as surfactant reduces the combined outcome of BPD or death at 28 days of age (RR 0.83, CI
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0.77–0.90).17 Minimally invasive modes of surfactant delivery, such as through the use of a
strategy known as Less Invasive Surfactant Administration (LISA), may reduce the
incidence of death or BPD.18 A large RCT of the use of late surfactant therapy in premature
intubated infants did not show reduced BPD.19
Oxygen therapy and BPD
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The use of 100% oxygen during resuscitation has been associated with increased mortality
and possible lung injury, but data on the effects of low versus high oxygen for resuscitation
of the premature infant are inconsistent. A recent meta-analysis failed to show a reduction in
BPD with use of low (FiO2≤0.3) versus high oxygen (FiO2≥0.6)20 and recent trials have
shown higher mortality in infants receiving room air when compared with higher oxygen.21
After resuscitation, the inspired oxygen is titrated according to the targeted oxygen
saturation (SpO2). Three large RCTs of more than 5000 premature infants compared the
effects of low (85–89%) and high (91–95%) targeted SpO2 on neonatal morbidities and
mortality. Two of these trials showed that low SpO2 targets recused the incidence of BPD
but was associated with an increase in mortality.22
Nutrition and fluid management
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Postnatal growth failure is common in infants with BPD, a consequence of insufficient
nutrition, increased energy use and adverse effects of drug therapies.23 Animal models
suggest that undernutrition is associated with impaired lung growth and may increase the
risk of BPD independent of the severity of early respiratory failure.23 Use of maternal milk
has been associated with a reduction in BPD, possibly due to its antioxidant properties.24
Although large RCTs of different nutritional approaches for BPD prevention are lacking, a
nutritional strategy of adequate macro- and micro-nutrients to prevent postnatal growth
failure has sound physiological rationale.
Pharmacologic interventions
Methylxanthines—Caffeine reduced BPD in an RCT of caffeine versus placebo, from
47% to 36%; P< .01).26 Possible mechanisms are the shorter duration of mechanical
ventilation use, or anti-inflammatory or diuretic effects. These results have led to early use
of caffeine, but further safety evidence on this early indication is needed.
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Postnatal Steroids—Corticosteroids have been used in infants with evolving BPD to
improve lung function and facilitate extubation. Multiple reports of adverse
neurodevelopmental outcomes after prolonged courses of high dose dexamethasone27 have
led to renewed effort to find an optimum regimen of corticosteroid therapy, particularly
dexamethasone in high risk patients. 28;29 Hydrocortisone may provide an alternative
prevention strategy for BPD with less potential for neurotoxic effects.30 A recent RCT using
low dose hydrocortisone in ELBW infants showed increased survival without BPD31 and
without significant neurodevelopmental effects at 2 years of age.32 Early inhaled budesonide
versus placebo in ELBW infants reduced BPD but there was a concerning trend toward
increased mortality.33 A meta-analysis of 10 trials of early inhaled steroids in infants <1500
grams showed decreased BPD among survivors (RR 0.76, 95% CI 0.63 to 0.93; NNTB
14).34 Yeh et al studied surfactant mixed with budesonide and surfactant alone for preterm
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infants with severe RDS. Infants receiving surfactant with budesonide had a lower incidence
of BPD (42% vs 66%; RR, 0.58; CI: 0.44–0.77; P < .001) without evidence of neurological
side effects.35
Vitamin A—Vitamin A and its metabolites play an important role in lung development and
repair of respiratory epithelium. A recent meta-analysis showed a small reduction in
incidence of BPD with Vitamin A supplementation as compared with placebo (RR 0.87 CI
0.77–0.99 NNTB 11 CI 6–100).36 However, vitamin A is not universally used due to high
cost, limited availability, and need for frequent intramuscular injections..
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Inhaled Nitric Oxide—Endogenous nitric oxide is required for alveolar and vascular
development and decreased production may contribute to the pathogenesis of BPD. Trials
evaluating inhaled nitric oxide (iNO) for prevention of BPD have produced inconsistent
results and a systematic review showed no beneficial effect on incidence of BPD.37
Emerging Therapies—Better understanding of molecular pathways involved in alveolar
and vascular development, and mechanisms of lung injury and repair has opened multiple
potential targets for innovative BPD prevention strategies. Clara Cell Protein (CC10) has
strong anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties. Administration of recombinant
human CC10 (rhCC10) upregulates surfactant protein and vascular endothelial growth factor
expression, improves lung mechanics and decreases lung injury in animal models. A pilot
study of rhCC10 in preterm infants showed significant anti-inflammatory effects in the lung
and was well tolerated.38
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Stem cell therapy is a promising intervention for BPD prevention. In animal models of
hyperoxia-induced lung injury, mesenchymal stem cells have been shown to be effective
preventative and treatment strategies of lung injury.39 Preliminary results from a small phase
I study also showed promising results in infants with RDS but larger RCTs are needed.39
Conclusion
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BPD remains the most common chronic sequelae affecting preterm infants. To prevent BPD,
improved understanding of factors contributing to both lung health and disease in the fetus
and premature infant is required. Innovative techniques for noninvasive, longitudinal
measurements of airway anatomy and lung mechanics in infants and young children must be
developed as current testing is limited by the need for sedation, use of ionizing radiation,
and lack of regional specificity of lung function. Given the complex antenatal and postnatal
factors affecting alveolar and vascular development, no single therapy will eradicate BPD.
Rather, a combination of multiple strategies acting on the various causal pathways is more
likely to be effective in the future prevention of BPD.
Acknowledgments
Supported by the National Institutes of Health UG3OD023320 to JLA; UG3OD023288, HL105447, and HL129060
to C.T.M.
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List of abbreviations
BPD
bronchopulmonary dysplasia
ELBW
extremely low birth weight
RCT
randomized controlled trials
NCPAP
nasal continuous positive airway pressure
NIPPV
nasal intermittent positive pressure ventilation
iNO
inhaled nitric oxide
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Figure.
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Windows of opportunities for Prevention of BPD.
Antenatal and postnatal factors can predispose the structurally and biochemically immature
lung to the development of BPD. BPD most commonly occurs in ELGAN born during the
cannalicular or early saccular phases of lung development. However not all extremely
premature infants develop BPD, suggesting BPD can be prevented. Figure 1 identifies
potential windows of opportunity for primary prevention of BPD. IUGR= Intrauterine
growth retardation
Reprinted with permission of the American Thoracic Society. Copyright © 2017 American
Thoracic Society.
McEvoy CT, Jain L, Schmidt B, Abman S, Bancalari E, Aschner JL. NHLBI Workshop on
the primary prevention of chronic lung disease: Bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Ann Am
Thorac Soc 2014; 11: S146–S153.
Annals of the American Thoracic Society is an official journal of the American Thoracic
Society.
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J Pediatr. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2018 October 01.