Psychiatry Research 136 (2005) 201 – 209
www.elsevier.com/locate/psychres
Effects of cold stress on early and late stimulus gating
M. Numan Ermutlu a,*, Sacit Karamürsel b, Engin H. Ugur a,
Lerzan Senturk a, Nuran Gokhan a
a
Department of Physiology, Kadir Has University Faculty of Medicine, Vefabey sok No: 5 Gayrettepe, 80810 Istanbul, Turkey
b
Department of Physiology, Istanbul University, Istanbul Medical Faculty, Millet Cad. Capa Istanbul, Turkey
Received 22 January 2002; received in revised form 30 December 2002; accepted 5 March 2003
Abstract
The P50 component of the event-related potential (ERP) mainly reflects early pre-attentional processing. Along with P50,
the N100 component and mismatch negativity (MMN) were postulated to represent a complex multistage and multi-component
gating system. If some variable threshold or gating is exceeded by the MMN signal, the MMN is often followed by a relatively
sharp fronto-central positive wave, the P3a component, which reflects an attentional switch to an environmental change. The
P50 was shown to be affected by mental and cold stress, and the P3a amplitude was shown to be increased by the anticipation of
threat. The aim of this study is to examine concurrently the early and late ERP indices of gating during acute stress. The ERPs to
auditory stimuli in a passive oddball paradigm were recorded in 15 normal subjects during the cold pressor test and a control
condition. The cold pressor test diminished P50 gating, increased N100 amplitude, elicited P3a responses and had no significant
effect on MMN. Transient stress could impair early sensory gating and the ability to ignore irrelevant information that can cause
passive attention switches indexed by the P3a component.
D 2005 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Event-related potential; Mismatch negativity; Evoked potentials; Electrophysiology; Oddball paradigm; Stress
1. Introduction
Sensory gating is broadly defined as the ability of
the brain to modulate its sensitivity to incoming sensory stimuli (Braff and Geyer, 1990). It reflects a complex multistage, multi-component process (Boutros
and Belger, 1999). Sensory gating is commonly studied
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 212 2752636; fax: +90 212
2756108.
E-mail address: nermutlu@khas.edu.tr (M.N. Ermutlu).
in paired click, oddball, and trains paradigms (Boutros
et al., 1999). In the paired click paradigm, the effects of
repetition on the amplitude of the P50 component of the
event-related potential (ERP) is believed to reflect an
automatic pre-attentive inhibitory capacity. In the oddball paradigm, on the other hand, increased amplitude
of the P50 component to infrequent auditory stimuli has
been shown to reflect pre-attentive recognition of novel
stimuli or bgating inQ of stimuli while decreased amplitude to frequent auditory stimuli reflects bgating outQ of
stimuli (Boutros et al., 1995).
0165-1781/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2003.03.002
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M.N. Ermutlu et al. / Psychiatry Research 136 (2005) 201–209
In the oddball paradigm, the subject is presented a
sequence of repetitive bstandardQ (frequent) stimuli
that are randomly, and with a low probability, replaced
by a different deviant (infrequent) stimulus. In the
passive (ignore) paradigm, attention is directed away
from the acoustic stimuli to a concurrent (primary)
task, usually involving another sensory modality, such
as reading an interesting book or performing a challenging visual discrimination task. The passive oddball paradigm is used to study brain responses to
ignored stimuli and to underlying involuntary discrimination of, and attention switches to, deviant stimuli
(Näätänen, 1990). On the other hand, in the active
oddball condition, the subject has to attend to all the
stimuli to discriminate the deviant stimuli among
them. Thus, the main interest is in the brain responses
associated with attention.
Infrequent auditory stimuli deviating from a repetitive standard sound in some physical features, such
as frequency, elicit the mismatch negativity (MMN)
component of the ERP. MMN can be derived from a
difference wave obtained by subtracting the standard
stimulus ERP from the deviant stimulus ERP (Sams et
al., 1985). MMN is thought to reflect the outcome of a
mismatch process automatically registering the deviation of the current input from the neuronal representation of a repetitive stimulus in sensory memory
(Näätänen, 1990).
MMN is often followed by a relatively sharp
fronto-central positive wave that peaks at about
250 ms and is caused by the P3a component (Squires
et al., 1975). The P3a component seems to be more
easily elicited by the deviant stimulus when the
magnitude of stimulus deviation is great, the interstimulus interval is short, and the primary task is not
very demanding. The P3a component might reflect
an attentional switch to an environmental change
encoded by the cerebral process generating the
MMN if some variable threshold is exceeded by
this signal. Then a subsequent stage may be activated, resulting in the conscious detection of the
deviant event. The P3a component might be the
most sensitive cerebral indicator of an attentional
switch (Schröger, 1997). However, in battendQ conditions when infrequent nontarget stimuli are inserted
into the sequence of target and standard stimuli
(three-stimuli oddball), the N2b–P3a complex is elicited in fronto-central and central scalp distributions
to the infrequent nontarget stimuli (Courchesne et al.,
1975; Squires et al., 1975).
The data suggest a specific role for noradrenaline
in the modulation of sensory processing in humans
and rats (Adler et al., 1988; Stevens et al., 1991;
Miyazoto et al., 2000) and in the modulation of automatic attentional processing (Missonnier et al., 1999).
Increased noradrenergic neuronal transmission in the
central nervous system (CNS) induced by the alpha-2
noradrenergic antagonist yohimbine in normal controls can cause a transient impairment in auditory
sensory gating (Adler et al., 1988; Stevens et al.,
1993). Combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) exhibited decreased habituation of the
P1 (P50) mid-latency auditory evoked potential (Neylan et al., 1999; Skinner et al., 1999).
Cerebral events underlying the P3a component
probably participate in the sequence of processes
leading to the release of an autonomic nervous system
(ANS) response pattern typical of the orienting
response (Näätänen and Gaillard, 1983). The integrity
of the locus ceruleus (LC) and its ascending fibers was
shown to be important in the generation and modulation of surface-recorded P300-like activity (Swick
et al., 1994).
The prefrontal cortex seems to be a common generator site of P50 and P3a components of the ERP.
Both components have been shown to be affected by
prefrontal lesions (Knight, 1984; Knight et al., 1989).
In this study, we examined the effects of sympathetic nervous system processes induced by a cold
pressor test on sensory gating, pre-attentive deviance
detection, and attentional shifts. A modified passive
oddball paradigm was used to assure that the interstimulus interval (ISI) between the deviant stimuli
would be long enough to allow recovery from the
effects of the preceding deviant stimulus and to
delineate the effects of stress on sensory gating, preattentive deviance detection and attentional switch.
2. Methods
2.1. Subjects
Fifteen healthy volunteers (8 men and 7 women),
who ranged in age from 19 to 46 years (mean = 26.3,
S.D. = 8) and who were without hypertension, were
M.N. Ermutlu et al. / Psychiatry Research 136 (2005) 201–209
included in the study. Two of the subjects were smokers (2–4 cigarettes/day). All subjects were either
students or employees of the university. They were
clinically interviewed and examined by one of the
authors (MNE). None of the subjects had a history
of psychiatric, neurological or hearing problems.
2.2. Cold pressor test
Although the cold pressor test traditionally
involves water at temperatures of 2–4 8C, with brief,
usually 1-min exposure, 10 8C water was chosen here
to enable longer hand immersion while still eliciting a
pressor response (Winzer et al., 1999). The volunteers
were required to alternately submerge each hand to
the wrist in two blocks of 10 8C water for 5 min.
Arterial blood pressure and heart rates were measured
from the contralateral arm at the beginning and the
end of the cold pressor test.
Distress ratings were obtained by asking participants to locate on a 10-cm line the level of pain they
were experiencing between points of no distress (0)
and extreme distress (10) in the baseline room temperature water and the 10 8C water. The subjects were
also tested for subjective rating of 2 8C water.
2.3. ERP recording
Electroencephalographic activity was measured at
the Fz, F3, F4, FCz, Cz, and Pz recording sites with
silver/silver chloride disk electrodes referenced to
linked ear lobes. Electro-oculographic (EOG) activity
was measured by bipolar recording with electrodes
placed at the outer left canthus and below the left eye.
All data were amplified (Psylab EEG amplifier) with
band-pass filters set at 0.1 and 40 Hz. The signals
were sampled at a rate of 400 points/s.
Stimulus duration was 50 ms with a sound intensity of 70 dB SPL, as measured at the subject’s ear by
a sound meter. The standards were 1000-Hz tones,
and the deviants were 1250-Hz tones. The probabilities of the deviant and standard stimuli were 20% and
80%, respectively. Stimuli were presented with 2-s
interstimulus intervals (ISIs). Infrequent stimuli did
not occur in direct succession. Artifacts were eliminated by manual off-line selective averaging, taking
into consideration the EOG. For each condition, 40
deviant and 40 standard stimuli were averaged.
203
Nicotine and caffeine were not allowed for 12 h
before recording because of their effects on the P50
component. The subjects were asked to read an
interesting book of their choice and to ignore all
stimuli. Reading was controlled through examination
of horizontal eye movements from the EOG. Recordings were made in four blocks (150 stimuli 30/120),
alternating hand immersion to the wrist for 5-min
intervals: Two blocks were recorded during the cold
presser test, and two blocks during the baseline
recording while the hand of the participant was
immersed in water at room temperature.
2.4. Data analysis
Averages of two blocks for the cold pressor condition and two blocks for the control condition were
taken for analysis. ERPs to deviant and standard
stimuli were averaged. The P50 and N1 waves were
measured in averaged standard and deviant ERPs (the
former as the largest positive peak between 30 and 70
ms and the latter as the largest negative peak between
80 and 130 ms). The P50 amplitude responses to
deviant minus standard tones and the P50 ratio (P50
deviant / P50 standard 100) were also assessed for
early pre-attentive gating function.
The MMN and P3a components were assessed by
subtracting the averaged standard responses from the
averaged deviant responses. The mean amplitude and
latency of MMN was measured in the time window
between 100 and 200 ms, and the mean amplitude and
latency of P3a was measured in the 200- to 300-ms
time window.
2.5. Statistical analysis
The data were subjected to multivariate analysis of
variance with repeated measures and paired t-tests.
Reduced degrees of freedom (Greenhouse–Geisser)
were used to counter violations of the sphericity
assumption where necessary.
The amplitude of P50 and the amplitude and
latency of N100 were examined by three-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) for repeated measures,
condition (control, cold stress) stimuli (standard,
deviant) electrode site (Fz, F3, F4, FCz, Cz). The
amplitude and latency of P50, P50 ratio (deviant /
standard), P50 difference (deviant standard), MMN
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M.N. Ermutlu et al. / Psychiatry Research 136 (2005) 201–209
P50 (deviants-standards)
2
Amplitude (uV)
and P3a were analyzed with two-way ANOVAs,
condition (control, cold stress) electrode site (Fz,
F3, F4, FCz, Cz). For P3a, the Pz electrode site
was also included in the analysis. Pearson’s test
was used for correlation analysis.
1
0
cold stress
3. Results
-1
Fig. 1. Mean P50 difference (F S.D.) (deviant standard) in cold
pressor test and control conditions. Bars indicate FS.D.
3.1. Heart rate and arterial pressure
All data are shown in Table 1. Baseline and cold
pressor test data were compared by paired t-tests.
Systolic arterial tension recordings were significantly
higher in the cold pressor test than the baseline
recordings ( P b 0.01). There was no significant effect
of the cold pressor test on pulse and diastolic arterial
tension.
3.2. Self-rating
Self-ratings of distress increased as a result of
water temperature in the cold pressor test in a simple
factorial ANOVA ( F = 88.48, df = 2,42, P b 0.001).
The cold pressor test at 2 8C was significantly
more distressing than the baseline ( P b 0.001) and
10 8C temperature, and the 10 8C temperature was
significantly more distressing than the baseline
( P b 0.001).
Table 1
Mean amplitude and latency of ERP components at Fz, and means
of systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, heart rate and
subjective distress ratings of 15 subjects
Component
P50 (deviants)
P50 (standards)
P50 difference
P50 ratio
N100 (deviants)
N100 (standards)
N100 (deviants)
N100 (standards)
MMN
MMN
SBP
DBP
HR
Distress rating
control
Measures
Amplitude (AV)
Amplitude (AV)
Amplitude (AV)
Cold stress
Control
Mean
Mean
S.D.
S.D.
1.65 0.95
1.76
0.7
1.52 0.90
0.81
0.47
0.25 0.7
0.95
0.63
86.30 38.80 249.30 111.20
Amplitude (AV)
7.31 4.23
6.03
1.37
Amplitude (AV)
7.56 3.41
5.34
1.48
Latency (ms)
103.2
4.63 102.86
2.74
Latency (ms)
101.73 5.62 102.40
4.48
Amplitude (AV)
2.79 1.15
2.43
1.24
Latency (ms)
142.53 51.58 137.39 17.46
mmHg
115.20 10.37 106.00
5.90
mmHg
69.40 9.48 66.13
8.22
Beat/min
73.66 6.96 73.73
5.73
Subjective
3.26 1.43
0.6
0.51
3.3. P50 and N100 components
Three-way ANOVAs, two conditions (cold pressor
test vs. baseline) two stimuli type (deviant
standard)5 electrodes (Fz, F3, F4, FCz, Cz), were
applied to the amplitude of P50, and to the amplitude
and latency values of N100.
P50 amplitude showed significant condition and
stimulus effects. P50 amplitudes were larger in the
cold pressor test condition than in the control condition ( F = 7.0, df = 1, 14, P b 0.02), and P50 amplitudes
to deviant stimuli were larger than P50 amplitudes to
standard stimuli ( F = 34.8, P b 0.001). The condition stimulus type interaction was also significant
( F = 8.9, df = 1, 14, P b 0.01). Paired t-tests showed
that P50 amplitude to standard stimuli in the control
condition was smaller than both the P50 amplitude to
deviant tones in the control condition (t = 5.8,
df = 14, P b 0.001, two-tailed), and P50 amplitudes to
deviant and standard tones in the cold pressor test
condition (t = 3.4, df = 14, P b 0.003, two-tailed;
t = 3.3, df = 14, P b 0.004, two-tailed) (Fig. 1). Electrode site had no main effect on P50 amplitude.
Condition had a significant main effect on N1
amplitudes ( F = 11.2, df = 1, 14, P b 0.005). There
were no main effects of stimulus and channel on
N1 amplitude. N1 latency was not significantly
affected (Fig. 2).
3.4. P50 ratio, P50 difference
P50 amplitude ratio (infrequent / frequent) showed a
significant main effect for condition ( F = 16.68,
df = 1, 14, P b 0.001). The P50 ratio was significantly
smaller in the cold pressor test condition than in the
control condition. The P50 amplitude difference (infre-
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M.N. Ermutlu et al. / Psychiatry Research 136 (2005) 201–209
quent frequent) also showed a significant main effect
for condition ( F = 10.85, df = 1, 14, P b 0.005). The
P50 amplitude difference was smaller in the cold
pressor test than in the control condition, where there
was no significant effect of electrode site. The P50
difference (deviant standard) correlated significantly
with N100 responses to standards (r = 0.4, P b 0.01,
two-tailed) and N100 responses to deviants (r = 0.3,
P b 0.01, two-tailed).
N100 Responses
Amplitude (uV)
-12
-8
-4
deviants
standards
0
cold stress
3.5. MMN and P3a components
contro l
Fig. 2. Mean N100 response amplitudes (FS.D.) to deviant and
standard stimuli in cold pressor test and control conditions. Bars
indicate FS.D.
There was no significant effect of condition and
electrode placement on MMN amplitude and latency.
FCz
4
2
2
uV
uV
Fz
4
0
-100
0
100
200
300
400
0
-100
500
0
100
200
300
400
500
-2
-2
-4
-4
ms
ms
4
2
2
uV
uV
Cz
4
0
-100
0
100
200
300
400
500
-2
Pz
0
-100
0
100
200
300
400
500
-2
-4
-4
ms
ms
EOG
10
uV
5
0
-100
0
100
200
300
400
500
-5
-10
ms
Fig. 3. Grand average difference waveforms obtained by subtracting ERPs to standard tones from those to deviants. Black line = cold pressor
test; gray line = baseline condition.
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M.N. Ermutlu et al. / Psychiatry Research 136 (2005) 201–209
Table 2
Mean amplitude and latency of the P3a components of the eventrelated potential at Fz, F3, F4, FCz, Cz, and Pz of 15 subjects
Channel
Fz
F3
F4
FCz
Cz
Pz
Fz
F3
F4
FCz
Cz
Pz
Measures
Amplitude (AV)
Amplitude (AV)
Amplitude (AV)
Amplitude (AV)
Amplitude (AV)
Amplitude (AV)
Latency (ms)
Latency (ms)
Latency (ms)
Latency (ms)
Latency (ms)
Latency (ms)
Cold stress
Baseline
Mean
S.D.
Mean
S.D.
2.15
2.10
2.00
2.38
2.10
1.64
265.7
260.5
250.9
260.3
279.5
277.4
0.94
0.97
1.03
1.30
1.29
0.98
35
28.7
30.8
29.5
28.6
25.7
3.90
3.31
3.88
4.26
4.17
2.80
247.3
247.4
248.6
244.0
265.5
277.3
2.30
1.16
2.14
2.30
2.48
1.17
41.2
43.1
43.1
40.6
40.2
29.6
P3a amplitude displayed significant condition ( F =
16.26, df = 1, 14, P b 0.001) and electrode site effects
( F = 3.98, df = 2.4, 43.1, P b 0.01, e = 0.615). P3a
amplitudes were significantly larger in the cold
pressor test than in the control condition (Fig. 3).
The Bonferroni test confirmed that P3a amplitude at
Pz electrode site was significantly smaller than P3a
amplitude at FCz and Cz ( P b 0.02, P b 0.04, respectively). There was no significant condition electrode
site for P3a amplitude.
P3a latency showed a significant electrode site
effect ( F = 12.2, df = 2.4, 43.1, P b 0.001, e = 0.486).
The Bonferroni test confirmed that P3a latency was
significantly longer at the Cz and Pz electrode sites
than at the other channels (Fz, F3, F4, FCz) ( P b 0.02)
(Table 2). There was no significant condition
electrode site interaction for P3a latency.
P3a showed a moderate but significant correlation
with P50 difference (r = 0.3, P b 0.01, two-tailed)
and P50 ratio (r = 0.3; P b 0.01, two-tailed). P3a
also significantly correlated with N100 response to
standard tones (r = 0.4, P b 0.01, two-tailed) and
N100 response to deviant tones (r = 0.4, P b 0.01,
two-tailed).
4. Discussion
The results of the blood pressure measurements
and analog subjective ratings suggest that the cold
pressor test used in our study induced milder stress
in comparison to the stress induced by the conventional test. Because the capacitance vessels (veins)
reach maximal constriction at a lower sympathetic
stimulation frequency than do resistance vessels
(Berne and Levy, 1998), we obtained only a systolic
pressure increase, which is mostly determined by
cardiac output, and no significant change in diastolic
pressure, which is determined by arterial peripheral
resistance.
In the oddball paradigm, sensory gating is operationally defined as the ratio of the amplitude of the
response to the infrequent stimulus divided by the
amplitude of the response to frequent stimulus (Boutros et al., 1995). Higher ratios can either reflect
lower amplitudes in response to frequent stimuli,
and thus stronger inhibition with repetition, or higher
amplitudes in response to infrequent stimuli and,
thus, stronger response to rare stimuli (Boutros et
al., 1995). In this study, the P50 amplitude to deviants was significantly higher than the P50 amplitude
to standards in the control condition as previously
demonstrated in the oddball paradigm with the same
ISI (Boutros and Belger, 1999). Decreased P50 difference and decreased P50 ratio during the cold
pressor test as a result of increased P50 amplitude
to standard tones suggest that cold stress impaired
auditory sensory gating in normal subjects. Our data
also support the findings of impaired gating obtained
with the cold pressor test (Johnson and Adler, 1993)
and with mental arithmetic stress (White and Yee,
1997) in the double click paradigm.
N100 response amplitudes to both standard and
deviant tones were significantly increased in the cold
pressor test, where there was no significant stimulus
effect. At relatively long ISIs, such as the 2-s ISI in
our study, N1 amplitudes for standard and deviant
stimuli usually differ little or not at all (Näätänen and
Picton, 1987). Because of the relatively longer ISI in
our study, and the moderate correlations between
P50 difference and N100 responses, as well as the
correlations between P50 ratio, P3a and N100
responses, our data did not rule out a gating function
of N100. Reduced serotoninergic activity has been
shown to increase the slope of the auditory evoked
potential as a function of stimulus intensity. Because
stimulus intensity did not differ among the stimuli in
our study, the increase in N100 amplitudes to both
standard and deviant stimuli suggests that increased
M.N. Ermutlu et al. / Psychiatry Research 136 (2005) 201–209
noradrenergic activity during the acute cold stress
might have led to increased amplitudes of N100,
perhaps as an effect of decreased recovery time of
the N100 generators.
Elicitation of the P3a component is dependent on
a variable threshold and specific stimuli and ISI
conditions in the passive oddball paradigm; a short
ISI and a large physical difference between deviant
and standard stimuli are important. If the stimulus
deviation is great, the P3a may be preceded by the
N2b. In our data, the N2b component could not be
isolated in the individual recordings. In our recording
conditions, ISI and deviant standard deviation magnitude were not typical for eliciting P3a as can be
seen in the control condition P3a responses. In that
case, the significant increase in P3a response amplitude during the cold pressor test seems to be related
to a change in the variable threshold. The finding of
no change in MMN amplitude supports this suggestion. The P3a component is elicited as a result of a
deviance detection process indexed by MMN that
surpasses the variable threshold (Schröger, 1997).
The variable threshold might function as a gate to
a limited capacity system.
It can also be argued that a significant increase of
P3a amplitude might be caused by attention to the
auditory stimuli because of cold stress. In attend conditions, N2 and P3b ERP components were elicited
along with exogenous components and P3b was maximally positive at Pz. Its amplitude reflects the amount
of allocation of attention to the stimulus processing,
whereas P3a is detected at an earlier latency and is
maximally positive fronto-centrally (Ritter and Ruchkin, 1992). Significantly lower P3 amplitude at the Pz
electrode site and the lack of an apparent N2 component suggest that increased amplitudes of P3a during
cold stress did not result from the subjects’ attention
to the stimuli.
In a three-stimuli active oddball paradigm,
increased P3a amplitudes were found in patients
with panic disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder
(Clark et al., 1996; Kimble et al., 2000). In a passive
condition with a three-stimuli oddball paradigm, P3a
amplitude was found to be increased during anxiety
induced by anticipation of shock (Grillon and Ameli,
1994). It seems that some subjects with anxiety disorders have defective filtering or gating of stimuli at
the end point of the preconscious cognitive proces-
207
sing that directs attention to the physical changes in
the stimulus array. That may lead to difficulty in
adapting to novelty and unnecessary allocation of
resources (Clark et al., 1996). The proposed abnormalities of noradrenergic functioning in these disorders
(Nutt et al., 1999; Southwick et al., 1997) and the role
of noradrenalin in stress induced by both the cold
pressor test (Sherwood et al., 1986) and attention
(Selden et al., 1990) suggest the importance of the
noradrenergic system in the variable threshold that,
when low, may cause attentional switches indexed by
the P3a component.
P3a is most clearly evoked in medial frontal structures such as the frontal gyrus pars triangularis, anterior cingulate gyrus and dorsolateral frontal cortex
(Baudena et al., 1995). These areas are strongly interconnected, and together they have been hypothesized
to constitute the cerebral network for the orientation
of attention (Baudena et al., 1995). In a functional
magnetic resonance imaging study, innocuous thermal
related activations were located mainly in the anterior
part of the anterior cingulate cortex, which was proposed to be a non-specific attention/arousal system
(Kwan et al., 2000). Knight (1984) found that P3a to
novel sounds was greatly decreased in subjects with
frontal lobe lesions. P50 responses were also found to
be increased in frontal lesions, indicating disturbed
gating (Knight et al., 1989).
Moderate but significant correlations between P50
difference, N100, and P3a suggest that these ERP
components can be associated in the multi-component, multistage gating system. The data indicate
that in a mildly stressed brain, induced by the cold
pressor test, the ability to filter out irrelevant sensory
information is lost along with the ability to ignore
irrelevant information that can cause a passive attention switch (breakthrough of the unattended) as
indexed by P3a. The findings show that inducing
acute stress using a cold pressor test during ERP
recordings in a passive oddball condition with 2-s
ISIs can provide important information about the
early and late filtering (gating) of auditory stimuli.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to Henry Ledwith for
his editorial support, and to Monte S. Buchsbaum
208
M.N. Ermutlu et al. / Psychiatry Research 136 (2005) 201–209
and two anonymous reviewers for their constructive
comments.
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