A Companion to the Etruscans, edited by Sinclair Bell and Alexandra Carpino. Malden, Mass.: Wiley Blackwell, 2016.

A CompAnion to the etrusCAns This series provides sophisticated and authoritative overviews of periods of ancient history, genres of classical literature, and the most important themes in ancient culture. Each volume comprises approximately twenty‐five and forty concise essays written by individual scholars within their area of specialization. The essays are written in a clear, provocative, and lively manner, designed for an international audience of scholars, students, and general readers. ANCIENT HISTORY A Companion to the Roman Army Edited by Paul Erdkamp A Companion to the Roman Republic Edited by Nathan Rosenstein and Robert Morstein‐Marx A Companion to the Roman Empire Edited by David S. Potter A Companion to the Classical Greek World Edited by Konrad H. Kinzl A Companion to the Ancient Near East Edited by Daniel C. Snell A Companion to the Hellenistic World Edited by Andrew Erskine A Companion to Late Antiquity Edited by Philip Rousseau A Companion to Ancient History Edited by Andrew Erskine A Companion to Archaic Greece Edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub and Hans van Wees A Companion to Julius Caesar Edited by Miriam Griffin A Companion to Byzantium Edited by Liz James A Companion to Ancient Egypt Edited by Alan B. Lloyd A Companion to Ancient Macedonia Edited by Joseph Roisman and Ian Worthington A Companion to the Punic Wars Edited by Dexter Hoyos A Companion to Augustine Edited by Mark Vessey A Companion to Marcus Aurelius Edited by Marcel van Ackeren A Companion to Ancient Greek Government Edited by Hans Beck A Companion to the Neronian Age Edited by Emma Buckley and Martin T. 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Putnam A Companion to Horace Edited by Gregson Davis A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman Worlds Edited by Beryl Rawson A Companion to Greek Mythology Edited by Ken Dowden and Niall Livingstone A Companion to the Latin Language Edited by James Clackson A Companion to Tacitus Edited by Victoria Emma Pagán A Companion to Women in the Ancient World Edited by Sharon L. James and Sheila Dillon A Companion to Sophocles Edited by Kirk Ormand A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East Edited by Daniel Potts A Companion to Roman Love Elegy Edited by Barbara K. Gold A Companion to Greek Art Edited by Tyler Jo Smith and Dimitris Plantzos A Companion to Persius and Juvenal Edited by Susanna Braund and Josiah Osgood A Companion to the Archaeology of the Roman Republic Edited by Jane DeRose Evans A Companion to Terence Edited by Antony Augoustakis and Ariana Traill A Companion to Roman Architecture Edited by Roger B. Ulrich and Caroline K. Quenemoen A Companion to Sport and Spectacle in Greek and Roman Antiquity Edited by Paul Christesen and Donald G. Kyle A Companion to Plutarch Edited by Mark Beck A Companion to Greek and Roman Sexualities Edited by Thomas K. Hubbard LITERATURE AND CULTURE A Companion to the Ancient Novel Edited by Edmund P. Cueva and Shannon N. Byrne A Companion to Classical Receptions Edited by Lorna Hardwick and Christopher Stray A Companion to Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean Edited by Jeremy McInerney A Companion to Greek and Roman Historiography Edited by John Marincola A Companion to Ancient Egyptian Art Edited by Melinda Hartwig A Companion to Catullus Edited by Marilyn B. Skinner A Companion to the Archaeology of Religion in the Ancient World Edited by Rubina Raja and Jörg Rüpke A Companion to Roman Religion Edited by Jörg Rüpke A Companion to Food in the Ancient World Edited by John Wilkins and Robin Nadeau A Companion to Greek Religion Edited by Daniel Ogden A Companion to Ancient Education Edited by W. Martin Bloomer A Companion to the Classical Tradition Edited by Craig W. Kallendorf A Companion to Ancient Aesthetics Edited by Pierre Destrée & Penelope Murray A Companion to Roman Rhetoric Edited by William Dominik and Jon Hall A Companion to Roman Art Edited by Barbara Borg A Companion to Greek Rhetoric Edited by Ian Worthington A Companion to Greek Literature Edited by Martin Hose and David Schenker A Companion to Ancient Epic Edited by John Miles Foley A Companion to Josephus in his World Edited by Honora Howell Chapman and Zuleika Rodgers A Companion to Greek Tragedy Edited by Justina Gregory 10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [29/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License BLACKWELL COMPANIONS TO THE ANCIENT WORLD Sinclair Bell and Alexandra A. Carpino Edited by A CompAnion to the etrusCAns 10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [29/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Registered Office John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK Editorial Offices 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148‐5020, USA 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services, and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley‐blackwell. The right of Sinclair Bell and Alexandra A. Carpino to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication data applied for 9781118352748 (hardback) A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Cover image: Detail of dancers from wall painting from Tomba del Triclinio, Tarquinia, 5th century BC. Photo akg-images / Mondadori Portfolio / Sergio Anelli Set in 9.5/11.5pt Galliard by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India 1 2016 10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [29/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License This edition first published 2016 © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc List of Illustrations List of Tables Notes on Contributors Acknowledgments Map of Etruria viii xv xvi xx xxi Introduction Alexandra A. Carpino and Sinclair Bell xxii part i history 1 Beginnings: Protovillanovan and Villanovan Etruria Simon Stoddart 2 Materializing the Etruscans: The Expression and Negotiation of Identity during the Orientalizing, Archaic, and Classical Periods Skylar Neil 3 The Romanization of Etruria Letizia Ceccarelli part ii Geography, urbanization, and space 1 3 15 28 41 4 Etruscan Italy: Physical Geography and Environment Simon Stoddart 43 5 City and Countryside Simon Stoddart 55 6 The Etruscans and the Mediterranean Giovannangelo Camporeale 67 7 Urbanization and Foundation Rites: The Material Culture of Rituals at the Heart and the Margins of Etruscan Early Cities Corinna Riva 8 Poggio Civitate: Community Form in Inland Etruria Anthony S. Tuck 87 105 10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [29/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Contents 9 Southern and Inner Etruria: Benchmark Sites and Current Excavations Claudio Bizzarri 117 10 Etruscan Domestic Architecture, Hydraulic Engineering, and Water Management Technologies: Innovations and Legacy to Rome Claudio Bizzarri and David Soren 129 11 Rock Tombs and the World of the Etruscan Necropoleis: Recent Discoveries, Research, and Interpretations Stephan Steingräber 146 12 Communicating with Gods: Sacred Space in Etruria P. Gregory Warden 162 part iii 179 evidence in Context 13 Etruscan Skeletal Biology and Etruscan Origins Marshall J. Becker 181 14 Language, Alphabet, and Linguistic Affiliation Rex E. Wallace 203 15 Bucchero in Context Philip Perkins 224 16 Etruscan Textiles in Context Margarita Gleba 237 17 Etruscan Wall Painting: Insights, Innovations, and Legacy Lisa C. Pieraccini 247 18 Votives in their Larger Religious Context Helen Nagy 261 19 Etruscan Jewelry and Identity Alexis Q. Castor 275 20 293 Luxuria prolapsa est: Etruscan Wealth and Decadence Hilary Becker 21 Tanaquil: The Conception and Construction of an Etruscan Matron Gretchen E. Meyers 305 22 The Obesus Etruscus: Can the Trope be True? Jean MacIntosh Turfa 321 part iV 337 Art, society, and Culture 23 The Etruscans, Greek Art, and the Near East Ann C. Gunter 339 24 Etruscan Artists Jocelyn Penny Small 353 25 Etruscan Bodies and Greek Ponderation: Anthropology and Artistic Form Francesco de Angelis 368 26 Myth in Etruria Ingrid Krauskopf 388 10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [29/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Contents vi vii 27 The “Taste” for Violence in Etruscan Art: Debunking the Myth Alexandra A. Carpino 410 part V 431 the etruscan Legacy and Contemporary issues 28 Annius of Viterbo and the Beginning of Etruscan Studies Ingrid D. Rowland 433 29 Tyrrhenian Sirens: The Seductive Song of Etruscan Forgeries Richard Daniel De Puma 446 30 Looting and the Antiquities Trade Gordon Lobay 458 part Vi 475 AppenDiX Appendix: Etruscan Art in North American Museums Richard Daniel De Puma 477 Index 483 10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [29/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Contents maps Map 1 Map of Etruria. Drawing: De Puma 2013: Map 1. © The Metropolitan Museum of Art. xxi Figures note: Figures 4.1, 8.2, 11.1, 12.1, 17.2, 19.2, and 24.4 are to be found in the plate section, facing page 236. Figure 1.1 Villanovan crested helmet, c.800–750 BCE. Bronze. London, The British Museum, Inv. GR 1968.6‐27.1. Photo: © The Trustees of the British Museum. Figure 2.1 Kantharos with impressed fan designs, c.650–600 BCE. Bucchero sottile. New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1921 (21.88.146). Photo: © 2015. The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource/ Scala, Florence. Figure 2.2 Writing tablet incised with the letters of the Etruscan alphabet, c.675–650 BCE. Ivory. From the Circolo degli Avori in the Banditella necropolis at Marsiliana d’Albegna. Florence, Museo Archeologico Nazionale, inv. 93480. Photo: © 2015. Photo Scala, Florence – courtesy of the Ministero Beni e Att. Culturali. Figure 2.3 Inscribed cippus (the so‐called cippus perusinus), second century BCE. Travertine. From Perugia. Perugia, Museo Archeologico Nazionale dell’Umbria, inv. 366. Photo: S. Neil. Figure 3.1 Map of Roman colonies and roads in Etruria. Drawing: Camporeale 1992: 103. Figure 3.2 Map showing centuriation plots around the Roman colonies of Cosa and Heba, third – second century BCE. Drawing: Barker and Rasmussen 1998, 2000, fig. 105, p. 270. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 11 18 19 24 30 31 10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [29/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License List of illustrations Figure 3.3 Figure 4.1 Figure 5.1 Figure 6.1 Figure 6.2 Figure 6.3 Figure 6.4 Figure 7.1 Figure 7.2 Figure 7.3 Figure 7.4 Figure 7.5 Figure 8.1 Figure 8.2 Figure 8.3 Figure 8.4 Figure 9.1 ix Charun and Vanth, from the entrance wall of the Tomb of the Anina Family, third century BCE. Fresco. From Tarquinia. Photo: © 2015. DeAgostini Picture Library/Scala, Florence. 36 Satellite image of central Italy in winter (altitudinal differences visible by presence of snow on peaks). Photo: Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Rapid Response Team, NASA/GSFC. 45 Reconstruction of an Etruscan farm at Podere Tartuchino, Phase 2, late sixth–fifth century BCE. Drawing: Perkins and Attolini 1992: fig. 22. 62 Map of the Mediterranean. Drawing: Camporeale 1992: 45. 68 Plan of the underwater excavation of the wreck of Cap d’Antibes, 70 mid‐sixth century BCE. Drawing: Camporeale 2001: 90 (top). Cippus inscribed in Greek and dedicated to Aeginetan Apollo, end of the sixth century BCE. From Gravisca. Tarquinia, Museo Nazionale Etrusco. Photo: © 2015. Photo Scala, Florence – courtesy of the Ministero Beni e Att. Culturali. 79 Tesserae hospitalis with the name of a Carthaginian inscribed in Etruscan (Puinel Karthazie), mid‐sixth century BCE. Ivory. From a tomb in Carthage. Drawing: Maggiani 2006: fig. 2.1. Reproduced with permission of Edizioni Quasar di Severino Tognon Srl. 80 Map of Southern Etruria. Drawing: Riva 2010: fig. 1. 90 Plan of Tarquinia. Drawing: Riva 2010: fig. 2. 91 Map of Veii. Drawing: Riva 2010: fig. 4. 92 Engraved mirror with Pava Tarchies inspecting a liver, early third century BCE. Bronze. From Tuscania. Florence, Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Inv. 77759. Photo: Courtesy of the Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici della Toscana – Firenze. 96 Reconstruction of the Civita complex, eighth century BCE, and the discovery of the seventh century BCE deposit of bronze votives. From the Pian di Civita, Tarquinia. Drawing and Photo: Bagnasco Gianni 2010: fig. 3. 97 Digital reconstruction of the three Orientalizing (mid‐seventh century BCE) structures at Poggio Civitate by Evander Batson. Drawing: Courtesy of the Poggio Civitate Archaeological Excavations. 106 Digital reconstruction of the Archaic period (first half of the sixth century BCE) building at Poggio Civitate by Evander Batson. Drawing: Courtesy of the Poggio Civitate Archaeological Excavations. 109 Seated Male Acroterium, first half of the sixth century BCE. Terracotta. From the Archaic Building at Poggio Civitate. Antiquarium di Poggio Civitate, Inv. 111198. Photo: Courtesy of the Poggio Civitate Archaeological Excavations. 110 Topographic map of Poggio Civitate (PC) and its surrounding communities by Taylor Oshan. Drawing: Courtesy of the Poggio Civitate Archaeological Excavations. 113 Aerial view of the excavations at Campo della Fiera, Orvieto. Photo: Courtesy of Simonetta Stopponi, University of Perugia. 118 10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [29/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License List of Illustrations Figure 10.1 Figure 10.2 Figure 11.1 Figure 11.2 Figure 11.3 Figure 11.4 Figure 11.5 Figure 11.6 Figure 12.1 Figure 12.2 Figure 12.3 Figure 12.4 Figure 12.5 Figure 14.1 Figure 14.2 Figure 14.3 Figure 15.1 Figure 15.2 Figure 16.1 List of Illustrations Tomb of the Shields and Chairs, interior, early sixth century BCE. From Caere. Photo: The Art Archive/Gianni Dagli Orti. Wall from the eastern perimeter of the great pool, second – first century BCE. From the locality of Mezzomiglio, Chianciano Terme. Photo: courtesy Noelle Soren. Tumulus tomb, seventh century. From the Banditaccia necropolis, Caere. Photo: S. Steingräber. Rock‐cut cube tomb, sixth century. From the Casetta necropolis, Blera. Photo: S. Steingräber. Reconstruction of the façade of the Hildebrand temple tomb at Sovana, first half of the third century BCE. Archaeological Museum of Sovana. Photo: S. Steingräber. Rock‐cut house tomb with portico, 575–550 BCE. From the Pian di Mola necropolis, Tuscania. Photo: S. Steingräber. Barrel vault from the so‐called Tanella di Pitagora, third – second century BCE. Stone. From Cortona. Photo: S. Steingräber. Barrel vault in the Tomb of the Medusa, third century BCE. Stone. From Arpi (near Foggia in Apulia). Photo: S. Steingräber. The Lake of the Idols in the sanctuary at the headwaters of the Arno River on Monte Falterona. Photo: P.G. Warden. Funerary altar attached to the Tumulo del Sodo II, seventh century BCE. From Cortona. Photo: P.G. Warden. Monumental altar. From Pieve Socana. Photo: P.G. Warden. Reconstruction of the facade of a Tuscan/Italic temple. Rendering by J. Galloway. Drawing: courtesy of Jess Galloway. “Fissure Deposit,” fifth – fourth century BCE. From Poggio Colla. Photo: P. G. Warden. Funerary inscription (mi aveles sipanas) on the architrave of a tomb, c.500 BCE. From the necropolis of the Crocifisso del Tufo, Orvieto. Photo: R. Wallace. Tablet I with inscription in Etruscan, c.500 BCE. Gold. From Pyrgi. Rome, Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giulia, inv. no. Provv.PS.S.S1. Photo: Universal Images Group/Art Resource, NY. The Cortona Tablet (Tabula Cortonensis), c.250–200 BCE. Bronze. From Cortona. Cortona, Museo dell’Accademia Etrusca e della Città di Cortona. Photo: © Luciano Agostiniani. Jug in the shape of a siren, c.550–500 BCE. Bucchero pesante. Perhaps from Chiusi. New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1918 (18.145.25). Photo: © 2015. Image copyright The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource/Scala, Florence. Map of bucchero finds in the Mediterranean basin. Drawing: Barker and Rasmussen 1998, 2000, fig. 49, p. 138. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Textile tools from Poggio Civitate, Murlo: a) spindle whorl; b) loom weight; c) spool. Photo: Courtesy of the Poggio Civitate Archaeological Excavations. 133 140 148 150 152 154 156 156 164 165 167 168 173 208 210 211 229 231 240 10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [29/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License x Figure 16.2 Figure 17.1 Figure 17.2 Figure 17.3 Figure 17.4 Figure 18.1 Figure 18.2 Figure 18.3 Figure 19.1 Figure 19.2 Figure 19.3 Figure 20.1 Figure 21.1 Textiles from Poggio Aguzzo, Murlo: a) tablet weave on an iron spear counterweight; b) Scanning Electron Microscope image of the negative casts of wool fibers of textile from Tomb 1; c) tabby textile preserved on the iron knife from Tomb 4 under high magnification with twist of the yarn and fibers clearly visible; d) histogram of wool quality measurements of textile from Tomb 1. Photo: M. Gleba. Tomb of Augurs, back wall, c.530–520 BCE. From Tarquinia. Fresco. Photo: By permission of the Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici dell’Etruria Meridionale. Tomb of Hunting and Fishing, left wall, c.530 BCE. Fresco. From Tarquinia. Photo: By permission of the Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici dell’Etruria Meridionale. Bruschi Tomb, c.300 BCE, drawing by Gregorio Mariani, 1864. Fresco. From Tarquinia. Photo: By permission of the Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici dell’Etruria Meridionale. Tomb of the Meeting, c.250 BCE. Fresco. From Tarquinia. Photo: By permission of the Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici dell’Etruria Meridionale. Fragments of votive heads, fourth – second centuries BCE. Terracotta. From the Manganello Sanctuary, Caere. Photo: By permission of V. Bellelli. Terracotta relief with Artumes sacrificing a ram, fourth – third century BCE. Terracotta. From the Vignaccia sanctuary, Caere. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, inv. no. 88.364. Photo: Photograph © [2015] Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Figurines still in their original stone base, fourth – third century BCE. Bronze. From the Campo della Fiera, Orvieto. Photo: Stopponi 2011/Courtesy of Simonetta Stopponi, University of Perugia. Banqueters and servants in the pediment of the Tomb of Hunting and Fishing, c.530–520 BCE. Fresco. From Tarquinia. Photo: SEF/Art Resource, NY. Sarcophagus of Larthia Seianti, detail of upper body and head, c.180–170 BCE. Painted terracotta. From the Tomb of the Larcna Family, La Martinella, near Chiusi. Florence, Museo Archeologico Nazionale. Photo: © 2015. Photo Scala, Florence – courtesy of the Ministero Beni e Att. Culturali. Leech‐shaped fibulae with stamped decoration (animal friezes), c.630 BCE. Gold. From the Tomb of the Lictor, Vetulonia. Florence, Museo Archeologico Nazionale. Photo: © 2015. Photo Scala, Florence – courtesy of the Ministero Beni e Att. Culturali. Reconstruction of the tomb of Lars Porsenna, 1791. Drawing: Fabrizi 1987: fig. 39. Bell‐shaped tintinnabulum with repoussé decoration showing the processing of wool, late seventh – early sixth century BCE. Bronze. From the Arsenale Militare necropolis, Tomb 5 (Tomba degli Ori), near Bologna. Bologna, Museo Civico Archeologico. Photo: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY. xi 241 250 251 254 255 264 268 270 278 283 288 300 314 10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [29/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License List of Illustrations Figure 21.2 Figure 21.3 Figure 22.1 Figure 22.2 Figure 22.3 Figure 22.4 Figure 22.5 Figure 23.1 Figure 23.2 Figure 23.3 Figure 24.1 Figure 24.2 List of Illustrations Weaving scenes on carved throne, c.700–650 BCE. Wood and bronze. From the Lippi necropolis, Tomb 89, Verucchio. Bologna, Museo Civico Archeologico. Photo: Gianni Dagli Orti/The Art Archive at Art Resource, NY. Cippus base with relief depicting an assembly of women examining pieces of cloth, early fifth BCE. Pietra fetida. From Chiusi. Copenhagen, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Inv. HIN 81. Photo: Courtesy of the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen. Sarcophagus and lid with a reclining effigy of a clean‐shaven man, third century BCE. Nenfro. From the Alethna family tomb, Civita Musarna. Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Museum, inv. MS 3488A. Photo: Courtesy of University of Pennsylvania Museum, image # 151655. Head of an older woman, third century BCE. Terracotta. Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Museum, inv. MS 5690. Photo: Courtesy of University of Pennsylvania Museum, image # 96699. Sarcophagus lid with the reclining effigy of a young man, third century BCE. Terracotta. From Tuscania. Copenhagen, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Inv. HIN 78. Photo: by Ole Haupt/Courtesy of the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen. Urn and lid with reclining effigy of the priest Arnth Remzna, late third century BCE. Alabaster. Said to be from the necropolis of Colle, Chiusi. Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Museum, inv. MS 2458A. Photo: Courtesy of University of Pennsylvania Museum, image # 195078. Sarcophagus and lid with reclining effigy of an overweight man, first half of the second century BCE. Nenfro. Copenhagen, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Inv. HIN 429. Photo: by Ole Haupt/Courtesy of the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen. Silver relief bowl, Phoenician (or Cypro‐Phoenician) in style, c.725–650 BCE. From the Bernardini Tomb, Palestrina. Rome, Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giulia, Inv. 61543. Photo: The Art Archive/Museo di Villa Giulia Rome/Gianni Dagli Orti. Odysseus and his companions blinding the Cyclops Polyphemos on the Aristonothos krater (Side B), c.670–650 BCE. From Caere. Rome, Musei Capitolini, Inv. no. CA 172. Photo: by Leemage/UIG via Getty Images. The banquet frieze plaque from Poggio Civitate (Murlo), c.575 BCE. Rendering by Courtney McKenna. Antiquarium di Poggio Civitate, Inv. 112591. Drawing: Courtesy of the Poggio Civitate Archaeological Excavations. Antefix in the form of a Gorgon’s head, 510–500 BCE. Painted Terracotta. From the Portonaccio Sanctuary, Veii. Rome, Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giulia, inv. sc. 2499. Photo: © 2015. Photo Scala, Florence – courtesy of the Ministero Beni e Att. Culturali. Black‐figure hydria by the Micali Painter, 515–500 BCE. From Vulci. Florence, Museo Archeologico Nazionale. Photo: By permission of the Soprintendenza Archeologia della Toscana – Firenze. 315 316 324 329 330 331 332 341 345 348 358 359 10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [29/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License xii Figure 24.3 Figure 24.4 Figure 24.5 Figure 25.1 Figure 25.2 Figure 25.3 Figure 25.4 Figure 25.5 Figure 26.1 Figure 26.2 Figure 26.3 Figure 27.1 Figure 27.2 Figure 27.3 Temple pediment with relief depicting the Seven against Thebes, second quarter of the second century BCE. Terracotta. From Talamone. Photo: © 2015. Photo Scala, Florence – courtesy of the Ministero Beni e Att. Culturali. Chariot race on the left wall of the Tomb of the Olympic Games, c.510 BCE. Fresco. From Tarquinia. Photo: By permission of the Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici dell’Etruria Meridionale. Statuette of a woman, c.350 BCE. Bronze. From the sanctuary of Diana Nemorensis, Nemi. Paris, Musée du Louvre, inv. no. Br. 231. Photo: © 2015. White Images/Scala, Florence. A Trojan prisoner and Caile Vipinas on the back wall of the François Tomb, 340–310 BCE. Fresco. From Vulci. Tempera painting by Carlo Ruspi. Drawing: Andreae et al. 2004, fig. 8. Engraved mirror with Menle about to kill his wife Elinei after the fall of Troy, fourth century BCE. Bronze. From Caere. London, British Museum, inv. no. 627. Drawing: Gerhard, ES 4.398. Engraved mirror with Hercle presenting Epiur to Tinia in the presence of Turan and Thalna, c.325. Bronze. From Vulci. Paris, Cabinet des Médailles, inv. no. 1287. Drawing: Gerhard, ES 2.181. Engraved mirror with Atunis and Turan, fourth century BCE. Bronze. From Bomarzo. Northampton, Castle Ashby. Drawing: Gerhard, ES 1.112. Engraved mirror with Hercle presenting Epiur to Menrva in the presence of Turan and Munthu, late fourth century BCE. Bronze. Berlin, Antikenmuseum, Inv. Fr. 136. Drawing: Gerhard, ES 2.165. Olpe with relief friezes depicting Metaia, a man in a cauldron, youths holding a cloth, boxers, and Taitale, c.630 BCE. Bucchero. From the Tumulus of San Paolo, Tomb 2, Caere. Rome, Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giulia, inv. no. 2. Drawing: Rizzo and Martelli 1993: fig. 9. Courtesy of Maria Antonietta Rizzo. Antepagmentum (relief panel) depicting a scene from the Seven Against Thebes, 470–460 BCE. Painted terracotta. From the rear pediment of Temple A, Pyrgi. Rome, Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giulia. Photo: Hirmer Fotoarchiv (Sprenger and Bartoloni 1983: fig. 179). Engraved mirror with Athrpa, Turan, Atunis, Meliacr and Atlenta, late fourth century BCE. Bronze. From Perugia. Berlin, Antikenmuseum, Inv. Fr. 146. Drawing: Zimmer 1987: fig. 19. © bpk, Berlin/Antikensammlung, SMB. Engraved mirror with Menrva and Akrathe, late fourth century BCE. Bronze. Drawing: Frascarelli 1995: fig. 3a. Engraved bronze mirror with Achle and Pentasila, early fourth century BCE. From Vulci. Berlin, Antikensammlung. Photo: © Photo Scala, Florence/bpk, Bildagentur für Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte, Berlin. Engraved bronze mirror with Perseus and Medusa, late fourth century BCE. Photo: By permission of R.D. De Puma. xiii 360 362 364 375 377 378 379 381 390 396 400 418 421 422 10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [29/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License List of Illustrations Figure 28.1 Figure 28.2 Figure 28.3 Figure 29.1 Figure 29.2 Figure 29.3 Figure 29.4 Figure 30.1 Figure 30.2 Figure 30.3 Figure 30.4 List of Illustrations Sculpted animals on the church of San Silvestro (now Il Gesù), ninth century CE. From Viterbo. Photo: I. Rowland. Ancient head of Jupiter on the medieval church of Santa Maria Nova. From Viterbo. Photo: I. Rowland. The “Desiderius Decree” forged by Annius of Viterbo. Viterbo, Museo Civico. Photo: I. Rowland. The bronze lid of the so‐called Cista Pasinati, with engravings added by Italian forger, Francesco Martinetti, in 1863. London, The British Museum. Drawing: Brunn 1864: pl. VII (top). Engraved mirror (modern) with a gathering of the gods, late nineteenth or early twentieth century. Bronze. Probably produced in Italy. Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania, inv. 52‐35‐3. Drawing: De Puma 2005: fig. 37a. Terracotta cinerary urn in the form of a seated male figure, nineteenth century forgery. Chicago, Field Museum of Natural History. Photo: R. D. De Puma. Terracotta cinerary urn in the form of a seated female figure, nineteenth century forgery. Chicago, Field Museum of Natural History. Photo: R. D. De Puma. Attic red‐figure calyx krater by Euphronios with Hypnos and Thanatos carrying the body of Sarpedon off the battlefield, 520–510 BCE. From Caere. Rome, Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giulia. Photo: © 2015. Photo Scala, Florence – courtesy of the Ministero Beni e Att. Culturali. Volume of pre‐Roman artifacts from central Italy consigned to auction at Bonhams, Christie’s, and Sotheby’s, 1970–2005. Source: Lobay 2007: 134. Published provenance of pre‐Roman artifacts from central Italy consigned to auction at Bonhams, Christie’s, and Sotheby’s, 1970–2005. Source: Lobay 2007: 135. Impasto amphora with molded handles, seventh century BCE, sold in 2003 (Lot 185 Bonhams). Photo: By permission of Bonhams. 434 435 440 448 449 452 453 461 463 463 464 10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [29/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License xiv Table 13.1 Table 13.2 Table 14.1 Table 14.2 Table 14.3 Table 14.4 Table 14.5 Table 14.6 Table 14.7 Table 14.8 Sex of Adults from Tombs at Tarquinia (revised from Becker 2005a). Numbers of males and females in this sample arranged by periods defined by Cataldi (1993; skeletal evaluations from Becker 2002b). Regional Spelling of the Sibilants (/s/ and /ʃ/) and the Velar Stop (/k/). Etruscan Alphabets. Noun and Adjective Suffixes. Case Forms of Nouns and Adjectives. Etruscan Plurals. Etruscan Pronouns. Etruscan Consonant System. Case Forms of Personal and Family Names. 185 190 206 206 213 214 214 215 218 220 10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [29/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License List of tables hilary Becker is Assistant Professor of Classics at the University of Mississippi. She co‐edited with Margarita Gleba the volume Votives, Places and Rituals in Etruscan Religion (2009). She participates in the ongoing excavations of the Area Sacra di S. Omobono in Rome. marshall J. Becker is Professor of Anthropology Emeritus at West Chester University. He specializes in studies of human skeletal biology in Italy with a focus on Tarquinia. His forthcoming book (with J. M. Turfa) is The Golden Smile: The Etruscans and the History of Dentistry. sinclair Bell is Associate Professor of Art History at Northern Illinois University and a Fellow of the American Academy in Rome, the Deutscher Akademischer Austausch Dienst, and the Howard Foundation. He is the co‐editor of five other books, including New Perspectives on Etruria and Early Rome (2009). Claudio Bizzarri is currently Director of PAAO (Archaeological and Environmental Park‐ Orvieto). He has taught at universities in Italy (Camerino, Foggia, Macerata, and the University of Arizona Study Abroad Program in Orvieto) as well as in South Carolina. He has been the Kress Foundation Lecturer for the Archaeological Institute of America. Giovannangelo Camporeale is Professor Emeritus of Etruscology and Italic Antiquities, University of Florence, Chairman of Istituto di Studi Etruschi ed Italici, and member of the Accademia dei Lincei. He is the author of several ground‐breaking publications. Over the last three decades he has directed the excavations at Massa Marittima, an Etruscan mining settlement. Alexandra A. Carpino is Professor of Art History at Northern Arizona University. She is the author of Discs of Splendor: The Relief Mirrors of the Etruscans (2003) and several articles on mirror iconography. She also served as the Editor‐in‐Chief of Etruscan Studies: Journal of the Etruscan Foundation from 2011 to 2014. Alexis Q. Castor is Associate Professor of Classics at Franklin & Marshall College. She is preparing a monograph on Greek and Etruscan jewelry in the first millennium BCE. She has written on specific jewelry types, a jewelry cache from Poggio Colla, and the iconography of jewelry in Greece and Etruria. 10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [29/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License notes on Contributors xvii Letizia Ceccarelli is a postdoctoral researcher at the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research at the University of Cambridge. She holds a PhD in Archaeology from the University of Cambridge. Her research focuses mainly on architectural terracottas, and Etruscan and Roman material culture production. Francesco de Angelis is Associate Professor of Art History and Archaeology at Columbia University. His research interests include the reception of Greek mythology in Etruria; the interaction of spaces, images, and social practices; and ancient antiquarianism. Among his most recent publications is a monograph on Etruscan funerary urns. richard Daniel De puma is F. Wendell Miller Distinguished Professor Emeritus in Classical Art and Archaeology at the University of Iowa where he taught for thirty‐five years. During his “retirement” he has published three books and many articles on Etruscan or Roman art, excavated in Italy, and lectured in America, Europe and New Zealand. margarita Gleba is European Research Council Principal Research Associate at the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge. She is the author of Textile Production in Pre‐Roman Italy (2008) and editor of six other books. Her research focuses on all aspects of textiles and textile production in ancient world. Ann C. Gunter is the Bertha and Max Dressler Professor in the Humanities at Northwestern University. Her recent publications include Greek Art and the Orient (2009) and contributions to A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East (2012) and Critical Approaches to Ancient Near Eastern Art (2013). ingrid Krauskopf worked for the LIMC and ThesCRA projects at the Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften and was applied professor of Classical Archaeology at the Universities of Mannheim and Heidelberg (retired 2010). She has published extensively on Etruscan and Greek mythology and religion. Gordon Lobay is an Associate Scholar on the Intellectual Property Issues in Cultural Heritage Project and a Partner at Perrett Laver. He holds a PhD in Archaeology from the University of Cambridge. His research focuses on assessing the strategies and legal instruments governments use to protect cultural property. Gretchen e. meyers is Associate Professor of Classics at Franklin & Marshall College. Her research focuses on Etruscan architecture, roofing tiles, and textile production. She has served as Director of Materials at the site of Poggio Colla since 2004. She is preparing a monograph on the social identity of Etruscan women. helen nagy is Professor Emerita of Art History at the University of Puget Sound. Her research emphasizes Etruscan mirrors and votive religion, specifically terracotta votive figurines. Her publications include a book, articles and book chapters on Greek sculpture, Etruscan terracottas, and mirrors. She has lectured widely on these topics. skylar neil recently completed her PhD in Archaeology at the University of Cambridge. She has a BA in Ancient Studies from University of Maryland, Baltimore County and a MA in Classical Archaeology from Tufts University. She is interested in identity construction and the relationship between ethnicity and the built environment. 10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [29/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Notes on Contributors Notes on Contributors philip perkins is Professor of Archaeology in the Department of Classical Studies, The Open University. Over the past 30 years he has worked on artifacts, field survey, and excavation, including the first‐ever Etruscan farm at Podere Tartuchino, bucchero in the British Museum, and excavation and bucchero studies at Poggio Colla. Lisa C. pieraccini teaches at the University of California, Berkeley. Her research interests and publications include Etruscan pottery, funerary archaeology, wall painting, and the reception of the Etruscans in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. She is a member of the Istituto Nazionale di Studi Etruschi ed Italici in Florence. Corinna riva is Senior Lecturer in Mediterranean Archaeology at University College London. Her research interests cover Iron Age Italy and the first millennium BCE in the central Mediterranean. She is co‐director of the Upper Esino Valley Survey project (Marche, Italy). She is the author of The Urbanisation of Etruria (2010). ingrid D. rowland is a Professor at the University of Notre Dame School of Architecture in Rome. She writes and lectures on Classical Antiquity, the Renaissance and the Age of the Baroque, and is the author of numerous books, including The Scarith of Scornello: A Tale of Renaissance Forgery (2004). Jocelyn penny small is Professor Emerita in the Department of Art History, Rutgers University. She excavated for three seasons at Poggio Civitate and has focused on Etruscan art for much of her career in numerous articles and three books. Currently she is working on illusionism in Greek and Roman art. David soren is Regents’ Professor of Classical Archaeology at the University of Arizona and a Fellow of the American Academy of Rome. His publications include two volumes on the archaeological excavations at Chianciano Terme (Tuscany) and a volume on The Roman Villa and Infant Cemetery of Lugnano in Teverina (Umbria). stephan steingräber has taught at the universities of Munich, Mainz, Tokyo, Padua, and Foggia. He is currently Professor of Etruscology at the University of Roma Tre. His numerous publications deal mainly with the historical topography, urbanism, architecture, and tomb painting of Etruria and Southern Italy. simon stoddart is Reader in Prehistory at the University of Cambridge and a fellow of Magdalene College, Cambridge. He has directed several fieldwork projects in Central Italy (Casentino, Grotte di Castro, Montelabate, Gubbio, and Nepi) and has written/edited books on Etruscan Italy, the Mediterranean Bronze Age, and other topics. Anthony s. tuck is Associate Professor of Classics at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst. He is director of the Poggio Civitate Archaeological Excavations. Jean macintosh turfa is currently a Consulting Scholar and occasional Lecturer at the University of Pennsylvania Museum. Her books include A Catalogue of the Etruscan Gallery of the University of Pennsylvania Museum (2005), The Etruscan World (edited, 2013), and Divining the Etruscan World: The Brontoscopic Calendar and Religious Practice (2012). rex e. Wallace is Professor of Classics and Associate Dean of Research for the College of Humanities and Fine Arts at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. His research interests 10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [29/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License xviii xix are the languages and inscriptions of ancient Italy, the history of Greek and Latin, and comparative/historical linguistics. p. Gregory Warden is President of Franklin University Switzerland. He is co‐Director of the Mugello Valley Archaeological Project. Formerly a University Distinguished Professor at SMU, he is a Foreign Member of the Istituto di Studi Etruschi e Italici and a Consulting Scholar of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology. 10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [29/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Notes on Contributors This book was conceived in the spring of 2011, and we are grateful to friends, family, and colleagues who have supported us, in different ways, in realizing its publication. We would like to thank first the six anonymous readers for the press, who gave detailed feedback on our proposal that was crucial in helping us to refine the book’s content and remit. We are also indebted to all the authors who contributed chapters on various aspects of Etruscan history and culture, and to the staff at Wiley‐Blackwell, especially Haze Humbert for taking on and supporting the project since its inception and Allison Kostka for seeing it through press with aplomb. Subvention support for the illustrations was generously provided by Richard Holly, Dean of the College of Visual and Performing Arts, and Dr. Lisa Freeman, Vice President for Research, at Northern Illinois University. In addition, we gratefully acknowledge the translation assistance provided by Dr. Ingrid Rowland, and the considerable help with tables and bibliographies provided by Elisabeth Zoe Fry, student worker in the Department of Comparative Cultural Studies at Northern Arizona University. Finally, we would like to thank our families for their unfailing support, patience, and encouragement with this long‐running project, which was inspired by our teachers and mentors: the late David and Francesca Serra Romana Ridgway, and Richard D. De Puma. Sinclair Bell and Alexandra A. Carpino Chicago, Illinois, and Flagstaff, Arizona October 2015 10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [29/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Acknowledgments map of etruria Po Spina Ap e n n i n e m o unt Villanova ain s Bologna Marzabotto Verucchio Florence Bientina Arno e Tib A r Volterra Falconara Ancona Sirolo Sentinum pe Gubbio Cortona Murlo Lake trasimeno Fermo Perugia ETRURIA Vetulonia Chiusi Città della pieve Roselle Ascoli piceno Todi Castel giorgio Campovalano Orvieto Bolsena Monteleone di spoleto Terni Bisenzio Lake bolsena Cosa Viterbo Vulci Civita castellana Tarquinia San giovenale Capena Narce nn Siena in e m ou Populonia nt ai Adriatic sea r Alalia e Tib Corsica ns ELBA Lake bracciano Cerveteri Veii Crustumerium Rome Palestrina SAMNIUM A Lavinium L AT I U M pe nn in e m nt ai Cumae Pithekoussai C A M PA N I A Suessula Naples Pompeii ns Sassari SARDINIA Tyrrhenian sea ou Capua Olbia Pontecagnano North map 1 Map of Etruria. Drawing: De Puma 2013: Map 1. © The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [29/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Alexandra A. Carpino and Sinclair Bell The concept of an “Etruscan world” isolated, intrusive and virtually antithetic to an “Italic world” is rapidly becoming a myth. Massimo Pallottino (Pallottino 1975: 237) 1. introduction Over the last decade, there has not only been a rising interest in Etruscan art and archaeology in the United States but also a desire to present these important pre‐Roman peoples as they were in antiquity: a vibrant, independent people whose distinct civilization flourished in central Italy for most of the first millennium BCE and whose influences were felt throughout the Mediterranean, from the Black Sea to the Strait of Gibraltar. At the root of this interest is the conviction, eloquently stated by the late David Ridgway, that “Treated in its own right and on its own terms, the archaeological, architectural, artistic, historical, political and religious record of the largely autonomous Etruscan cities is indispensable to the proper understanding of the Mediterranean and Classical worlds: and of ancient Europe, too” (Ridgway 2010: 49–50). One of the first signs of this shift in North America came in 2003 when the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology completed a decade‐long gallery renovation project which emphasized both the artistic and thematic connections between the Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans. Not only did its new Kyle M. Phillips Etruscan Gallery contain numerous artifacts never previously exhibited at the museum but – taken as a whole – they set a new standard for curation and display: their organization highlights both artistic and thematic connections with works on display in the neighboring spaces devoted to the Greeks and the Romans. Thus, this comprehensive exhibition allowed its visitors multiple opportunities to explore the Etruscans’ rich artistic heritage, to draw connections with artifacts from other parts of the Mediterranean, and in this way to understand better its lasting legacy to Western culture. The accompanying catalogue, published two years later (Turfa 2005), also marked what Nancy T. de Grummond has called “a new stage in American research on the antiquities of Italy”: its essays provided essential background on the cultural and artistic contexts of Etruscan art (topics include technology and commerce, the art of worship, daily life, and Etruria’s final days), while the lavishly illustrated entries included comprehensive analyses and commentaries. 10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [29/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License introduction xxiii Not long thereafter, in 2007, over 550 works of art in the Etruscan collection at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York were reinstalled in a permanent gallery whose goal was to provide the institution’s visitors with a wide‐ranging overview of Italy’s most important pre‐Roman culture. In addition, 150 Etruscan artifacts were added to the museum’s Study Collection gallery. Many of these works of art were also recently published in a comprehensive catalogue (De Puma 2013) that incorporates the most up‐to‐date research on the Etruscans and significantly enhances our knowledge about their culture. In addition to these projects at two of the most important museums in the United States (see further, Chapter 31 for a complete list of collections with significant Etruscan art holdings), single exhibitions such as From the Temple to the Tomb: Etruscan Treasures from Tuscany, on display at the Meadows Museum at SMU (Dallas) in 2009 (Warden 2008), and The Chimaera of Arezzo, held at the J. Paul Getty Museum between July 2009 and February 2010 (Iozzo 2009, with the important review by Warden 2011), provided additional opportunities for the American public to see, first‐hand, a broad range of Etruscan material culture from a European collection organized and displayed, once again, so as to emphasize its distinctive artistic characteristics, its original contexts, and its relationships to the wider Mediterranean world. Of course, there have long been indicators of this movement outside of North America, especially in Italy, where landmark as well as more recent exhibitions (e.g., Torelli 2001; Cianferoni and Celuzza 2010; Beltramo Ceppi Zevi and Restellini 2011; Mandolesi and Sannibale 2012; Gaultier et al. 2013) and significant publications (e.g., by G. Camporeale and G. Colonna, among many others) have continually revitalized the field of Etruscology while also giving the Etruscans a wider, popular audience. Some important, recent changes elsewhere in Europe signal movement in a similarly positive direction. The creation of the first formal position for the teaching of Etruscan art – the Sybille Haynes Lectureship in Etruscan and Italic Archaeology and Art at the University of Oxford – fulfills a longstanding need in the discipline, one forcefully advocated by David Ridgway (2010) in an essay published shortly before the appointment’s announcement. In addition, publications of important European collections continue to appear, such as that in Berlin (Kästner 2013), the Louvre (Bruschetti 2011) and Palermo (Villa 2012). This Companion to the Etruscans capitalizes on this ongoing interest in the Etruscans in the English‐speaking world by bringing together both well‐established and emerging scholars whose chapters present fresh perspectives on Etruscan art and culture, ones that call attention, in particular, to recent discoveries, new theoretical approaches, and reassessments of long‐standing misconceptions and/or beliefs. Traditional topics such as architecture, wall paintings, textiles, ceramics, and sculpture, along with those that have not been addressed elsewhere, appear as the most up‐to‐date research is analyzed and examined anew. Assessments that denigrate the Etruscans as mysterious, eccentric, and culturally inferior to the Greeks and the Romans have been set aside, and their appropriation of a wide variety of foreign customs, artistic styles, and literary themes is reconsidered from perspectives that emphasize agency and reception rather than a deficit of local creativity. Regional artistic and cultural diversity within Etruria itself – the product of its independent urban centers – is also discussed in depth, as are the ancient literary sources that mention the Etruscans. The latter are treated critically in three different chapters whose authors demonstrate that the ancient texts reflect more on the values and ideals of Greco‐Roman society than provide accurate information about the Etruscans. Finally, the Etruscans’ heritage and legacies are fully acknowledged, especially with respect to technical and artistic innovations that appear first in Etruria before becoming widespread in other parts of the ancient Mediterranean. 10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [29/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Introduction 2. Contents The volume is divided into five parts – I. History; II. Geography, Urbanization, and Space; III. Evidence in Context; IV. Art, Society, and Culture; and V. The Etruscan Legacy and Contemporary Issues. This format that allows readers to become familiar with the key themes, approaches, and issues that underlie the study of the Etruscans today. A comprehensive list of references and a Guide to Further Reading accompany each chapter, while an appendix that details the Etruscan art found in North American museums appears at the end of the book. In Part I: History, Simon Stoddart (“Beginnings: Protovillanovan and Villanovan Etruria”) provides an overview of the evidence that indicates that the origins of the material culture later described as Etruscan can be found throughout the phases of the Bronze Age and into the Iron Age. His chapter is followed by Skylar Neil’s “Materializing the Etruscans: The Expression and Negotiation of Identity during the Orientalizing, Archaic, and Classical periods.” Using a contextual approach and a theoretical framework that counters the anachronistic biases found in the ancient literary sources, Neil provides new insights into the Etruscans’ history and culture over four centuries of significant transformation. The section concludes with Letizia Ceccarelli’s discussion of the Romanization of Etruria from the perspective of both the colonizers and those who were colonized. After discussing Roman strategies with respect to road construction, the founding of colonies, and the creation of alliances with members of the ruling Etruscan elite, she focuses on how the latter’s religious and funerary architecture manifests the process of Romanization. In Part II: Geography, Urbanization, and Space, readers are provided with an overview of the key aspects of material culture that gave the Etruscans their distinctive identity and contributed to their ability to thrive both in central Italy and throughout much of the Mediterranean for nearly a millennium. In “Etruscan Italy: Physical Geography and Environment,” Simon Stoddart demonstrates how the Etruscans’ unique landscape allowed for the growth of regionally diverse urban and rural centers that specialized in maritime or fluvial transport, agriculture, and metallurgy, depending on their locations. Next, in “City and Countryside,” he discusses the relationship between rural and nucleated landscapes and how these related to each other from the Orientalizing period onward. Giovannangelo Camporeale then provides a still‐broader perspective on ecologies and networks in his chapter “The Etruscans and the Mediterranean.” Noting that “the sea in general and the Mediterranean in particular did not impose a boundary on the Etruscans,” he discusses how trade contributed to radical changes in artistic production, literacy, urban organization, and lifestyle. Corinna Riva delves more deeply into the question of Etruscan urbanization in her chapter, “Urbanization and Foundation Rites: The Material Culture of Rituals at the Heart and the Margins of Etruscan Early Cities.” She questions the past reliance of scholars on the foundation acts and events recorded by later Roman textual sources, arguing that they are more appropriate for considerations about the foundation of Roman colonies than for the Etruscans. Instead, she argues for the primacy of archaeological data, which – when treated on their own terms – allow for a much richer and more complex understanding of the earliest phases of urbanization and their connections to longstanding political and ritual processes. In “Poggio Civitate: Community Form in Inland Etruria,” Anthony Tuck discusses a site that flourished from the late stages of the Iron Age through the middle of the Archaic period. The subject of excavations for the past 60 years, Poggio Civitate stands as the aristocratic center of an inland Etruscan community whose innovative technologies, trade contacts, architectural designs, and decorative schemes continue to change our perceptions of early urbanization and elite ideologies in Etruria. Claudio Bizzarri then presents an overview of benchmark 10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [29/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Introduction xxiv xxv sites and current excavations in southern and inner Etruria. The work of a number of international teams have, over the past few decades, significantly furthered our understanding of the Etruscans’ life, culture, and contributions at sites such as Tarquinia, Orvieto, and Cerveteri. Domestic space, along with the water management technologies and engineering acumen that distinguished the Etruscans from all other cultures on the Italian peninsula during their heyday, serve as the themes analyzed by Claudio Bizzarri and David Soren in Chapter 10. The authors consider how the Etruscans syncretized or blended technology from other Mediterranean cultures and then adapted it to meet their own specific ritual and physical requirements. Chapter 11 addresses the topic of funerary architecture. In “Rock Tombs and the World of Etruscan Necropoleis: Recent Discoveries, Research, and Interpretations,” Stephan Steingräber traces the origin, typology, and distribution of a tomb type without parallel in the rest of Italy, arguing that the arrangement and organization of the larger rock tomb necropoleis were “not accidental but an expression of an intended rational use of space and of new urbanistic tendencies.” By situating their elaborate facades toward cities, these tombs not only established “a permanent visual link between the area of the living and the area of the dead,” but also allowed their owners and their families “to stand out in public and permanently recall themselves to the minds of their descendants.” Sacred space, along with the performance of religious rituals that reinforced the hierarchies of the Etruscan social landscape, are the topics of the chapter that concludes Part II, P. Gregory Warden’s “Communicating with the Gods: Sacred Space in Etruria.” By foregrounding ritual in his discussion of the designs of sacred space as well as of temples and altars, Warden demonstrates the intricate connections between Etruria’s theocratic elite and the physical loci of their religiosity. Part III centers on the theme of “Evidence in Context.” It begins with a debate that has been going on since ancient times: the question of the Etruscans’ origins. In his chapter, “Etruscan Skeletal Biology and Etruscan Origins,” Marshall Becker demonstrates that modern DNA studies cannot be relied upon to provide a definitive answer to this question, given the genetic diversity of their population and the dearth of high‐quality skeletal material available for analysis. He also summarizes data from a group of skeletons from Tarquinia which not only aid our knowledge of Etruscan biology but also provide a better understanding of the burial customs this urban center designated for the remains of men, women, and children, customs that offer insights into household dynamics and social organization in southern Etruria. Rex Wallace tackles the Etruscans’ spoken and written language, one that cannot be correlated with any of their Italic neighbors, in Chapter 14, “Language, Alphabet, and Linguistic Affiliation.” New excavations, along with the rigorous scientific study of Etruscan words, inscriptions, and linguistic structure, continue to reveal information that not only helps to solve longstanding grammatical issues but also creates new ones that fuel the direction of future research. The next five chapters consider various art forms in context: bucchero, textiles, wall paintings, votives, and jewelry. In “Bucchero in Context,” Philip Perkins incorporates the framework of the “life cycle” in order to place the Etruscans’ most distinctive and original class of ceramic production into its historical and cultural milieu and suggest avenues for future research. Margarita Gleba discusses the relatively new field of textile archaeology in Etruria in her chapter; she not only considers the important data that new scientific methods have generated with respect to issues as varied as chronology and provenance, but also the domestic, commercial, and ritual importance of textile production and what this tells us about women’s contributions to their families and communities. Specialization of a different sort is the subject of Chapter 17, “Etruscan Wall Painting: Insights, Innovation and Legacy.” By highlighting the various advances in technique, style, and subject matter that originate in Etruria rather than Greece and which thereby became part of their legacy to Rome, Lisa 10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [29/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Introduction Introduction Pieraccini reconsiders both the theme of artistic creativity and the role Etruria played as a pioneer in this field. This chapter not only addresses the imbalance in the scholarship on ancient Italic wall painting but it also emphasizes the evidence that provides a better understanding of the Etrusco‐Roman artistic relationship. Helen Nagy then treats a single category of object – the votive – that, in highly significant ways, bears witness to the well‐ known religiosity of the Etruscans. She highlights the numinous powers inherent in what are often humble objects and argues that it is “evident that for the Etruscans once an object was placed in a sacred context, it was considered to be divinely imbued and had to be offered the rituals proper to its disposition.” Jewelry is the final art form analyzed in depth in this section. Alexis Castor considers its use by men, women, and children, concentrating on the personal and public identities conveyed by their materials, scale, and forms. Attention to these aspects reveals the various cultural layers embedded in accessories that not only had both material and symbolic value but which also marked different life stages. The final three chapters in Part III treat the ancient literary sources that include references to the Etruscans and their culture. In “Luxuria prolapse est: Etruscan Wealth and Decadence,” Hilary Becker dissects two topoi which many Greek and Roman authors described as particularly “Etruscan” but which, after careful consideration, reveal more about Greco‐ Roman culture and upper class fears about behaviors and traits deemed both undesirable and unacceptable. Becker argues that the very construction and promotion of topoi about the Etruscans’ excessive wealth and decadence functioned as deliberate distortions designed to reinforce Greco‐Roman – not Etruscan – standards and realities. This chapter is followed by Gretchen Meyers’s “Tanaquil: The Conception and Construction of an Etruscan Matron.” Here, the author examines the literary sources that discuss this well‐known Etruscan queen, looking both at how she gained her Roman identity and how it relates both to her Etruscan one as well as aspects of real Etruscan women’s lives (specifically with respect to the production of ceremonial textiles). Her nuanced reassessment of Tanaquil’s textile production and its different meanings through time provide new evidence about the identity and activities of elite Etruscan women. The section concludes with Jean MacIntosh Turfa’s, “The Obesus Etruscus: Can the Trope be True?” Turfa considers another well‐known Roman literary convention – that of the overweight and self‐indulgent Etruscan – in comparison to archaeological and artistic data. She argues that the health, behavior, and appearance of the majority of the members of their society have very little to do with a characterization invented long after the Etruscans’ heyday. Part IV: Art, Society, and Culture begins with Ann Gunter’s analysis of the Etruscans’ relationship to both Greek art and the Near East during the eighth and seventh centuries BCE. She argues that internal social and political changes in Etruria – rather than external forces – provided the stimulus for the Etruscan elites’ artistic and cultural interaction with the eastern Mediterranean. These factors, in turn, resulted in an influx of foreign styles, imagery, and cultural practices that were incorporated into indigenous traditions and generated new forms of visual and material expression. In Chapter 24, “Etruscan Artists,” Jocelyn Penny Small then counters past – mainly Hellenic – views that have failed to acknowledge the creativity and technical skills of the anonymous individuals who produced works as varied as gold jewelry with intricate granulation or large scale terracotta sculptures. She argues that it is critical for scholars to acknowledge, once and for all, “that the aim of art need not be limited to the imitation of nature, as the Greeks and the Romans believed, but that [it] can also be abstract, to name just one characteristic.” The Etruscans’ reception of a Greek stylistic form is the theme of Francesco de Angelis’s study of Etruscan bodies and Greek ponderation. He considers how the various regions of Etruria responded to a particular stylistic element – ponderation – and argues that its use was both “immediate and sensorial – [rather than] naive or unsophisticated,” as well as intricately tied to the Etruscans’ sense of self. When understood as a fluid corporeal 10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118354933.fmatter by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [29/01/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License xxvi xxvii “costume,” one which different characters could display depending on the persona they were meant to convey, ponderation becomes a motif that allows scholars to gain a deeper and more complex understanding about the reception of Classical Greek art in Etruria. Iconographic themes underlie Ingrid Krauskopf’s discussion of myth in Etruria. The author focuses both on why the Etruscans first incorporated certain stories of Greek origin into their own practices and then on how these became an integral part of Etruscan culture. Part IV concludes with a reassessment of the different uses of violent imagery in Etruria in contexts as varied as the sanctuary, the tomb, and the home. In “The ‘Taste’ for Violence in Etruscan Art: Debunking the Myth,” Alexandra Carpino argues that a small number of Greek stories were exploited deliberately not because the Etruscans had a taste for violence and its depiction, but because these particular subjects resonated both emotionally and psychologically with Etruscans of all ages while also effectively communicating specific beliefs, values, and anxieties about human behavior and passions. She also points out that these images are in the minority in terms of the overall corpus of subjects found on domestic artifacts, indicating, above all, that their selection was both thoughtful and deliberate and not symptomatic of an appetite for bloody or horrific imagery. The volume concludes with Part V, “The Etruscan Legacy and Contemporary Issues.” Ingrid Rowland discusses the beginning of Etruscan Studies in her analysis of the life and times of Giovanni Nanni, a Dominican friar in late fifteenth‐century Italy whose books, authored under the pseudonym Annius of Viterbo, helped lay the groundwork for the discipline. Despite providing the Etruscans with a false history – one that traced their first king back to Noah – Annius remains a pioneering figure in the study of this important Italic culture, one whose story allows us to understand better the first Etruscan revival and its impact on the art and architecture of late fifteenth‐ and early sixteenth‐century Italy. Richard De Puma expounds further on actual Etruscan forgeries in his chapter, “Tyrrhenian Sirens: The Seductive Song of Etruscan Forgeries.” He focuses both on the motivations for their manufacture and how certain well‐known examples – e.g., the large terracotta sculptures in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York – have colored our perceptions of the Etruscans. In addition, he discusses the range of scientific methods that can be used to distinguish an authentic artifact from a fake. Part V concludes with Gordon Lobay’s chapter, “Looting and the Antiquities Trade,” an up‐to‐date survey of the many issues surrounding the traffic in antiquities in Italy both currently and in the past. Lobay discusses the various legal and international agreements that have been created to address the problem, and provides readers with a number of resources that discuss the implications of looting on the future of the field. reFerenCes Beltramo Ceppi Zevi, C. and M. Restellini, eds. 2011. 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See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Introduction Introduction Pallottino, M. 1975. The Etruscans. Translated by J. Cremona; edited by D. Ridgway. Bloomington, IN. Ridgway, D. 2010. “Greece, Etruria and Rome: Relationships and Receptions.” Ancient West & East 9: 43–61. DOI: 10.2143/AWE.9.0.2056300. Torelli, M. ed. 2001. The Etruscans. New York. Turfa, J. M., ed. 2005. Catalogue of the Etruscan Gallery of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Philadelphia. Villa, A. 2012. Gli etruschi a Palermo: il Museo Casuccini. Milan. Warden, P. G., ed. 2008. From the Temple to the Tomb: Etruscan Treasures from Tuscany. Dallas TX. Warden, P. G. 2011. “The Chimaera of Arezzo: Made in Etruria?” American Journal of Archaeology 115.1 [online]. 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