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Divine Men and Women
in the History and Society
of Late Hellenism
Cracow 2013
Krzysztof Kościelniak
Jagiellonian University
Aspects of divinizAtion According to fArīd‑Al‑dīn
ʿAṭṭār nīšāpūrī (died c. 1221)
Farīd ad-dīn ʿAṭṭār (ca 1145/6–1221)1 is to be accounted amongst the greatest Sufi
poets and philosophers of Medieval Persia. Unfortunately he is less well know
than Ğalāl ad-dīn Muḥammad Rūmī (1207–1273) and Muḥammad Hāfez-e Šīrāzī
(1315–1390). Although Aṭṭār was overshadowed by his great successors nowadays he is still discovered and recognized as one of the canonical masters of Sufi
thought. ʿAṭṭār who left an overwhelming influence on Persian misticism in reality
was called Abū Hamīd bin Abū Bakr Ibrāhīm but today is better known by his pen-names Farīd al-Dīn and ʿAṭṭār — “the pharmacist”.
a) ʿAṭṭār’s life
Reconstruction of ʿAṭṭār’s life is very difficult because we do not possess enough
reliable facts on his biography. Information on ʿAṭṭār’s life is rare by his contemporaries. He is mentioned only by Moḥammad ʿAwfī (d. after 1223) and Ḵᵛāja Naṣīr
ad-dīn Ṭūsī (1200–1273)2. In principle ʿAṭṭār tells us very little about himself. His
works contain isolated allusion to contemporary persons or political events preferring a timeless world of mysticism3. It is understood when we take into consideration that all his works are a religious nature concentrating reader’s attention on
Transliteration: Farīd-al-dīn ʿAṭṭār; Transcription: Farīd ud-Dīn ʿAṭṭār.
H. Ritter,ʿAṭṭār [in:] Encyclopaedia of Islam. New edition, vol. I, Leiden 1960, pp. 752–755;
B. Reinert,ʿAṭṭār, Shaykh Farīd al‑dīn, in: Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. III, ed. E. Yarshater, London
1989, p. 20; B. Reinert,ʿAṭṭār, Farīd al‑dīn — Persian poet, Sufi, theoretician of mysticism, and
hagiographer, [in:] Encyclopaedia Iranica, [on-line:] http://www.iranica.com/articles/attar-farid-al-din-persian-poet-and-sufi, [quoted 5.05.2010]; Fifty Poems of ʿAṭṭār, transl. K. Avery, A. Alizadeh,
Melbourne 2007, Introduction, p. 3.
3
F. de Blois, Persian Literature — A Biobibliographical Survey, vol. V: Poetry of the Pre‑mongol
Period, London 2004, p. 233.
1
2
92
Krzysztof Kościelniak
spiritual subjects and having little occasion for biographical references. The only
biographical date appears in ʿAṭṭār’s writings, namely 1177 (573 Š.) as the year of
his completion of the Manṭeq aṭ‑ṭayr (The Conference of Birds) cannot be taken as
conclusive evidence because the verse in question was not found in all the manuscripts.
There is disagreement over the precise date of his birth but several sources confirm
that he lived almost 100 years. The traditional information that he was born in 1119
and murdered precisely in 1230 is generally rejected by modern historians4. Currently,
according to the most widespread scholar opinion Farīd ad-dīn ʿAṭṭār was born circa
1145 in Nīšāpūr5 (Neyshabur) located in 115 kms. west of Mašhad in present-day
Iran in the province of Khorasan (that’s the source of his name, Farīd ad-dīn ʿAṭṭār
Nīšāpūrī). In 12th and 13th century Nīšāpūr was a flourishing and prosperous city
favourably located on the great West trade route, main highway between the Levant
and Central Asia6. The city’s prosperity was resulted not only by merchant and artisan
class7, but also by influential scholar and religious groups8.
All sources confirm that he spent most of his life in Nīšāpūr, but according to
ʿAwfī, he composed literary masterpieces in the Seljuk period9. It seems that ʿAṭṭār
in his own lifetime was well know as a poet only his home town. All sign that his
greatness as a mystic and a master of narrative was not discovered in Persia until
the 15th century10.
The sources give little information on the formative Nīšāpūrī’s life. It seems
that Nīšāpūrī received an excellent education in medicine, Arabic, and theology
at Mašhad. His name ʿAṭṭār literary means “a perfumer” or “a pharmacist”. Probably he inherited the prosperous pharmacy from his father. According to his own
Moṣībat‑Nāma (Book of Afflictions) ʿAṭṭār in youth worked in his father’s prosperous
pharmacy preparing medicines for a very large number of clients11. After death his
father he inherited this business.
Muslim Saints and Mystics. Episodes from the Tadhkirat al‑Auliya’ (Memorial of the Saints)by
Farid al‑Din Attar, trans. A. J. Arberry, Ames 2000, Introduction, p. VII.
5
Especially it is result of detailed researches B. Forūzānfar, Šarḥ‑e aḥwāl wa naqd o taḥlīl‑e āṯār‑
‑e Šayḵ Farīd‑al‑dīn Moḥammad ʿAṭṭār Nīšābūrī, Tehran 1975 (1353 Š.), pp. 7–16. He calculated that
ʿAṭṭār was born 540 Š. that is 1145/1146.
6
R.W. Bulliet, The patricians of Nishapur. A Study in Medieval Islamic Social History, Cambridge
1972, pp. 4–12.
7
H. Jaouiche, The histories of Nishapur: Register der Personen‑ und Ortsnamen (ʿAbd‑al‑Ġāfir
al‑Fārisī), Wiesbaden 1984; Ch. K. Wilkinson, Nishapur some early Islamic buildings and their deco‑
ration, New York 1986; J. Kröger, Nishapur glass of the early Islamic period, New York 1995.
8
M. Malamuda, Sufi Organizations and Structures of Authority in Medieval Nishapur, International Journal of Middle East Studies 26 (1994), pp. 427–442; Ch. Melchert, Sufis and Competing
Movements in Nishapur, Iran 39 (2001), pp. 237–247.
9
Moḥammad ʿAwfi, Lobāb al‑albāb, ed. S. Nafisi, Tehran 1956, pp. 480–482.
10
B. Reinert,ʿAṭṭār, Farīd al‑dīn — Persian poet, Sufi, theoretician of mysticism, and hagiogra‑
pher…, p. 1, [quoted 5.05.2010].
11
B. Forūzānfar, Šarḥ‑e aḥwāl wa naqd o taḥlīl‑e āṯār‑e Šayḵ Farīd‑al‑dīn Moḥammad ʿAṭṭār
Nīšābūrī…, p. 39.
4
Aspects of Divinization According to Farīd‑al‑dīn ʿAṭṭār Nīšāpūrī (died c. 1221)
93
Dawlatšāh Samarqandī (d. after 1487), 15th century ʿAṭṭār’s and other Persian poets
biographer, made a note that ʿAṭṭār spent many years in Šādyāḫ, a suburb of Nīšāpūr,
where his pharmacy was situated. There is a story about ʿAṭṭār’s conversion to the
religious life which related us above mentioned Dawlatšāh Samarqandī and another
important Sufi biographer ‘Abd al-Raḥmān Ğāmī (d. 1492)12. One day, a wandering
hideous dervish impetuously came to the shop asking ʿAṭṭār for preparedness for
departure from this world. The fakir died suddenly in front of ʿAṭṭār’s eyes, which
worried him so much that he immediately abandoned his business and spent some
years in the Sufi lodge. Irağ Baširī, Professor of History at the University of Minnesota using this tradition found ʿAṭṭār’s new life was one of travel and exploration,
following the example of the fakir. For a long time, he might have travelled to Ray,
Kufa, Mecca, Damascus, Turkistan, and India, meeting with famous Sufi shaykhs
(arab. šayḫ; pl. šuyūḫ)13, learning about the mystical path (arab., pers. Ṭarīqah),
and experiencing life in the Order’s Sufi centres — khaniqahs (pers. ḫanegah and
ḫaneghah — lodges).
After several years of his Spiritual growth ʿAṭṭār returned to Nīšāpūr, where settled and reopened his pharmacy. He also began to promote of Sufi thought.
There is only little information about Sufi master whom ʿAṭṭār would have known.
According to Kennath Avery ʿAṭṭār’s writing show that he was well versed in many
areas like literature, philosophy, astronomy, medical and pharmaceutical sciences
which was connected with his occupation14. In contrast to this opinion Benedickt
Reinert conclude that it is difficult find adequate picture from ʿAṭṭār’s writings which
show us ʿAṭṭār’s general education and culture.
b) character and chronology of ʿAṭṭār’s works
However ʿAṭṭār was the creative, sophisticated and ambitious early Muslim mystical poet. He started writing Moṣībat‑Nāma (Book of Afflictions) and the Elāhī‑Nāma
yet at work in the pharmacy15. Regarding the poetic works, there is the question
whether all the texts that have been ascribed to him are really his authorship. The
problem has not been unambiguously solved. We possess conflicting sources both
with respect to the number of books that he might have written and the number of
distiches he might have composed. For example, Rezā Gholi ḫān Hedāyat reports
190 ʿAṭṭār’s works containing 100.000 distichs (for comparison, the famous Persian Firdawsī’s Šāhnāmeh — The Great Book contains only 60,000 bayts). Another
authors put the number of ʿAṭṭār’s books to be the same as the number of the Suras
12
Dawlatšāh Samarqandī, Tadhkirat al‑šu‘arā’, ed. M. Ramḍānī, Tehran 1344 Š., p. 145; ‘Abd
al-Raḥmān b. Aḥmad Ğāmī, Nafaḥāt al‑uns min ḥaḍarāt al‑quds, ed. M. Tawḥīdī Pūr, Teheran 1375
Š., p. 599.
13
I. Bashiri, Farid al‑Din ‘Attar, [on-line:] http://www.angelfire.com/rnb/bashiri/Poets/Attar.html
[quoted 6.05.2010].
14
Fifty Poems of ʿAṭṭār, transl. K. Avery, A. Alizadeh…, Introduction, p. 4.
15
H. Ritter, Philologika X, Farīdaddīn ʿAṭṭār I, Der Islam 25 (1939), p. 148.
94
Krzysztof Kościelniak
of the Qur’ān, i.e., 11416. More realistic researches give thought to the number of
his books to have been between 9 to 12 volumes17. The analysts of ʿAṭṭār’s poetry
have been observed in his books considerable differences of style among these Sufi
works. More, some of them indicate a Sunnite, and others a Shia, influence of the
author. German scholar Hellmut Ritter (1892–1971) at first gave the interpretation that the problem of this divergences could be explained by a ʿAṭṭār’s spiritual
evolution. He distinguished three phases Farīd-al-dīn’s creativity18. Firstly, there
are works which concentrate on mysticism manifesting in the idea of communion
with God, identity with an ultimate reality and divinity truth. It is presented way to
God through direct experience, intuition, instinct or insight. Secondly ʿAṭṭār wrote
works contained pantheistic elements. Finally, master from Nīšāpūr in a great age
left us the texts in which he idolizes leadership position of Imam. This evolution of
ʿAṭṭār’s Poetic creation can present in following schema:
► 1: mysticism in perfect balance with a finished story‑teller’s art ► 2:
a pantheistic zeal gains the upper hand over literary interest ► 3: idoli‑
zation of imam ʿAlī ibn Abī ṭālib (there is no trace of ordered thoughts
and descriptive skills)
The detailed studies, first by Ḥāfiẓ Maḥmud Šerani (1888–1945)19, next Saeed
Nafīsī (1896–1966)20 and especially above mentioned Hellmut Ritter21 allow us to
come to conclusion that two works Maẓhar al‑‘ağā’ib (The Executor of Wonders)
and Lisān al‑ġaib (Voice from the Outer World) were forgeries from around the
middle of the 15th century. Hellmut Ritter supposed that the last phase of ʿAṭṭār’s
poetry in the old age, was coincidental with a conversion to Shi’ism. In 1941, the
Persian scholar Saeed Nafīsī proposed a thesis that the works of the third phase
in Ritter’s classification were written by another ʿAṭṭār (ʿAṭṭār of Tun) who lived
about two hundred and fifty years later in Mašhad one of the holiest cities in the
Shia world, located close to the borders of today Afghanistan and Turkmenistan.
It seems that this identification could be under discussion. Nowadays Sufis have
generally been contrasted with the Sunni ulema. This suggests that Sufism and official Islamic law were incompatible and even hostile to each other. The ulema have
concentrated on the the elaboration and guardianship of Islamic law (fiqh). In the other
hand Sufis concern the inner, experiential dimension of Islam. Therefore Sufis flouted
the sharia in their quest for knowledge of God. Sometimes reconciliation between
Cf. I. Bashiri, Farid al‑Din ‘Attar, [on-line:] http://www.angelfire.com/rnb/bashiri/Poets/Attar.
html [quoted 6.05.2010].
17
In the introductions of Mokhtār‑Nāma and Khosrow‑Nāma, ʿAṭṭār lists the titles of further
his works: Dīvān, Asrār‑Nāma, Maqāmāt‑e Toyūr (= Manteq aṭ‑Ṭayr), Moṣībat‑Nāma, Elāhī‑Nāma,
Jawāher‑Nāma, Šarḥ al‑Qalb.
18
Cf. H. Ritter, Philologika X, Farīdaddīn ʿAṭṭār I…, p. 134–173, especially pp. 143–144.
19
Cf. H.M. Šerani, ‘Taṣnīfāt i šaiḫ Farīdu l‑dīn ʿAṭṭār, Urdū 7 (1927) pp. 1–97.
20
Cf. S. Nafīsī, Just‑u‑jū dar aḥwāl wa āṯār i Farīdu l‑dīn ʿAṭṭār i Nīšāpūrī, Teheran 1942.
21
Cf. H. Ritter, Philologika X, Farīdaddīn ʿAṭṭār I…, pp. 134–173; Philologika XIV, Farīdaddīn
ʿAṭṭār II, Oriens 11 (1958), pp. 1–76; Philologika XV, Farīdaddīn ʿAṭṭār III, Oriens 12 (1959), pp.
1–88; Philologika XVI, Farīdaddīn ʿAṭṭār IV, Oriens 13–14 (1961), pp. 194–239.
16
Aspects of Divinization According to Farīd‑al‑dīn ʿAṭṭār Nīšāpūrī (died c. 1221)
95
law and Sufism became necessary like for example by al-Ġazālī (1058–1111). This
reconciliation allowed to the spread and develop of Sufi institutions (Sufi brotherhoods — arīqas) in the late 12th and 13th centuries. Before 12th century Sufis had
formed loose circles or groups that had had no institutional structure or affiliation22.
During ʿAṭṭār’s life, these groups crystallized and autonomous Sufi institutions and
practices emerged. Probably this context also could be useful for explanation of
the third phase of ʿAṭṭār’s poetry. In the 13th century Sufis became part of Muslim
social and devotional life uniting in their philosophy and theology various Islamic
doctrinal elements.
It is doubtful whether Saeed Nafīsī was right in attributing the poetry of the second
group to another ʿAṭṭār (ʿAṭṭār of Tun) because the principal figure in the second
group is not ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib (d. 661), as in the third group, but Manṣūr-e Hallāğ
(858–922). Certainly the style the ʿAṭṭār’s works in the first group and those in the
second group is deeply different so it is impossible to explain this phenomenon by
a spiritual evolution of the philosopher from Nīšāpūr. It remains an unsolved problem
whether works of the second group are or not ʿAṭṭār’s authorship.
c) The Conference of Birds
Aṭṭār Nīšāpūrī was inspired by a fresh and enlarged spiritual vision which stimulated Persian Sufi tradition of the next generations to new spiritual growth. His
thought about religious and spiritual attitudes dramatize the deepest aspects of the
human condition.
One of Aṭṭār’s major poetic books is called Asrār‑Nāma (Book of Secrets) about
Sufi ideas. According to tradition aged Aṭṭār gave this work Ğalāl ad-Dīn Muḥammad
Rūmī (1207–1273) when Rūmī’s family stayed over at Nīšāpūr on its way to Konya.
Another great contribution of Aṭṭār is Elāhī‑Nāma (Divine Book)23, about zuhd
(asceticism). Without doubt among Aṭṭār’s books Maqāmāt‑e Toyūr or Mantiq aṭ‑
‑Ṭayr — The Conference of the Birds24 is masterpiece in which he makes extensive
use of Al-Ġazālī’s treatise on Birds and as well a work on the same topic composed
by the Iḫwān aṣ-Ṣafā25, the Brothers of Serenity or the Brethren of Purity) a secret
society of Muslim philosophers in Basra (Iraq) in the 10th century.
Mantiq aṭ‑Ṭayr is usually translated as The Conference of Birds, but this title
can also be understood as The Logic of birds, because meaning of the word mantiq
is connected not only with term “speaking”, but also “logic”. Mantiq aṭ‑Ṭayr is
22
M. Malamuda, Sufi Organizations and Structures of Authority in Medieval Nishapur, International Journal of Middle East Studies 26 (1994), pp. 427–442.
23
The Ilahi‑Nama (or Book of God) of Farid al‑Din Attar, Manchester 1976.
24
This masterpiece has many edition: Farid-ud-din Attar, Conference of the birds : a seeker’s
journey to God, ed. R. P. Masani, York Beach 2001; The conference of the birds, eds. A. Darbandi, D.
Davis, Harmondsworth 1986; The conference of the birds: Mantiq ut‑tair; a philosophical religious
poem in prose, ed. C. S. Nott, London 1974; The conference of the birds. A Sufy Allegory, being an
abridged Version of Farid‑ud‑Din Attar’s Mantiq‑ut‑Tayr, London 1961.
25
I. Bashiri, Farid al‑Din ‘Attar, [on-line:] http://www.angelfire.com/rnb/bashiri/Poets/Attar.html
[quoted 6.05.2010].
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Krzysztof Kościelniak
composed as great philosophic religious poem with many little spiritual stories,
concealing the big spiritual context.
There is observed in Mantiq aṭ‑Ṭayr a clever play of words between the terms
Simorgh and si morgh. The first word Simorgh means a mysterious bird in Persian
mythology often being a symbol in sufi literature similar to the phoenix bird. The
expression si morgh have meaning “thirty birds” in Persian. The stories Mantiq
aṭ‑Ṭayr recounts the overwhelming desire of a group of birds who crave to know
the great Simorgh, and who under the guidance of a leader bird Hoopoe start their
journey toward the kingdom of Simorgh. One by one, they drop out of the journey,
each offering an excuse and unable to endure the journey. In the large context of
the story of the journey of the birds, Aṭṭār masterfully tells the reader many didactic
short, stories and deep sentence in captivating poetic style.
When the birds of the world assemble, they wonder why they have no king. The
Hoopoe26 shows herself at one’s best as a messenger from the spiritual world with
knowledge of God and the secrets of creation. It is worth to stress that the Hoopoe
is mentioned once in the Quran, in Sura 27, 20–2927 but has important place in the
Muslim folklore and tradition28. According to the Quran the Hoopoe is intelligent,
smart, knows and worships his Creator, and communicated with King Solomon29.
The birds guided by hoopoe spared no efforts in search of Simurgh. They must
cross seven valleys in order to find their king. In the first valley Ṭalab (valley of the
quest) one undergoes a hundred difficulties and trials. After one has been tested and
become free, one learns in the second valley ʻIšq (Modern Persian eshgh, valley of
love). The birds understood that love has nothing to do with reason. This mystic
doctrine refers to “divine love” or “a creature’s love for its creator”; i.e. man’s love
for God. Stepping into the next, third valley Al‑M‘arifa (the valley of understending),
the birds found in the place of understanding where understood that knowledge is
temporary, but understanding withstands. Overcoming faults and weaknesses moves
the seeker closer to the aim. Al‑M‘arifa which literally means “knowledge”, is the
term used by Sufi to describe mystical intuitive knowledge of spiritual truth reached
through ecstatic experiences. It is equivalent of neoplatonic “Gnosis”. In the valley
of unity the Hoopoe announces that although you may see many beings, in reality
there is only one, which is complete in its unity.
The fourth valley Istighnah is presented as the valley of independence or detachment, i.e., separation from wish to possess and the desire to discover. The birds begin
to feel that they have become part of a universe that they are separated from their
It is about the bird Upupa epops.
K. Kościelniak, Tematyczna konkordancja do Koranu, Kraków 2006, p. 95.
28
N. H. Dupree, An Interpretation of the Role of the Hoopoe in Afghan Folklore and Magic,
Folklore 85 (1974), pp. 173–193; J. Lassner, Islamizing of Story of the Hoopoe [in:] Demonizing
the Queen of Sheba: boundaries of gender and culture in Postbiblical Judaism and Medieval Islam,
Chicago 1993, pp. 97–101.
29
On the contrary in the Bible the Hoopoe is detestable, unclean and forbidden for eating (Lev
11, 13–19; Deut 14, 18).
26
27
Aspects of Divinization According to Farīd‑al‑dīn ʿAṭṭār Nīšāpūrī (died c. 1221)
97
physical recognizable reality. In their new mystical world, the planets are as minute
as sparks of dust and elephants are not distinguishable from ants.
Entering to the fifth valley Tawḥīd (valley of the “Unity of God”) the birds realize that unity and multiplicity constitute the one reality. The Hoopoe announces that
although there are seen many beings, in reality there is only one, which is complete
in its unity. The birds have transformed in entities in a vacuum — without sense of
eternity. The birds realize fundamental truth, that God is beyond unity, multiplicity,
and eternity.
When unity is achieved, one forgets all and forgets oneself, the birds stepping
into the sixth valley Ḫayrat (the valley of astonishment and bewilderment). There
they became surprised at the dazzling beauty of the Beloved. That was the highest
amazement. Experiencing extreme sadness and despondency, they feel that they
know and understand nothing. They are not even conscious of themselves.
Finally, only thirty birds reach the homeland of the Simurgh, the seventh valley
Fuqur and Fana’ (the valley of Selflessness and Oblivion in God). There is impossible to see king anywhere. Simurgh’s high ranking official keeps them waiting for
Simurgh long enough for the birds to figure out that they themselves are the si (thirty)
murgh (bird). The last valley is the place of deprivation and death which — and
according to the Hoopoe — is almost impossible to describe it. In the immensity of
the divine ocean the situation and order of the present world and the future world
disappears.
As a result, the seventh valley represent depravation, forgetfulness, dumbness,
deafness, and death. These represent the stations that a Sufi or any individual must
pass through to realize the true nature of God. Flying through seven valleys the
birds came under attack from many difficulties. They undergo many tests as they
try to free themselves of what is precious to them and change their state. The last
station — valley of Selflessness and Oblivion in God show the Sufi pupils that the
present and future lives of the thirty successful birds become shadows chased by
the celestial Sun. And themselves, lost in the Sea of His existence, are the Simurgh.
The Conference of the Birds (Mantiq aṭ‑Ṭayr) stress, that as long as we are separate,
good and evil will arise; but when we lose ourself in the divine essence, they will
be transcended by love30.
***
During the journey 22 birds ask the Hoopoe about the aspects of life. Hoopoe’s
points is illustrated by short anecdotes. For example the nightingale announces that
the love of the Rose fully satisfies him, but the Hoopoe warns against being a slave
of self-perfection. The Parrot misses for immortality, and the Hoopoe encourages
the Peacock to choose the total unit. The Hoopoe warns the Partridge that gems are
not more as colored stones and that love of them hardens the heart. It is much better
I. Bashiri, Farid al‑Din ‘Attar, [in:] http://www.angelfire.com/rnb/bashiri/Poets/Attar.html
[quoted 6.05.2010].
30
98
Krzysztof Kościelniak
seek the real jewel of sound quality. The Hoopoe gives a piece of advice the Humay
which is distracted by ambition, and the Owl loving only the treasure he has found.
A sharp reprimand is given the Sparrow for taking pride in humility. The Hoopoe
recommends the birds struggling bravely with oneself. According to the Hoopoe’s
opinion the different birds are just shadows of the Simurgh. If they achieve aim,
they will not be God; but they will be immersed in God. If the thirty birds look in
their hearts, they will see the divine image. Their appearances are just the shadow
of the Simurgh. The true love of God is realized if they do not think about their own
lives but sacrifice their desires. Dilemmas of the thirty birds, their doubts and fears,
the counsels of their leader Hoopoe, and first at all their choice of the Simurgh as
a king, is in reality an allegory of the spiritual way of Sufism with its demands, its
dangers and its infinite rewards31.
Working in the field of Aṭṭār’s thought it is necessary to focus one’s attention
on the role Neoplatonism. An examination of both Aṭṭār’s works and Neoplatonism
reveals close similarities with regard to the nature of God, the soul, the body, concepts such as goodness, evil and beauty, death and life, and creation. Probably Aṭṭār
enjoys a more liberal approach with his conception of mystic union connected also
with a degree of Buddhism’s influence. According to neoplatonism, God is the source
and aim of everything; from him everything comes, to him all things return; he is the
beginning, middle and end, the alpha and omega. Communion with God or absorption
in God, therefore, is the real goal of all human actions. God is a supreme power, the
final cause, the cosmic force, the highest spiritual, and creative Being. There is no
aspect of Aṭṭār’s philosophy that is not influenced by neoplatonism.
Using the image of journey of the birds, Aṭṭār masterfully gives the reader excellent reflection about the birds arriving in the land of Simorgh. Only the thirty
birds reached the aim and consequently they see only there each other. In the last
fragments The Conference of the Birds (Mantiq aṭ‑Ṭayr) presents reflection of the
thirty birds in a lake — not thought of the mythical Simorgh. According to Aṭṭār God
is not external or separate from the universe, rather is the totality of existence. The
thirty birds looking for the Simorgh realise that Simorgh is nothing more than their
transcendent totality. This concept seems to be similar to elements of Neoplatonic
Pantheism32.
The deepest message of The Conference of the Birds is completely dominated
by the philosophical thought that the individual self does not really exist, the drop
becomes part of the great ocean forever in peace. It is used the analogy of moths
seeking the flame. Out of thousands of birds only thirty of them become aware that
the Simurgh is them. When the light of lights is manifested they are in peace beginning a new life in the Simurgh and contemplate the inner world. It was mentioned
31
The Allegorical ‘Conference of the birds’ is Attars most famous work. tr. Garcin de Tassy and C.
S. Nott [on-line:] http://oldpoetry.com/opoem/24929-Farid-al-Din-Attar-Conference-Of-The-Birds
[quoted 28.05.2010]. The Soul‑Bird Symbol In Sufi Literature, [on-line:] http://indianmuslims.in/the-soul-bird-symbol-in-sufi-literature/ [quoted 6.05.2010].
32
The Conference of the Birds, Nation Master Encyclopaedia, [on-line:] www.statemaster.com/
encyclopedia/ The-Conference-of-the-Birds [quoted 20.05.2010].
Aspects of Divinization According to Farīd‑al‑dīn ʿAṭṭār Nīšāpūrī (died c. 1221)
99
that name Simurgh in play the Persian word could be change into Si murgh with
meaning “thirty birds”. However if forty or fifty birds had arrived to Simurgh’s
homeland, it would be the same.
Neoplatonism is the closest doctrine of Aṭṭār’s philosophy in system of his belief. The universe is just an appearance of God, and does not have an independent
existence. By annihilating themselves in the Simurgh the birds receive immortality
finding themselves in joy and learning the secrets. In principle it is a instruction for
Sufi. So long as he does not realize his nothingness and does not renounce his self-pride, vanity, and self-love, he will not reach the heights of immortality. As a matter of fact Aṭṭār Nīšāpūrī concluded the epilog of The Conference of Birds with the
warning that if someone wish to find the ocean of his soul, then die to all his old life
and then keep silent. Aṭṭār deeply believed that God is beyond all human knowledge
and experience. The soul will show itself when corporeality is totally laid aside. Sufi
cannot gain spiritual knowledge without dying to all things.
The Hoopoe confirms this idea saying:
So long as we do not die to ourselves,
and so long as we identify with someone or something,
we shall never be free.
The spiritual way is not for those wrapped up in exterior life. 5
There are not a “duality” and separation between God and the universe. In reality,
the God and the universe are the “One”. It is not possible to think of God and the
universe as separate entities because God is not something outside the universe, but
rather something within the universe. This Aṭṭār’s belief was initially suggested by
neoplatonism. They both recognize the existence of the universe as an emanation
from God.
The Aṭṭār’s idea of the oneness of God-universe-human beings share neoplatonic
same beliefs about the soul. According to neoplatonism, the soul is a divine essence
and the source of all existence. The body is a cage where the soul is trapped, and it
can be freed when the body dies. The soul always inclines toward perfection and
exaltation. According to Aṭṭār the soul is treated similarly, and expressed as a divine
essence in humans.
In the one of the expression the Hoopoe admonishes the sixth bird against the
dog of desire that runs ahead. Each conceited desire becomes a demon and therefore
the world is a prison under the devil. The Hoopoe also explains that if someone let
no one benefit from his gold, he will not profit either; but by the smallest gift to the
poor they both benefit.
Good fortune will come to you only as you give.
If you cannot renounce life completely,
you can at least free yourself
from the love of riches and honors. 6
A Sufi student becomes afraid in facing a choice between two paths, but a spiritual
master advises getting rid of fear so that either path will be good.
Krzysztof Kościelniak
100
The body, like soul, is also treated similarly in Aṭṭār’s philosophy and neoplatonism. According to neoplatonism, the body is not divine, mortal and temporary. The
body tends not towards beauty and goodness, but towards ugliness and evil. What
is beautiful, valuable and divine is the soul, but not body. The body inclines towards
temporary desires and wishes. It is a cage for the soul. Aṭṭār shares the same belief.
The Hoopoe remarks that sensual love is a game inspired by passing beauty that is
fleeting and she asks what is uglier than a body made of flesh and bones. According
to this logic is better to seek the hidden beauty of the invisible world:
Strive to discover the mystery before life is taken from you.
If while living you fail to find yourself, to know yourself,
how will you be able to understand
the secret of your existence when you die?
The fifteenth bird explains that justice is salvation, which saves from errors. Being
just is better than a life of religious worship. Justice exercised in secret is even better than liberality; but justice practiced openly may lead to hypocrisy. One Aṭṭār’s
anecdote about two drunks teaches that we see faults because we do not love. When
we see the ugliness of our own faults, we will not bother so much with the faults
of others. For neoplatonism beauty means much more than mere symmetry. It involves a close relationship to the ideal reality; it is an appearance of God over the
objects of the universe. Aṭṭār thinks exactly the same about beauty. For him it is the
appearance of divine light in the face of a human. Neoplatonism identified beauty
with divine essence, and Aṭṭār adopted the similar idea.
***
Aṭṭār Nīšāpūrī presents God, quite different from Orthodox Islamic belief. It is really a question of the social and cultural environment in which sufism flourished
how happened the interaction between islam and neoplatonism. In principle Islamic
philosophy has its roots mostly in the works of Aristotle which were all translated
into Arabic. The most Classical Islamic philosophers established their theories on
the basis of Aristotle’s philosophy. Through the translations of the writings of Plato
and Plotinus, they also were introduced into the Muslim culture first in Anatolia and
then in Persia. The Neoplatonic mystic elements were incorporated with ancient
Anatolian beliefs. The best example is the sacredness of natural events such as the
sun33. It was used also in The Conference of the Birds in the belief of God’s resemblance to the sun. In this way Neoplatonism prepared the way for liberal interpretations of Islamic principles in Sufi philosophy.
Come you lost Atoms to your Centre draw,
And be the Eternal Mirror that you saw:
Rays that have wander’d into Darkness wide
Return and back into your Sun subside
33
K. Modelek, The neoplatonic Roots of Sufi Philosophy, [on-line:] http://www.muslimphi-
losophy.com/ip/CompGode.htm [quoted 2.06.2010].