Herausgeber/Editor MANFRED BIETAK ÄGYPTEN UND LEVANTE EGYPT AND THE LEVANT XVII/2007 XVII 2007 Redaktion: ERNST CZERNY KOMMISSION FÜR ÄGYPTEN UND LEVANTE DER ÖSTERREICHISCHEN AKADEMIE DER WISSENSCHAFTEN INSTITUT FÜR ÄGYPTOLOGIE DER UNIVERSITÄT WIEN ÖSTERREICHISCHES ARCHÄOLOGISCHES INSTITUT KAIRO Vorgelegt von w. M. MANFRED BIETAK in der Sitzung vom 12. Oktober 2007 Gedruckt mit der Unterstützung der Universität Wien und des Österreichischen Archäologischen Instituts Spezialforschungsbereich (SCIEM 2000) „Die Synchronisierung der Hochkulturen im östlichen Mittelmeerraum im 2. Jahrtausend v. Chr.“ der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften beim Fonds zur Förderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung Special Research Programme SCIEM 2000 “The Synchronisation of Civilisations in the Eastern Mediterrannean in the Second Millenium B.C.” of the Austrian Academy of Sciences at the Austrian Science Fund Alle Rechte vorbehalten ISBN 978-3-7001-4012-2 ISSN 1015–5104 Copyright © 2007 by Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien Grafik, Satz, Layout: Angela Schwab Druck: Druckerei Ferdinand Berger & Söhne GesmbH, Horn http://hw.oeaw.ac.at/4012-2 http://verlag.oeaw.ac.at Wien 2007 Die Zeitschrift Ägypten und Levante ist Ä&L abzukürzen. The Journal Egypt and the Levant should be abbreviated E&L. Inhaltsverzeichnis/Contents Abkürzungen/Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vorwort/Introduction von/by Manfred Bietak 9 ......................................... 11 N. Allon, Seth is Baal – Evidence from the Egyptian Script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 H. Barnard, Additional Remarks on Blemmyes, Beja and Eastern Desert Ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 M. Bietak und I. Forstner-Müller, Ausgrabung eines Palastbezirkes der Tuthmosidenzeit bei cEzbet Helmi/Tell el-Dabca, Vorbericht für das Frühjahr 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 E.C.M. van den Brink, R. Gophna and A. Ovadiah, Burial Cave 2 in the Azor-Holon Cemetery: An Early Bronze Age I Tomb with Egyptian Finds . . . . . . 59 I. Finkelstein and E. Piasetzky, Radiocarbon Dating and Philistine Chronology with an Addendum on el-Ahwat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 I. Forstner-Müller, The Colonization/Urbanization of the Tell Area A/II at Tell el-Dabca and its Chronological Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 I. Forstner-Müller, T. Herbich, W. Müller, Ch. Schweitzer and M. Weissl, Geophysical Survey 2007 at Tell el- Dabca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 F. Höflmayer, Ägyptische Skarabäen auf Kreta und ihre Bedeutung für die absolute Chronologie der minoischen Altpalastzeit (MM IB –MM IIB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 J.K. Hoffmeier and K.A. Kitchen, Reshep and Astarte in North Sinai: A Recently Discovered Stela from Tell el-Borg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 E.S. Marcus, Amenemhet II and the Sea: Maritime Aspects of the Mit Rahina (Memphis) Inscription . . . . . . 137 M.A.S. Martin and R. Ben-Dov, Egyptian and Egyptian-Style Pottery at Tel Dan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 N.Ch. Math, Eine innere Chronologie der Badarikultur? Möglichkeiten und Aspekte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 D. Morandi Bonacossi, The Chronology of the Royal Palace of Qatna Revisited. A Reply to a Paper by Mirko Novák, Egypt and the Levant 14, 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 T. Mühlenbruch, Die Synchronisierung der nördlichen Levante und Kilikiens mit der ägäischen Spätbronzezeit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 H. Refai, Zur Entwicklung der königlichen Jenseitsabsicherung in den thebanischen Totentempeln des Neuen Reiches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 R. Schiestl, The Coffin from Tomb I at Byblos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 A. Winkels, Restauratorisch-naturwissenschaftliche Untersuchung von tuthmosidischen Putzen aus cEzbet Helmi / Tell el Dabca – Ein Beitrag zur Erforschung altägyptischer Kalkputztechnik . . . . . 273 E. Yannai, New Typology and Chronology of the Grey Lustrous Wheel Made Ware in Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Abkürzungen/Abbreviations Ä&L Ägypten & Levante. Zeitschrift für ägyptische Archäologie und deren Nachbargebiete, Wien CRIPEL Cahiers de recherches de l’Institut de Papyrologie et d’Égyptologie de Lille, Lille AA Archäologischer Anzeiger. Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Berlin DFIFAO Documents de Fouilles de l’Institut français d’archéologie orientale du Caire, Le Caire AAAS Les annales archéologiques Arabes Syriennes. Revue d’archéologie et d’histoire, Damascus EA Egyptian Archaeology. The Bulletin of the Egypt Exploration Society, London AASOR Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research, Cambridge, Mass. E&L see Ä&L EEF Egypt Excavation Fund, London ADAJ Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan, Amman EES Excav. Mem Egypt Exploration Society Excavation Memoir, London ADAIK Abhandlungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo, Berlin ESI Excavations and Surveys in Israel, Jerusalem AHL Archaeology and History in Lebanon, London GM Göttinger Miszellen, Göttingen AJA American Journal of Archaeology, New York, Baltimore, Norwood GOF Göttinger Orientforschungen HA Hadashot Arkheologiyot, Jerusalem HA/ESI Hadashot Arkheologiyot – Excavations and Surveys in Israel, Jerusalem Israel antiquity Authority Reports, Jerusalem AR Archaeological Reports, London ArchDelt Archaiologikon Deltion, Athen IAA Reports AS Anatolian Studies. Journal of the British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara, London IEJ Israel Exploration Journal, Jerusalem JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society, New Haven, Conn. JARCE Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, New York JEA Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, London JEOL Jaarbericht van het vooraziat.-egyptisch Genootschap, Ex Oriente Lux, Leiden JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Chicago ASAE Annales du service des antiquités de l’Égypte, Kairo AV Archäologische Veröffentlichungen. Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Abteilung Kairo, Wiedbaden BAAL Bulletin d’archéologie et d’architecture libanaises, Beirut BaM Baghdater Mitteilungen, Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Orient-Abteilung, Mainz BAR International Series British Archaeological Reports, International Series, London JSP Judea and Samaria Publication, Jerusalem JSSEA Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities, Toronto LÄ W. HELCK und E. OTTO (eds.), Lexikon der Ägyptologie, Wiesbaden LingAeg Lingua Aegyptia. Journal of Egyptian Language Studies, Göttingen BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, New Haven BdE Bibliothèque d’étude, Le Caire Beiträge Bf. Beiträge zur ägyptischen Bauforschung und Altertumskunde, Wiesbaden, Zürich, Kairo MAG BICS Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies, London Mitteilungen der Archäologischen Gesellschaft, Graz MAN BIFAO Bulletin de l’lnstitut français d’archéologie orientale , Le Caire MAN: a record of anthropological science. Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, London BSA The Annual of the British School at Athens, London M.A.R.I. M.A.R.I. Annales de recherches interdisciplinaires, Paris BSAE British School of Archaeology in Egypt MÄS Münchner Ägyptologische Studien, München BSFE Bulletin de la societe française d’égypte , Paris MDAIK Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo, Mainz CChEM Contributions to the Chronology of the Eastern Mediterranean, Wien MDOG Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient Gesellschaft, Berlin CdE Chronique d`égypte , Bruxelles NEAEHL CMS MATZ, F., PINI, I., and MÜLLER, W. (eds.) 1964-. Corpus der Minoischen und Mykenischen Siegel. Berlin; 2002-. Mainz am Rhein. The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land (E. STERN ed.), New York OBO Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, Fribourg-Göttingen CRAI Compte rendue de la rencontre assyriologique internationale, verschiedene Orte OBO SA Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, Series Archaeologica, Fribourg 10 Abkürzungen/Abbreviations OIP Oriental Institute Publications, University of Chicago, Chicago SIMA Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology, Göteborg, Jonsered SIMA-Pb Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology Pocketbook, Lund OJA Oxford Journal of Archaeology, Oxford OLA Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta, Leuven OpAth Opuscula atheniensia. Annual of the Swedish Institute at Athens, Lund SJOT Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament, Aarhus PEQ Palestine Exploration Quarterly, London SMEA Studi micenei ed egeo-anatolici, Roma QDAP Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities of Palestine, Jerusalem, Oxford TA Tel Aviv, Tel Aviv UF Ugarit Forschungen, Münster RA Revue archéologique, Paris UMM RB Revue biblique, Jerusalem RDAC Report of the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus, Nicosia University Museum Monographs, University Museum Symposium Series. University of Pennsylvania Museum, Philadelphia UZK RdE Revue d’égyptologie, Paris Untersuchungen der Zweigstelle Kairo des Österreichischen Archäologischen Institutes, Wien RlA Das Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie, Berlin-New York WB RSO Ras Shamra-Ougarit, Paris A. ERMAN & H. GRAPOW, Wörterbuch der Aegyptischen Sprache 1–5 (Leipzig, 1926–1931) SAGA Studien zur Archäologie und Geschichte Altägyptens, Heidelberg WVDOG Wissenschaftliche Veröffentlichung der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft, Berlin, Leipzig SAK Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur, Hamburg WZKM Wiener Zeitschrift für die kunde des Morgenlandes, Wien SAOC Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization, Chicago ZÄS Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, Leipzig, Berlin SDAIK Sonderschriften des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo, Berlin ZDPV Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins, Stuttgart, Wiesbaden 11 Vorwort Introduction Von Manfred Bietak By Manfred Bietak Das Heft 17 der Zeitschrift enthält 18 Artikel, die ein weites thematisches Feld abdecken. Der Schwerpunkt freilich liegt auf Beiträgen zur Archäologie Ägyptens und der umliegenden Länder, wie es dem Profil der Zeitschrift entspricht. Der österreichische Grabungsplatz Tell el-Dabca ist mit einem aktuellen Vorbericht zur letzten Grabungskampagne im Frühjahr 2007 vertreten (M. Bietak und I. Forstner-Müller), die, nach einer Unterbrechung im Jahr davor, neuerlich dem Palastareal der 18. Dynastie bei cEzbet Helmi gewidmet war. Ebenso wurden die geophysikalischen Prospektionsarbeiten des Areals von Tell elDabca fortgesetzt, und auch die vorläufigen Resultate dieser Untersuchungen sind bereits in diesem Band vorgelegt (I. Forstner-Müller et al.). Bereits länger zurück (1997) liegt die Grabung I. Forstner-Müller’s im Areal A/II im Bereich des namensgebenden Tells. Die unterste Schichte, die damals erreicht wurde, reicht in die späte 12. Dynastie zurück und läßt sich gut mit etwa gleichzeitigen Arealen in den Grabungsflächen von F/I und cEzbet Rushdi korrellieren (“Phase H”). Die Befunde aus dieser Schichte werden von der Ausgräberin unter dem Titel “The colonization/Urbanization of the Tell Area A/II at Tell el-Dabca and its chronological implications” vorgestellt. Schließlich befaßt sich auch noch ein naturwissenschaftlich orientierter Beitrag von A. Winkels mit der Erforschung der ägyptischen Kalkputztechnik anhand der thutmosidischen Putze aus cEzbet Helmi. Hosam Refai behandelt mit “Zur Entwicklung der königlichen Jenseitsabsicherung in den thebanischen Totentempeln des Neuen Reiches” ein klassisches ägyptologisches Thema. Zahlreiche weitere Artikel führen jedoch in Randbereiche der Ägyptologie. So untersucht N. Math die Möglichkeiten, eine innere Chronologie der Badarikultur nach dem Vorbild derjenigen der Negadekultur zu etablieren. Der Annalentext Amenemhet II aus Memphis gilt als eine der zentralen historischen Quellen zur 12. Dynastie. In einem weitausgreifenden Artikel analysiert E. Marcus die maritimen Aspekte und Implikationen dieser erstaunlichen Inschrift, deren “historisches Potential” anhand dieser Auswertung wohl exemplarisch aufgezeigt wird. Volume no. 17 of this periodical contains 18 articles, covering a wide thematic field. However, according to the profile of this journal, the main focus is on contributions to the archaeology of Egypt and surrounding countries. The Austrian excavations at Tell el-Dabca are represented by an up to date preliminary report of the last season in spring 2007 (M. Bietak and I. Forstner-Müller). After an intermission the year before, work concentrated, again, on the palace precinct of the 18th Dynasty at cEzbet Helmi. Likewise, the geophysical survey work of the area of Tell el-Dabca has been continued and the preliminary results of the investigations are published in this volume (I. Forstner-Müller et al.). The excavations of I. Forstner Müller in area A/II of the tell date back to 1997. The lowest stratum reached then dates to the late 12th dynasty and shows good correlation with contemporaneous strata in area F/I and cEzbet Rushdi (“Phase H”). The findings of this stratum are presented by the excavator under the title “The colonization/Urbanization of the Tell Area A/II at Tell el-Dabca and its chronological implications”. Eventually, a science orientated contribution by A. Winkels researches Egyptian lime plaster technique according to Thutmoside plaster finds from cEzbet Helmi. Hosam Refai covers a classic Egyptological theme with his article “Zur Entwicklung der königlichen Jenseitsabsicherung in den thebanischen Totentempeln des Neuen Reiches“. However, several other articles deal with marginal themes in Egyptological research. N. Math, for example, examines the possibilities to establish an inner chronology of the Badarian Civilisation according to the example of the one established for the Nagada culture. The annals of Amenemhet II from Memphis are regarded as one of the main historical sources of the 12th dynasty. In a comprehensive article E. Marcus analyses the maritime aspects and implications of this astonishing inscription, thus showing exemplarily the “historical potential” of the inscription. The last mentioned contribution already 12 Vorwort/Introduction Der letztgenannte Beitrag führt thematisch bereits in den Bereich der Levante. Aber auch mehrere andere Artikel haben die Archäologie des Syrisch-Palästinensischen Raumes und dessen Beziehungen zu Ägypten zum Gegenstand. E. van den Brink et al. berichten über ein frühbronzezeitliches Grab in Azor mit ägyptischem Material, M. Martin und R. Ben-Tov über ägyptische Keramik aus Tel Dan, und J. Hoffmeier und K. Kitchen über die Verehrung der syrischen Götter Reshep und Astarte im N-Sinai anhand einer neugefundenen Stele aus Tell Borg. Obwohl die Funde aus dem “Royal Tomb I” in Byblos bereits 1928 von Montet publiziert wurden, blieben einige im Sarkophag des Königs Abishemu gefundene zerbrochene Fayence-Einlagen in ihrer Form und Funktion bis heute unerklärt. R. Schiestl ist es nun erstmals gelungen, diese Einlagen sinnvoll zu deuten und zu rekonstruieren. Daraus ergibt sich, daß der steinerne Sarkophag einen hölzernen Innensarg ägyptischen Stils enthalten hat. Aus einem ganz anderen Blickwinkel, nämlich dem des Sprachwissenschaftlers, betrachtet N. Allon einen bestimmten Aspekt ägyptisch-levantinischen Kulturkontaktes, indem er aufzeigt, wie der seit der Hyksoszeit bestehende und in der 19. Dynastie kumulierende Synkretismus zwischen Seth und dem semitischen Gott Baal in der Verwendung des Seth-“Classifiers” (“Determinativ”) in der ägyptischen Schrift reflektiert wird. In die Ostwüste und die S-Grenze Ägyptens führt der Beitrag von H. Barnard, der im Anschluß an seinen Artikel in Ä&L 15 nochmals auf die Thematik der sog. “Eastern Desert Ware” und die Problematik der von ihm abgelehnten Zuordnung zu Blemmyern und Beja-Nomaden eingeht. F. Höflmayer versucht anhand einer neuen, sorgfältigen Auswertung von in Kreta gefundenen ägyptischen Skarabäen eine präzise Definition des chronologischen Verhältnisses der altpalastzeitlichen (mittelminoischen) Phasen zum ägyptischen Mittleren Reich zu geben. Schließlich enthält der Band noch einige Artikel, die nicht in direkter Beziehung zu ägyptischem Material stehen. Nachdem M. Novak in Ä&L 14 einen ausführlichen Aufsatz zur Chronologie des Königspalastes von Qatna publiziert hatte, in dem er die Gründung des Palastes aufgrund der damals verfügbaren Evidenz in die sog. “Mari-Periode” setzte, greift nun D. Morandi Bonacossi die Diskussion erneut auf, und stellt anhand der von der italienischen Mission durchgeführten Detailuntersuchungen dar, daß die Gründung des leads into the area of the Levant. However, several other articles cover aspects of the archaeology of the Syrian-Palestinian area and interconnections with Egypt. E. van den Brink et al. report about an early Bronze Age burial in Azor with Egyptian material. M. Martin and R. BenTov cover Egyptian ceramics from Tel Dan and J. Hoffmeier and K. Kitchen write about the worship of the Syrian gods Reshep and Astarte on Northern Sinai according to a newly discovered stela from Tell Borg. Several broken faience inlays found in the sarcophagus of King Abishemu in Byblos remained unexplained until now, although the finds of the “Royal Tomb I” were already published by Montet in 1928. R. Schiestl succeeds to explain and reconstruct these inlays for the first time in a meaningful way, showing that the stone sarcophagus contained a wooden inner coffin of Egyptian style. From the rather different viewpoint of a philologist N. Allon highlights a certain aspect of Egyptian-Levantine cultural contact. He shows that the syncretism between Seth and the Semitic god Baal, established in Hyksos times and still ongoing in the 19th dynasty, is reflected in the Egyptian script through the use of the Seth“Classifier” (“Determinativ”). H. Barnard’s contribution leads into the Eastern Dessert and to the Southern frontier of Egypt. He covers, in connection with his article in E&L 15, again the topic of the so-called “Eastern Desert Ware” and the problems of the attribution of this ware to the Blemmyes and Bejanomads, which he rejects. F. Höflmayer tries, with a new and thorough evaluation of Egyptian scarabs found on Crete, to come up with a precise definition of the chronological relationship of the Middle Minoan phases with the Egyptian Middle Kingdom. Furthermore this volume contains several articles not directly dealing with Egyptian material. M. Novak published a comprehensive article in E&L 14 on the chronology of the royal palace at Qatna, dating the foundation of the palace, according to the then available evidence, to the so-called “Mari period”. However, D. Morandi Bonacossi takes up the discussion again and shows, that according to detailed studies conducted by the Italian Mission, the foundation of the palace has to be dated after the Mari-period (transition MB/LB). Vorwort/Introduction Palastes erst nach der Mari-Periode (im Übergang von MB/LB) erfolgt sein kann. Daraus folgt freilich, daß es einen älteren Königspalast in Qatna gegeben haben muß, dessen Lage bisher unbekannt ist, der jedoch mit Sicherheit nicht unter dem gegenwärtig vorhandenem Palast zu lokalisieren wäre. Nicht minder kontroversiell diskutiert wird derzeit die Frage der Chronologie der Philister (IA IIIA). Hierzu liefern I. Finkelstein und E. Piasetzky neue Diskussionsbeiträge, welche sich auf neu publizierte 14C-Daten beziehen. E. Yannai legt eine quasi monographische Behandlung der ebenfalls sehr unterschiedlich gedeuteten "Grey Lustrous Wheelmade Ware" in Israel vor, und geht dabei ausführlich auf die zahlreichen offenen Fragen ein, die mit dieser wenig erforschten Ware immer noch verbunden sind. T. Mühlenbruch schließlich gibt einen Einblick in ein Sub-Projektes des großen “SCIEM 2000” Forschungsprojekts zur Chronologie des 2. Jahrtausends im östlichen Mittelmeerraum. Dabei soll der Raum der nördlichen Levante und Kilikiens mithilfe mykenischer Importkeramik an die Chronologie der ägäischen Spätbronzezeit angeschlossen werden. Der Herausgeber hofft, daß der vorliegende Band, der sich durch eine Reihe ganz neuer, aktueller Grabungsberichte, sowie durch einige Beiträge zu derzeit heftig diskutierten Themen auszeichnet, das Interesse einer breiten Leserschaft finden wird. 13 Therefore an older royal palace must have existed at Qatna. The location of the older palace, which cannot be localised under the currently existing palace, remains so far unknown. Not less controversially debated is currently the question of the chronology of the Philistines (IAI–IIA). I. Finkelstein and E. Piasetzky present new contributions to the discussion with reference to recently published 14C dates. E. Yannai presents almost a monograph on the also controversial “Grey Lustrous Wheelmade Ware” in Israel. He highlights several still open questions in connection with this little investigated ware. Eventually T. Mühlenbruch gives an insight into a sub-project of the SCIEM 2000 research programme dealing with the chronology of the 2nd millennium in the Eastern Mediterranean. In the framework of this sub-project it is intended to connect the area of the Northern Levant and Cilicia to the Aegean Late Bronze age with the aid of the study of Mycenaean imported ceramics. The editor hopes, that this volume with contributions ranging from up to date excavation reports to articles on currently hotly debated issues, will be interesting to a broad audience. RADIOCARBON DATING AND PHILISTINE CHRONOLOGY with an Addendum on el-Ahwat By Israel Finkelstein and Eliazer Piasetzky Results of the first phase of the Iron Age radiocarbon dating program, with a large number of new readings, have recently been published (SHARON et al. 2007). Some of the newly published measurements shed light on several debated issues related to the archaeology of southern Israel in the period covering the Iron I and the Iron IIA. In what follows we deal with some of these issues, mainly the date of the monochrome phase of the Philistine settlement and the date of two transitions: first, from the Iron I to the Iron IIA and next, from the Iron IIA to the Iron IIB. In an addendum we comment on the Iron I site of el-Ahwat in northern Israel in relation to the excavator’s proposal to identify its inhabitants with a northern group of Sea Peoples. RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE DATES IN SOUTHERN ISRAEL: POTTERY SERIATION AND 14C DATES Pottery assemblages from clearly defined stratigraphical contexts provide the anchors for relative chronology. The latter can be tied to an absolute ladder by historical data and radiocarbon dating. Only one reasonably reliable historical anchor is available for southern Israel in the Iron I and Iron IIA: the destruction of Tell es-Safi (Gath) by Hazael king of Aram Damascus in the second half of the 9th century BCE (MAEIR 2004). This emphasizes the importance of connecting the relative sequence to a detailed absolute ladder based on 14C readings. The following sequence of Iron I–IIA pottery phases in southern Israel is well-established stratigraphically and typologically; almost each of these phases has now been sampled for radiocarbon dating (SHARON et al. 2007, table 1 in this article): – The monochrome phase in Philistia, representing the initial stage of Philistine settlement in particular and the early Iron I in general. It is best represented at Tel Miqne-Ekron Strata VIIB-VIIA (DOTHAN and ZUKERMAN 2004: 3, 5; GITIN et al. 2006: 29). 14C dates for Stratum VIIB have now been published. – The bichrome phase in Philistia (middle Iron I).14C measurements for Strata VIB–VB at Tel Miqne and Strata 6 and 5 at Beth-shemesh have just been published (for the sites and their stratigraphy see BUNIMOVITZ and LEDERMAN 2006; DOTHAN and ZUKERMAN 2004: 4-6 and GITIN et al. 2006: 44, 53 respectively). – The late-Philistine phase (late Iron I) represented by Stratum X at Tel Qasile (MAZAR 1985; for the difficulty with the 14C results see below), Stratum IV at Tel Miqne and Stratum 4 at Bethshemesh (DOTHAN et al. 2006: 94; BUNIMOVITZ and LEDERMAN 2006: 418-419 respectively). – The Iron IIA, divided into two phases – early and late (MAZAR and PANITZ-COHEN 2001: 275; HERZOG and SINGER-AVITZ 2004). The early Iron IIA is best represented by Lachish V, Masos II and the Negev Highlands sites. A single date for Lachish V was published a few years ago (CARMI and USSISHKIN 2004). The Late Iron IIA is best represented by Lachish IV and Tell es-Safi IV. 14C dates for this phase are available from the destruction layers of Tell es-Safi IV and Tel Zayit (for the latter see TAPPY et al. 2006: 15); two dates for Lachish IV were published by CARMI and USSISHKIN (2004). – A transitional Iron IIA/B phase, represented by Stratum 3 at Beth-shemesh (BUNIMOVITZ and LEDERMAN 2006: 419–420). Table 1 presents all 14C readings from southern Israel now available for these phases and thus used in this article. Following our method (FINKELSTEIN and PIASETZKY 2006a) all short-lived samples from safe stratigraphical contexts were included except for outliers which are different by more than 5 s from the average. The uncalibrated dates for each phase shown in Table 1 were checked for consistency by fitting to a constant. The result of the fit was used as the combined uncalibrated date for that phase (Table 2). In cases where cn > 1 for the fit, we increased the error by the square root of the cn . The calibrated dates were obtained using the IntCal04 atmospheric calibration curve (REIMER et al. 2004) by means of the OxCal V 4.0 computer program of BRONK RAMSEY (1995; 2001). In cases where the program yielded close ranges we took the full 1s range for each phase. In some cases historical and 74 Israel Finkelstein and Eliazer Piasetzky Pottery Phase Stratum sampled Monochrome (Early Iron I) Miqne VIIB BS** 6 BS 5 Bichrome (Middle Iron I) BS 5 Miqne VIB Miqne VB Late Philistine (Late Iron I) Early Iron IIA Qasile X Lachish V Safi IV Late Iron IIA Zayit Lachish IV Iron IIA/B BS 3 Sample no. 4286.3 4286.4 4286.5 3934.3 3934.4 3934.5 3935.3 3935.4 3935.5 3936.3 3936.4 3936.5 4283.3 4283.4 4283.5 4284.3 4284.4 3853.3 3853.4 3953-1 3931.1 3931.3 3931.4 3931.5 3931-1 A25535 A25710 A25768 3932.3 3932.4 3932.5 3932.6 3932a 3932aa 3933a 3933aa 3159 4409.3 4409.4 4409.5 4410.3 4410.4 4410.5 A25536 A25711 A25770 1 2 4275-1.3 4275-1.4 4275-1.5 Lab. And Method* Type of sample R AMS Seeds R AMS Olive pits R AMS Olive pits R AMS Olive pits R AMS Olive pits R AMS Seeds R AMS R AMS T AMS RW LSC R AMS R AMS R AMS T AMS Gr AMS Gr AMS Gr AMS R AMS R AMS R AMS R AMS T AMS T AMS T AMS T AMS RW LSC R AMS R AMS R AMS R AMS R AMS R AMS Gr AMS Gr AMS Gr AMS Gr Gr AMS Lathyrus Lathyrus Lathyrus Seeds Seeds Seeds Seeds Seeds Seeds R AMS Seeds 4275-2.3 R AMS Olive pits 2908 RW LSC 1418 H GPC Olive pits Pomegranate seeds 3937.1 3937.3 3937.4 3937.5 3938.3 3938.4 3938.5 RW LSC R AMS R AMS R AMS R AMS R AMS R AMS Olive pits Olive pits Uncalibrated results 2950±55 2900±40 2870±60 2830±50 2925±50 2810±50 2830±53 2750±55 2770±65 2810±50 2850±55 2855±65 2915±45 2960±45 2880±45 2835±45 2830±45 2680±35 2747±35 2884±45 2853±20 2820±55 2930±56 2936±41 2852±45 2864±40 2818±38 2897±44 2745±50 2765±75 2685±50 2650±40 2780±35 2862±40 2885±40 2878±40 2775±55 2630±45 2693±60 2679±55 2748±60 2671±45 2712±45 2700±42 2733±38 2780±44 2750±20 2730±40 2640±40 2646±45 2745±55 2616±40 Source SHARON et al. 2007 SHARON et al. 2007 SHARON et al. 2007 CARMI and USSISHKIN 2004 SHARON et al. 2007 TAPPY et al. 2006 TAPPY et al. 2006 SHARON et al. 2007 TAPPY et al. 2006 SHARON et al. 2007 TAPPY et al. 2006 2715±40 2650±90 2500±35 2524±36 2427±35 2478±34 2390±65 2425±40 2505±40 CARMI and USSISHKIN 2004 SHARON et al. 2007 * Tu = Tucson; Gr = Groningen; R = Sample prepared in Rehovot and measured in Tucson; RW = Rehovot; H = Helsinki. AMS = Accelerator Mass Spectrometry; LSC = Liquid Scintillation Counting; GPC = Gas Proportional Counting ** BS = Beth-shemesh Table 1 14C readings for the Iron I and Iron IIA from southern Israel Radiocarbon Dating and Philistine Chronology with an Addendum on el-Ahwat 75 14 Pottery phase Strata (those providing C results are underlined) Uncalibrated date Calibrated date Monochrom Miqne VIIB 2907±28 1125–1050 Bichrome BS 6, 5; Miqne VIB, VB 2853±16 1050–995 Late Philistine BS 4; Miqne VA, IV; Qasile X 2850±24 995–946* Early Iron IIA Lachish V 2775±55 Late Iron IIA Safi IV; Tel Zayit; Lachish IV 2706±16 Transitional Iron IIA/B BS 3 2505±30 996-844 894–820 (842–820)* 766–745** * Constrains were imposed to limit the range yielded by the radiocarbon measurements (see text for details) ** Constrain imposed on the date of destruction of Tell es-Safi - not before the accession of Hazael (see below) Table 2 Relative pottery phases and absolute dates (14C) in southern Israel archeological constrains were used in order to limit the range of the 14C results; these cases are discussed in detail below. Table 2 specifies the pottery phases and their absolute chronological range according to the 14C results. Two issues should be taken into consideration: A) Qasile X: The results assemble into two clear groups quite apart from each other and therefore posing a problem (SHARON et al. 2005: 84–87). The two lower dates fall in the 9th century BCE and are impossible even according to the low chronology system. Averaging the two sets of high readings one gets an uncalibrated date of 2867±12 – too high compared to the bichrome phase of Beth-shemesh 6–5 and Miqne VIB–VB. Assuming that the samples indeed originated from the well-defined destruction of Stratum X (MAZAR 1980: 33, 46; 1985: 127), we averaged all readings and reached an uncalibrated date of 2850±24. This is an example of cn > 1(cn . 4.8); the great uncertainty reflects the quality of the fit. The calibrated date – 1050–946 BCE – can be limited to 995-946 BCE if one accepts that Qasile X postdates the bichrome phase (needless to say, since we are dealing with a range, a date shortly before 995 cannot be excluded). This is especially true because the samples of Qasile X come from its destruction layer, that is, from the end-days of this layer. B) Beth-shemesh 3 presents a classical case in which the combination of 14C results and historical consideration provides a better result than each of them separately. The broad calibrated range for this stratum can be narrowed by entering the datum of ca. 750 BCE as the latest possible date for this phase (see below). These results reflect on a few of the problems related to the history and archaeology of southern Israel in the 12th to 8th centuries BCE. II. THE DATE OF THE MONOCHROME PHASE (THE PHILISTINE SETTLEMENT) The date of the Philistine settlement in Canaan has been debated in recent years. Supporters of the conventional chronology accept the Philistine Paradigm (ALBRIGHT 1932: 58; ALT 1944), according to which the Philistines were settled by Ramesses III in Egyptian strongholds in the southern coastal plain of Canaan following his battles against the Sea Peoples in 1175 BCE. Accordingly, they date the earliest Philistine strata, characterized by monochrome pottery (also known as locally made Myc. IIIC: 1b), to ca. 1175–1150/40/30 BCE and the beginning of the second phase of Philistine settlement, characterized by bichrome pottery, to ca. 1150/40/30 BCE (e.g., MAZAR 2007; DOTHAN and ZUKERMAN 2004: 6; SHERRATT 2006 [for the monochrome phase]). Other scholars have noted that monochrome pottery does not appear in the many strata that represent the last phase of Egyptian domination in southwestern Canaan, and that Egyptian pottery of the 20th dynasty (we refer to vessels, to differ from stray sherds) does not appear in the monochrome strata. Accordingly, they date the monochrome phase of the Philistine settlement to ca. 1125–1100 BCE (following the Egyptian withdrawal: USSISHKIN 1985: 223; 2007; FINKELSTEIN 1995; NAÝAMAN 2000 [for the monochrome phase]) and the bichrome phase from ca. 1100 BCE (FINKELSTEIN 1995). The latter scholars do not accept the explanation of the traditionalists – that the utter separation between the two cultures represents decades of coexistence of contained communities at sites located only a few kms distance from each other (e.g., Lachish VI and Miqne VIIB), 76 Israel Finkelstein and Eliazer Piasetzky Laborat. and method* Site R AMS R AMS Tu AMS Megiddo K-6 R AMS Tu AMS R AMS Sample no. 4501.3** 4501.4 4501.5 4499.3 4499.4 4499.5 4499a 4499aa 4500.3 4500.4 4500.5 4500a 4500aa 5080 5081 5082 5083 Type of sample Dates Olive pits Olive pits Olive pits Olive pits RW LSC RW LSC H GPC 2912 2755 1417 Olive pits Olive pits Seeds 2915±25 2955±25 2810±100 Source Sharon et al. 2007 2928±11 Boaretto unpublished (preliminary results) 2980±60 5084 Lachish VI 2790±40 2764±50 2767±40 2880±40 2865±45 2925±40 2907±40 2876±40 2940±40 2906±37 2909±37 3018±60 2947±40 2965±30 2955±35 2975±55 3030±150 Average 2931±21 CARMI and USSISHKIN 2004 * For legend see Table 1 ** Though consistent with each other, the three measurements of Sample 4501 yielded an average uncalibrated date which is ca. 150 years (six standard deviations) younger than the average of the other samples from this stratum. We therefore removed this sample from our analysis Table 3 14C results from Megiddo Level K-6 (=Stratum VIIA of the University of Chicago excavations) and Lachish VI without exchange of pottery (e.g., FINKELSTEIN 2002a contra DOTHAN 1992: 97; BUNIMOVITZ and FAUST 2001). With no new material from the field, the debate has reached a stalemate. The Miqne VIIB 14C dates (Table 1) may shed new light on this debate when supplemented by new readings from Megiddo and Lachish. We refer to samples from Level K-6 at Megiddo, which equals the University of Chicago’s Stratum VIIA (BOARETTO unpublished – Table 3).1 This stratum represents the last phase of the EgyptoCanaanite system (Late Bronze III according to USSISHKIN 1985; 1995; Iron IA according to MAZAR, e.g., 2005: 24). Level VI at Lachish represents the same horizon. Its three 14C determinations are consistent with those from Megiddo K-6. The calibrated dates for Megiddo K-6 and Lachish VI are 1193–1113 and 1208–1112 BCE 1 2 We wish to thank Ilan Sharon, Ayelet Gilboa and Elisabetta Boaretto for providing us with these preliminary results; the measurements are part of a research project supported by the Israel Science Foundation and the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities (grant No. 141/04). For Megiddo K-6, 42.8% + 20% probability together, respectively.2 The uncalibrated date for the two sites combined is 2929±9, which provides a calibrated date of 1194–1114 BCE. Looking at the uncalibrated dates, contemporaneity between Megiddo K-6 and Lachish VI on one hand and Miqne VIIB on the other hand cannot be excluded. This is due to the large uncertainty in the measurements compared to the small time difference between the strata (only 22 years difference between the two readings – smaller than 1 s). Yet, the radiocarbon data point to the sequential solution as the most probable one (Fig. 1). According to this scenario the two groups represent sequential horizons: Stratum VIIB at Miqne is later than Level K-6 (Stratum VIIA) at Megiddo, and Level VI at Lachish. In other words, according to this solution Miqne VIIB postdates the collapse of Egyptian rule in excluding the 5.3% probability which falls in the 11th century BCE – too low according to what we know about this city from Egyptian finds and historical sources (e.g., SINGER 1988–89; USSISHKIN 1995). For Lachish VI, 57.85% probability, excluding the 7.7% and 2.7% probabilities for the same reason (USSISHKIN 2004: 69–70). Radiocarbon Dating and Philistine Chronology with an Addendum on el-Ahwat 77 Fig 1 The uncalibrated and calibrated dates of Megiddo K-6 and Lachish VI, Miqne VIIB and the bichrome strata superimposed on the calibration curve. Egyptian finds and historical sources make it clear that Megiddo K-6 and Lachish VI (Late Bronze III) cannot be dated much later than 1130 BCE (SINGER 1988–89; USSISHKIN 1995 for Megiddo; USSISHKIN 2004: 69–70 for Lachish). We entered the 1130 limit into the figure as a vertical red line; it eliminates the possibility of some of the later Megiddo K-6 and Lachish VI solutions (red crosses) Canaan (USSISHKIN 1985: 223; 2007; FINKELSTEIN 1995). THE BICHROME PHASE AND THE IRON I/IIA TRANSITION Beth-shemesh 6 and 5 and Tel Miqne VIB and VB – the only bichrome strata which provided radiocarbon results thus far – make one group with results in the same range which postdates the Tel Miqne VIIB horizon. This phase, which should be classified as ‘middle Iron I’ (contemporary to Shiloh V in the highlands – FINKELSTEIN and PIASETZKY 2006b), falls in the second half of the 11th century BCE. The radiocarbon dates for these strata have implications for the debate on the date of transition from the Iron I to the Iron IIA. Mazar’s Modified Conventional Chronology (2005) would place it at ca. 980 BCE, while supporters of the Low Chronology would put it in the late-10th century BCE (e.g., FINKELSTEIN and PIASETZKY 2003; FINKELSTEIN 2005; SHARON et al. 2007). 3 In order to absorb the meaning of these results, one needs first to look at the stratigraphy and chronology of Beth-shemesh and Tel Miqne – the two sites that provided the dates (Tables 4–5): Beth-shemesh 4 and Tel Miqne VA and IV are late Iron I strata. They postdate the bichrome layers at these sites, which are radiocarbon dated to ca. 1050–995. They should therefore be placed in the 10th century BCE (dark-gray cells in Tables 4-5). This would render the dating of the Iron I/IIA transition to ca. 980 BCE unlikely (only 70–15 years left for the late Iron I strata – Fig. 2). Another clue comes from Beth-shemesh 3, which was probably destroyed during the 766–745 range (see below). Even if this stratum, with some monumental construction (BUNIMOVITZ and LEDERMAN 2006: 415–418) was long-lived, placing the Iron I/IIA transition at ca. 980 BCE would make it a more than 200 year-long stratum, which is also unlikely (Fig. 2).3 The single date from early Iron IIA Lachish V is of no help due to its large uncertainty. 78 Israel Finkelstein and Eliazer Piasetzky Str. 6 5 4 3 Period 14 Middle Iron I, bichrome C Date Comments 1050–995 Late Iron I Iron IIA, destroyed during Iron IIA/B transition 766–745 BUNIMOVITZ and LEDERMAN 2006: 411, 418–419 th Destruction in the “first half of the 8 century” BUNIMOVITZ and LEDERMAN 2006: 419 Table 4 Beth-shemesh stratigraphy Str. Period VIIB Early Iron I, monochrome appears Early Iron I, monochrome, still preBichrome Middle Iron I, bichrome VIIA VIB–VB VA IV 14 C Date Comments 1125–1050 Also down to 1050? DOTHAN and ZUKERMAN 2004: 3 1050–995 e.g., DOTHAN 2003: 194–195; DOTHAN et al. 2006: 94 Late Iron I Table 5 Tel Miqne stratigraphy IR I (Bichrome) (Bichrome) Modified Conventional Chronology Only space left for Late Philistine phase according to the Modified Conventional Chronology Low Chronology Period of time for BS 3 according to the Modified Conventional Chronology BS 3 destruction Fig 2 Unlikely consequences of the Modified Conventional Chronology hypothesis. The proposed dates for the Iron I/IIA transition according to the Modified Conventional Chronology and the Low Chronology are shown as dashed lines. Dates of strata are shown as gray areas THE IRON IIA/B TRANSITION IN THE SOUTH There can be no doubt that the assemblage of Tell es-Safi IV (e.g., SHAI and MAEIR 2003) belongs to the late Iron IIA horizon. It is radiocarbon dated to 2707±27, which translates to a calibrated range of 895–820 BCE. Historically, it seems safe to assume that Gath (identified with Tell es-Safi) was assaulted and destroyed by Hazael king of Damascus sometime in the second half of the 9th century BCE (MAEIR 2004), after 842 BCE. Therefore, the combination of the 14C results and the historical argument defines the destruction of Tell es-Safi IV to the 842–820 BCE range. From the perspectives of both pottery typology and radiocarbon results the destruction of Bethshemesh 3 is later than that of Tell es-Safi IV. Typologically, this stratum already carries Iron IIA/B transition forms (for the pottery see BUNIMOVITZ and LEDERMAN 2006: 419–420). The 14C results from this stratum – 2505±30 – is significantly lower than that of Tell es-Safi IV. Due to the nature of the calibration curve, Beth-shemesh 3 provides a very broad absolute date of 766–551 BCE (Fig. 3). But this can be narrowed to 766–745 if one introduces an historical consideration (Fig. 3). The Lachish III assemblage in Judah, which is typical of the Iron IIB, originates from destruction layers that represent Sennacherib’s campaign against Judah in 701 BCE. But the appearance of this assemblage must be dated earlier, probably no later than ca. mid-8th century BCE (see vertical red line in Fig. 3). This eliminates the calibrated possibilities of 688–664 and 647–551 BCE (red crosses in Fig. 3). The date of the Iron IIA/B transition in the south has been fixed between ca. 800 and 760 BCE (see recent summaries in HERZOG and SINGER-AVITZ 2004: 230; FANTALKIN and FINKELSTEIN 2006: 22–24). The 14C results support the archaeological observations by showing that the assemblage from a destruction that occurred in the 766–745 range is already characterized by transition forms. Radiocarbon Dating and Philistine Chronology with an Addendum on el-Ahwat 79 Fig 3 Calibration dates for Beth-shemesh 3. The vertical red line marks the year 750 BCE – the approximate beginning of the Lachish III assemblage (Iron IIB) – limiting Beth-shemesh 3 to the early option in the curve (766–745 BCE) ADDENDUM: EL-AHWAT We wish to comment here on the date of the Iron I site of el-Ahwat, located on a ridge overlooking Wadi Ara in northern Israel, in the context of Zertal’s proposal (e.g., ZERTAL 2001) to identify it as a site founded by a northern group of Sea Peoples. One of us has already rejected this interpretation on purely material culture grounds (FINKELSTEIN 2002b). The 14C date provided for el-Ahwat by a relatively large number of consistent readings (SHARON et al. 2007) adds another argument against Zertal’s theory. ZERTAL (2001: 215) dated the foundation of the site to ca. 1230 BCE according to the “XIXth dynasty” glyptic material (ZERTAL 1999: 34), and its latest phase of occupation before abandonment some 50-60 years later, according to his reading of the Iron I pottery found at the site. Only two of the scarabs have been published to date. Brandl dated them to the 19th dynasty, in the 13th century BCE, “since this is the period of time when the frequency of scarabs bearing the name of Amon-Re is the greatest” (BRANDL 1996: 75). Yet, according to another view, their date cannot be fixed more accurately than to the period of the late 19th and 20th Dynasties, ca. 1230–1075 BCE (KEEL 1997: 526). Elsewhere, BRANDL (1997) reported briefly on the entire collection of glyptic material from el-Ahwat, which includes “Hyksos”, 19th Dynasty and 20th Dynasty scarabs. Thus, from the chronological point of view the glyptic assemblage ostensibly points to a foundation date in the early 12th century. Yet, even this is not mandatory, as the scarabs could have been brought to the site as amulets at a somewhat later date. Most of the el-Ahwat pottery has not yet been published. Elsewhere, one of us noted (FINKELSTEIN 2002b) that from the few vessels which have thus far been presented (ZERTAL and MIRKAM 2000: 137), from ZERTAL’s description (mainly 1996: 44–45) and from what he presented during a visit to the site, they seem to be similar to the Iron I pottery found in scores of hill country sites. Late Bronze vessels of the 13th century and cooking pots in the Late Bronze tradition are absent (ZERTAL 2001: 219–220). The assemblage is dominated by collared rim jars, erect or slanted cooking pots with elongated rim, crude round bowls, Iron I jugs, etc. FINKELSTEIN (2002b: 194) suggested that the pot- Fig 4 14C results for el-Ahwat 80 Israel Finkelstein and Eliazer Piasetzky Laboratory and method* R AMS Sample no. 4270.3 4270.4 4270.5 4271.3 4271.4 4271.5 4272.3 4272.4 4272.5 4273.3 4273.4 4273.5 Type of sample Dates Average Date BCE Olive pits 2828±40 2807±40 2809±40 2858±40 2854±40 2868±40 2822±40 2838±40 2935±40 2847±40 2819±40 2780±40 2840±12 1016–942 (68%) 1016–975 (56%) * R = Sample prepared in Rehovot and measured in Tucson Table 6 14C results from el-Ahwat tery of el-Ahwat postdates Megiddo VIIA and that the few published vessels should be dated to the time-frame of Stratum VI at Megiddo. Recently published 14C dates from el-Ahwat (SHARON et al. 2007) seem to resolve this issue (Table 6, Fig. 4). The dates for el-Ahwat are somewhat later than those obtained for Shiloh V (2888±12: FINKELSTEIN and PIASETZKY 2006b). Megiddo K-5 (=Stratum VIB of the University of Chicago excavation) has recently provided an uncalibrated date of 2885±40 (BOARETTO unpublished, see n. 1), while a large set of readings from Megiddo K-4 (=Stratum VIA of the University of Chicago dig) gave an average uncalibrated date of 2848±20 (FINKELSTEIN and PIASETZKY 2006b). ElAhwat falls close to Megiddo VIA, in the later phase of the Iron I. Even if the el-Ahwat samples represent the end-days of the site, it is clear that it was founded much later than proposed by the excavator. From this point of view as well, elAhwat is unrelated to the settlement of the Sea Peoples on the coast of the Levant in the 12th century BCE. Bibliography ALBRIGHT, W.F. 1932 The Excavation of Tell Beit Mirsim, I: The Pottery of the First Three Campaigns, AASOR 12, New Haven. BRONK RAMSEY, C. 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