Viking Language 2: The Old Norse Reader

Viking Language 2: The Old Norse Reader immerses the learner in Old Norse and Icelandic sagas, eddas, and myths The Old Norse Reader includes: • Wide Selection of Old Norse and Icelandic Readings • Explanatory Notes and Maps of the Viking World • Scandinavian Mythology, the Norse Gods and Goddesses, life in the Viking Age, descriptions of the dwarves’ gold and the ring that inspired Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings and Wagner’s Ring Cycle • Workbook Design for Rapid Interactive Learning • A Complete Saga with Introduction and Cultural Background • Viking Age and Medieval Runes • Mythic and Heroic Poetry: Eddic and Skaldic • The Doom of the Gods • Hrafnkel’s Saga, The Priest of the God Frey • The Tale of Audun From the West Fjords and the Bear • Comprehensive Old Norse Reference Grammar • Extensive Vocabulary Marked for Word Frequency Visit our website for more information and the free download Answer Key to Viking Language 1 www.vikingnorse.com www.vikinglanguage.com THE VIKING LANGUAGE SERIES A full course in Old Norse, runes, Icelandic sagas, and Vikings Viking Language 1: Learn Old Norse, Runes, and Icelandic Sagas. (the first book in The Viking Language Series) is a new introduction to Old Norse, Icelandic, and runes. The beginner has everything in one book: graded lessons, vocabulary, grammar, exercises, pronunciation, culture sections, and maps. The book follows an innovative method that speeds learning. The grammar of Modern Icelandic has changed little from Old Norse, and the learner is well on the way to mastering Modern Icelandic. Viking Language 2: The Old Norse Reader (the second book in The Viking Language Series) immerses the learner in Old Norse, Icelandic, and runes. It teaches how to read sagas, poems of the Scandinavian gods and heroes. The Old Norse Reader includes a large vocabulary, a reference grammar, and runic inscriptions. TWO MP3 DOWNLOAD AUDIO ALBUMS TEACH PRONUNCIATION of reading passages and runic inscriptions in Viking Language 1. Viking Language 1 Audio Lessons 1-8: Pronounce Old Norse, Runes, and Icelandic Sagas. Viking Language 2 Audio Lessons 9-15: Pronounce Old Norse, Runes, and Icelandic Sagas. www.vikingnorse.com www.vikinglanguage.com ABOUT THE AUTHOR Jesse Byock is Distinguished Professor of Old Norse Studies in the UCLA Scandinavian Section and at UCLA’s Cotsen Institute of Archaeology. He received his Ph.D. from Harvard University and teaches Old Norse, Icelandic sagas, and Viking Archaeology. Prof. Byock directs the Mosfell Archaeological Project (MAP) in Iceland, excavating a Viking Age longhouse, harbor, and valley. He is professor at the University of Iceland (Háskóli Íslands) affiliated with the Department of History and the Program in Viking and Medieval Norse Studies. BOOKS BY JESSE BYOCK STUDIES: Viking Age Iceland. Penguin Books L’Islande des Vikings. Flammarion, Editions Aubier La Stirpe Di Odino: La Civiltá Vichinga in Islandia. Oscar Mondadori Исландия эпохи икин о . Corpus Books Feud in the Icelandic Saga. University of California Press ;6^I <,6262< A-0>212=W]D^I <U3:/6. Tokai University Press Medieval Iceland: Society, Sagas, and Power. University of California Press Island í sagatiden: Samfund, magt og fejde. C.A. Reitzel 12=W]D^ ;6. Tokai University Press Viking Archaeology in Iceland: The Mosfell Archaeological Project. Edited by Davide Zori and Jesse Byock. Brepols Publishers TRANSLATIONS FROM OLD NORSE: Grettir’s Saga. Oxford University Press The Prose Edda: Norse Mythology. Penguin Books. The Saga of the Volsungs: The Norse Epic of Sigurd the Dragon Slayer. Penguin Books The Saga of King Hrolf Kraki. Penguin Books Sagas and Myths of the Northmen. Penguin Books (a short introductory book) VIKING LANGUAGE 2 THE OLD NORSE READER JESSE L. BYOCK Jules William Press www.vikingnorse.com www.vikinglanguage.com Viking Language 2: The Old Norse Reader Jules William Press 15450 De Pauw St. Pacific Palisades, CA 90272 www.vikingnorse.com Copyright © 2015, Jesse L. Byock Maps copyright © 2015, Jesse L. Byock All rights reserved. No part of this copyrighted book may be reproduced, transmitted, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including internet, photocopying, recording, taping, pdf, or any information storage and retrieval systems without written permission from Jesse L. Byock. Cataloging-in-Publication Data Byock, Jesse L., 1945Viking language 2 : The Old Norse reader / Jesse Byock. -1st ed. v. cm. - (Viking language series) Contents: v. 1. Viking language 1 : Learn Old Norse, runes, and Icelandic sagas. v. 2. Viking language 2 : The Old Norse reader. Summary: Old Norse Icelandic language introductory textbook with readings from sagas, runes, and the Viking Age in Scandinavia. Includes bibliographical references, vocabulary, appendices, and student´s guide. ISBN-13: 978-1481175265 (pbk.) ISBN-10: 1481175262 (pbk. ) 1. Old Norse language-Grammar. 2. Old Norse language-Readers. 3. Vikings-Language. 5. Sagas-Icelandic. 6. Runes-Scandinavian. I. Title. PD2235.B9 2012/v.2 439/.6/v.2-dc 2012921210 (LCN) Printed in Calibri Cover Picture Permission: Cf24063_C55000_100_VSH: Vikingskipshuset, det akademiske dyrehodet fra Oseberg © Kulturhistorisk museum, Universitetet I Oslo / Ove Holst 2 Viking Language 2: The Old Norse Reader Figure 1. A Toast To Those Learning Old Norse CONTENTS INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OLD NORSE/ICELANDIC ALPHABET AND SPELLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE MOST FREQUENT WORDS IN THE SAGAS: A LEARNING STRATEGY FOR OLD NORSE . . . . . . . 14 18 20 21 – CHAPTER 1 – READINGS FROM THE FAMILY AND KINGS’ SAGAS 1.1 LONDON BRIDGE PULLED DOWN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . London Bridge from The Saga of St. Olaf (Óláfs saga helga, Heimskringla) Óláfs saga helga (Chs 12-13) from Heimskringla 1.2 CHIEFTAINS AND FAMILIES FROM NJAL’S SAGA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Icelandic Chieftains: The Opening Chapter of Njal’s Saga Brennu-Njáls saga (Ch 1) Vikings Attack Njal’s Sons Off the Coast of Scotland Njáls saga (Ch 84) 1.3 GIFT-GIVING IN THE SAGAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 A GIFT IN NJÁL’S SAGA, GUNNAR’S FAITHFUL HOUND: FOUR SAMPLE TRANSLATIONS . . . . Njáls saga (Ch 70) 26 29 33 34 Viking Language 2: The Old Norse Reader Four Translations of the Faithful Hound 1.5 King Harald Fairhair (Haralds saga ins hárfagra) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Boy Harald Inherits a Kingdom Haralds saga ins hárfagra (Ch 1) King Harald and the Proud Maiden Haralds saga ins hárfagra (Ch 3) Harald Sets His New Kingdom In Order Haralds saga ins hárfagra (Ch 6) Harald Claims His Prize Haralds saga ins hárfagra (Ch 20) Harald Receives the Name Fairhair Haralds saga ins hárfagra (Ch 23) 1.6 EGIL’S BONES – SAGA AND ARCHAEOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Skull and Bones Under the Place of the Altar (Egils Saga Ch 86) 3 36 41 – CHAPTER 2 – CREATION OF THE WORLD: YMIR, YGGDRASIL, AND ASGARD Mythological Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eddic Poems Cited in The Prose Edda 2.1 CREATION: YMIR, AUDHUMLA, AND ODIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ymir (the Primordial Giant), Auðhumla (the Fertile Cow), and the Birth of Óðinn and His two Brothers Vili and Vé (Gylfaginning 6) Bergelmir and the Second Race of Frost Giants (Gylfaginning 7) The World Created from Ymir’s Body (Gylfaginning 8) Askr and Embla, The First Humans (Gylfaginning 9) 2.2 The Norse Cosmos and the World Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Ash Yggdrasil, the Norns, and the Three Wells (Gylfaginning 15) More About The Tree and its Creatures (Gylfaginning 16) The Norns Heal the Tree (Gylfaginning 16) 2.3 LOKI AND SVADILFARI – THE WALLS OF ASGARD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Loki ok Svaðilfari (Gylfaginning 42) –CHAPTER 3 – RAGNAROK: THE BATTLE AT THE WORLD’S END 46 47 50 54 4 Viking Language 2: The Old Norse Reader 3.1 The Doom of the Gods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ragnarøkr (Gylfaginning 51) 58 – CHAPTER 4 – GODS AND GODDESSES 4.1 The Æsir and the Vanir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . War Among the Gods (Ynglinga saga Ch 4) Peace Between the Æsir and the Vanir – The Mead of Poetry (Skáldskaparmál 1) Kvasir and the Mead of Poetry (Skáldskaparmál 2) 4.2 ODIN THE ALFATHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Odin (Gylfaginning 3) Odin’s Many Names (Gylfaginning 20) Odin Hanged on the Tree (Hávamál, The Sayings of the High One) Hávamál 138-139 Odin and Magic (Ynglinga saga 7) Odin and Asgard (Gylfaginning 9) 4.3 THOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thor (Gylfaginning 21) Thor’s Possessions and Weapons (Gylfaginning 21) 4.4 TYR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Týr, The One-handed (Gylfaginning 25) 4.5 GODDESSES AND SUPERNATURAL WOMEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 FRIGG AND THE GODDESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frigg Knows the Fates of Men (Gylfaginning 20) The Goddesses (Gylfaginning 35) 4.7 FEMALE DIVINITIES AND VALKYRIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hel Thrown into Niflheim (Gylfaginning 34) Valkyries (Gylfaginning 36) 4.8 BALDR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Baldr the Beautiful (Gylfaginning 22) The Death of Baldr (Gylfaginning 49) Baldr’s Funeral Pyre – Gods, Giants, and the Ring Draupnir (Gylfaginning 49) Hermod’s Ride to Hel (Gylfaginning 49) 4.9 THE VANIR – NJORD, FREY, AND FREYJA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Marriage of Njörðr and Skaði (Gylfaginning 23) Freyr and Freyja (Gylfaginning 24) 67 69 74 75 76 76 78 80 83 Viking Language 2: The Old Norse Reader 4.10 LOKI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Loki the Troublemaker (Gylfaginning 33) Loki’s Monstrous Children (Gylfaginning 34) 5 86 – CHAPTER 5 – THOR AND THE GIANT UTGARDA-LOKI Thor’s Travels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 THOR MEETS SKRYMIR IN THE FOREST (GYLFAGINNING 45) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 THOR REACHES THE GIANT’S STRONGHOLD (GYLFAGINNING 46) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 UTGARDA-LOKI REVEALS THE TRUTH (GYLFAGINNING 47) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 89 92 94 – CHAPTER 6 – OTTER’S RANSOM: THE DWARVES’ GOLD AND THE RING 6.1 Why Is Gold Called Otter´s Ransom? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Skáldskaparmál (Ch 46) 6.2 SIGURD THE VOLSUNG, THE DRAGON FAFNIR, AND THE RING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 101 – CHAPTER 7 – SETTLING THE NORTH ATLANTIC: ICELAND West into the North Atlantic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Sailing Routes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Landnámabók (Sturlubók 2) Landnámabók (Hauksbók 2) 7.2 DIRECTIONS AND TIME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Compass Directions Relative Directions Telling Time (Daymarks) 7.3 EXPLORATION WEST OVER THE ATLANTIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Landnámabók (Sturlubók 3) Landnámabók (Sturlubók 4) Landnámabók (Sturlubók 5) 7.4 ICELAND SETTLED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Settlers from Norway (Íslendingabók Ch 1) 105 106 107 109 110 6 Viking Language 2: The Old Norse Reader Taxing Those Who Sail to Iceland (Íslendingabók Ch 1) Settlers Remembered (Íslendingabók Ch 2) Establishing Laws and the Althing, The Book of the Icelanders Íslendingabók (Ch 2) 7.5 THE CONVERSION OF ICELAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . King Olaf Tryggvason sends a Missionary from The Book of the Icelanders Íslendingabók (Ch 7) Lawspeaker Thorgeir Lays Under the Cloak and Compromise (Íslendingabók Íslendingabók (Ch 7) 112 – CHAPTER 8 – GREENLAND AND VINLAND 8.1 GREENLAND DISCOVERED AND SETTLED (THE SAGA OF THE GREENLANDERS) . . . . . . . . . . Grœnlendinga saga (Ch 1) 8.2 GREENLAND AND VINLAND DISCOVERED AND SETTLED (THE BOOK OF THE ICELANDERS) . . Íslendingabók (Ch 6) Leif Eiriksson Leaves King Olaf and Discovers Vinland (The Saga of Eirik the Red) Eiríks saga rauða (Ch 5) 8.3 SEAFARING IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 GREENLANDERS SAIL TO VINLAND (THE SAGA OF EIRIK THE RED) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eiríks saga rauða (Ch 8) Karlsefni in Vinland (Eiríks saga rauða Ch 8) 8.5 THE GREENLAND SEERESS (THE SAGA OF EIRIK THE RED) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eiríks saga rauða (Ch 4) 117 118 119 120 123 –CHAPTER 9 – THE TALE OF AUDUN FROM THE WEST FJORDS, AUÐUNAR ÞÁTTR VESTFIRZKA A Tale (Þáttr) from the West Fjords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 AUÐUNAR ÞÁTTR VESTFIRZKA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . – CHAPTER 10– HRAFNKEL’S SAGA, HRAFNKELS SAGA FREYSGOÐA 126 127 Viking Language 2: The Old Norse Reader A Saga of Feud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1 HRAFNKELS SAGA FREYSGOÐA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 138 140 – CHAPTER 11 – RUNES IN VIKING AND MEDIEVAL TIMES The Younger Futhark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Additional Variants and Dotted Runes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Runic Spelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1 THE HØRNING RUNESTONE FROM JUTLAND IN DENMARK, THE GRATITUDE OF A FREED MAN 11.1-A. Translate the Hørning Runes 11.2 TWO RUNESTONES FROM THE PARISH OF KLEPP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Tu runestone, The First Stone 11.2-A. Translate the Tu Runes The Klepp 1 Runestone 11.2-B. Translate the Klepp 1 Runes Connections Between the Tu and the Klepp 1 Stones 11.3 RUNES IN THE FAMILY SAGAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Runes in Iceland’s East Fjords (The Tale of Thorstein Ox-Foot) Þorsteins þáttr uxafóts (Flateyjarbók Ch 202, 203) 11.4 RUNES IN EGIL’S SAGA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Egil Skallagrimsson Curses King Eirik Bloodaxe with Runes on a Níðstöng Egils saga Skallagrímssonar (Ch 57) 11.5 RUNES IN THE LEGENDARY SAGAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sigurd the Dragon-Slayer learns Runes from a Valkyrie (The Saga of the Brynhild Tells Her Tale and Teaches Runes, Völsunga saga (Ch 21) 11.6 MEDIEVAL RUNES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7 MEDIEVAL RUNES FROM BERGEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.8 MEDIEVAL RUNES IN COMMERCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Bryggen Runes in Commerce – Runic Indentity Tags 11.8-1A–C. Rune Sticks 11.9 BRYGGEN LOVE RUNES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.9-2A–B. Runes Stick Inscription 11.10 RUNIC INSCRIPTIONS IN LATIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.10-1A. AVE MARIA CARVED IN RUNES ON A WOODEN PEG FROM TØNSBERG. 11.10-1B. A LINE FROM VIRGIL’S AENEID 11.11 KEY TO THE RUNE EXERCISES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 167 167 168 169 173 174 175 178 179 180 181 182 183 8 Viking Language 2: The Old Norse Reader – CHAPTER 12 – EDDIC POETRY A Short Introduction to Old Norse Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1 EDDIC VERSE AND ITS SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Poetic Edda (The Codex Regius) Additional Eddic Verse and The Two Eddas 12.2 EDDIC TITLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3 EDDIC TRADITION – LONG LINES AND HALF LINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stanza Presentation: Two Methods of Printing Old Norse/Icelandic Verse Völuspá (The Sybil´s Prophecy) Stanzas 1-13 186 190 187 191 –CHAPTER 13 – EDDIC METERS JESSE BYOCK AND RUSSELL POOLE Eddic Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alliteration A Note of Caution 13.1 THE FOUR PRINCIPAL EDDIC METERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fornyrðislag (Old Lore or Epic Meter) Ljóðaháttr (Chant Meter) Málaháttr (Speech Meter) Galdralag (Magic Meter) 13.2 EDDIC EXAMPLES FROM MYTHIC POEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Völuspá: Stanza 19.-20 Thor Episode from Lokasenna (Stanzas: 57-63) 198 199 203 – CHAPTER 14– THE LAY OF THRYM (ÞRYMSKVIÐA): A COMPLETE EDDIC POEM AND POETIC DEVICES 14.1 POETIC DEVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kennings and Heiti, A First Look 207 Viking Language 2: The Old Norse Reader Alliteration Again Some Caution Syllable Stress: Prominent and Subordinate Intermediate Syllable Stress. 14.2 POETIC GRAMMAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Definite Article Periphrastic (Circumlocutory) Preterites Expletive um Preceding Verbs Idiomatic Uses of the Genitive Case Word Order Enclitic (Attached) Pronouns First Person Plural Before the Pronoun Negative Particles -a and -gi 14.3 ÞRYMSKVIÐA (THE LAY OF THRYM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Mythological Background Þrymskviða 9 210 213 – CHAPTER 15– RUNES AND EDDIC METER FROM SWEDEN Eddic Verse in the Younger Futhark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.1 TWO BÄLLSTA RUNESTONES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Runic Poem on the Second Bällsta Runestone 15.2 THE CARVER AND THE CARVING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3 A SUGGESTED TRANSLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 226 228 230 – CHAPTER 16– SKALDIC POETRY 16.1 SKALDIC COMPOSITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.2 HEITI AND KENNINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3 KENNINGS IN HÁTTATAL: A SERIES OF EXAMPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.4 THREE SKALDIC FRAGMENTS ABOUT THOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Skaldic Fragment 1 by Þórbjörn dísarskáld 231 232 234 236 10 Viking Language 2: The Old Norse Reader Skaldic Fragment 2 by Steinunn Refsdóttir Skaldic Fragment 3 by Steinunn Refsdóttir 16.5 CLASSIFICATION: THE FIVE SIEVERS TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.6 HÚSDRÁPA (HOUSEPOEM), A PICTURE POEM OF PRAISE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Húsdrápa Stanzas Rearranged in Prose Order 238 239 – CHAPTER 17 – THE KARLEVI RUNESTONE: A SKALDIC POEM CARVED IN RUNES 17.1 THE KARLEVI STONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part A of the Karlevi Stone: Runic Verse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part A. The Runes Part B of the Karlevi Runestone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part B. The Runes Key for the Runes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 245 247 248 APPENDIX AND VOCABULARY Appendix 1: Old Norse Reference Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 274 MAPS, FIGURES AND DIAGRAMS FRONT PAGES Fig. 1 A toast to Those Learning Old Norse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Map 1 The World of the Vikings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 16 CHAPTER 1 – READINGS FROM THE FAMILY AND KINGS’ SAGAS 1.1 London Bridge is Falling Down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Gyda Answers Harald’s Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Gyda Watches the Arrival of King Harald’s Messenger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 37 39 VIKING LANGUAGE 2: THE OLD NORSE READER 21 THE MOST FREQUENT WORDS IN THE SAGAS A LEARNING STRATEGY FOR OLD NORSE PR EV I EW Word frequency is the key to learning Old Norse, and The Viking Language Series is designed with a word‐frequency strategy, concentrating on the 246 most common words in the sagas. In the vocabularies, these words are marked with the symbol ˜. The total vocabulary of the sagas is surprisingly small.1 Excluding names, there are only 12,400 different words in the corpus of the family sagas out of a total word count of almost 750,000. Of these 12,400 different words, the 70 most frequent compose 60% of the total word count. The greatest benefit to using a word‐frequency strategy in Old Norse material is found by learning the 246 most frequent words divided into parts of speech in groups of 50 each. This way the learner can concentrate on the 50 most frequent nouns, verbs, and adjectives, as well as common prepositions and conjunctions. For example, maðr (man or person) is the most common noun in the sagas, and konungr (king) is the second most common noun. If you concentrate on learning the fifty most common nouns, you will have mastered the large majority of the frequently used nouns in the language. The same for verbs. The first two most frequent are vera (to be) and hafa (to have), when you become familiar with the fiftieth, you will have at your grasp the most frequent verbs in Old Norse, whether sagas from Iceland or runic inscriptions from Sweden. Below are two lists of the same 246 Most Frequent Words in the Sagas. The first list (A) gives the 246 words divided by parts of speech into the 50 most common nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals, verbs, prepositions and adverbs, and conjunctions. The second list (B) is arranged alphabetically. Depending on the information you seek at different times, both lists are useful. An added benefit to this learning strategy is that the majority of the 246 entries in the lists below remain among the most common words in Modern Icelandic. For example maðr (spelled maður in modern Icelandic) and skip remain among the most frequent nouns, while the verbs vera, hafa, and segja are still at the top of their frequency list. A. THE 246 MOST FREQUENT WORDS IN THE SAGAS (by part of speech) 1. 2. 3. 4. 1 maðr – man, person konungr – king skip – ship mál – speech; case, matter 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. NOUNS sonr – son hönd – hand fé – wealth; livestock bróðir – brother vetr – winter 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. land – land kona – woman ráð – advice; plan dagr – day frændi – kinsman Íslendinga sögur orðstöðulykill og texti: Handbók. Eds. Bergljót S. Kristjánsdóttir, Eiríkur Rögnvaldsson (chief editor), Guðrún Ingólfsdóttir and Örnólfur Thorsson. 2nd ed. Reykjavík: Mál og menning, 1998. 26 CHAPTER 1 – READINGS FROM THE FAMILY AND KINGS’ SAGAS – CHAPTER 1 – READINGS FROM THE FAMILY AND KINGS’ SAGAS PR EV I EW Þá veit þat, er reynt er – Grettis saga (It is known when it is tested) Figure 1.1. London Bridge is Falling Down after being pulled apart by attacking Viking ships. The passage below from Heimskringla, a history of the kings of Norway written in medieval Iceland, describes the destruction of the fortified bridge in 1013. The event, remembered in England, is the historical source of the children’s song. 1.1 LONDON BRIDGE PULLED DOWN LONDON BRIDGE FROM THE SAGA OF ST. OLAF (ÓLÁFS SAGA HELGA, HEIMSKRINGLA)1 Beginning in the year 1003, King Svein Forkbeard (Sveinn tjúguskegg Haraldsson) of Denmark carries out a decade‐long military campaign against Anglo‐Saxon England. During the conquest, London bridge is pulled down. The Danish invasion of England includes Vikings from different 1 Heimskringla, the 13th century collection of sagas about Norwegian kings, is attributed to the Icelandic chieftain and man of letters Snorri Sturluson. For more on Heimskringla and Snorri Sturluson, see Viking Language 1. VIKING LANGUAGE 2: THE OLD NORSE READER 27 EW parts of Scandinavia. After years of war, England's King Æthelred (Aðalráðr konungr) is defeated and in 1013 flees across the English Channel to Normandy.2 In Normandy, Æthelred acquires supporters and hires shiploads of mercenaries in order to attempt a comeback. Among the hired warriors are many Vikings. One is a young Norwegian named Olaf (Óláfr) Haraldsson. Known as Olaf the Stout (inn digri), he has already fought for several years against Æthelred with the Danes under King Svein. Olaf, who later becomes Norway’s king and then its patron saint, switches sides and fights for King Æthelred against the Danes in return for a large payment of silver. The passage below is from The Saga of St. Olaf (Óláfs saga helga) in Heimskringla. It describes Olaf’s actions in 1013. At the time, Olaf is leading a contingent of Viking mercenaries in Æthelred’s army and joins the English king in attacking the Danish Viking garrisons in London (Lundún) and the market town of Southwark (Súðvirki). These two walled towns lie across from each other on the Thames and are connected by a bridge (bryggja) that controls traffic on the river. The bridge is a formidable obstacle with fortifications built upon it. It rests on timber pilings driven into the riverbed. When assaults on the walled towns fail, Olaf volunteers to attack the bridge with his ships. The Vikings cover their ships for protection from the defenders above and succeed in loosening the bridge’s pilings. ÓLÁFS SAGA HELGA (CHS 12‐13) FROM HEIMSKRINGLA PR EV I Aðalráðr konungr var mjök hugsjúkr, hvernug hann skyldi vinna bryggjurnar.3 Hann kallaði á tal alla höfðingja hersins ok leitaði ráðs við þá, hvernug þeir skyldi koma ofan bryggjunum.4 Þá segir Óláfr konungr, at hann mun freista at leggja til sínu liði,5 ef aðrir höfðingjar vilja at leggja. Á þeiri málstefnu var þat ráðit, at þeir skyldu leggja her sinn upp undir bryggjurnar. Bjó þá hverr6 sitt lið ok sín skip. Translate: 2 3 4 5 6 Norðmandí in Old Norse, the region of northern France across the Channel from England that was settled by Northmen a century earlier (ca. 911) and namd after them. hvernug hann skyldi vinna bryggjurnar: ‘how he would win the bridge’ (skyldi, 3sg past subj of skulu). Hvernug is a variant of hvernig. hvernug þeir skyldi koma ofan bryggjunum: ‘how they would tear down the bridge.’ leggja til sínu liði: ‘to attack with his troops.’ Bjó þá hverr: ‘Each then made ready.’ 28 CHAPTER 1 – READINGS FROM THE FAMILY AND KINGS’ SAGAS EW Óláfr konungr lét gera flaka stóra af viðartaugum ok af blautum viði7 ok taka í sundr vandahús8 ok lét þat bera yfir skip sín svá vítt, at tók út af borðum.9 Þar lét hann undir setja stafi svá þykkt ok svá hátt, at bæði var hœgt at vega undan10 ok ýrit stinnt fyrir grjóti, ef ofan væri á borit.11 En er herrinn var búinn, þá veita þeir atróðr neðan eptir ánni.12 Ok er þeir koma nær bryggjunum, þá var borit ofan á þá bæði skot ok grjót svá stórt, at ekki helt við, hvártki hjálmar né skildir, ok skipin meiddusk sjálf ákafliga.13 Lögðu þá margir frá. PR EV I En Óláfr konungr ok Norðmannalið með honum røru allt upp undir bryggjurnar14 ok báru kaðla um stafina, þá er upp heldu bryggjunum, ok tóku þá15 ok røru öllum skipunum forstreymis,16 sem mest máttu þeir. Stafirnir drógusk með grunni,17 allt til þess er18 þeir váru lausir undir bryggjunum. En fyrir því at vápnaðr herr stóð á bryggjunum þykkt, þar var bæði grjót mart19 ok hervápn mörg, en stafirnir váru undan brotnir, bresta af því niðr bryggjurnar, ok fellr fólkit mart ofan á ána, en allt annat liðit flýði af bryggjunum, sumt í borgina, en sumt í Súðvirki. 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 blautum viði: ‘soft, green or raw wood.’ vandahús: houses constructed of ‘wattle and daub,’ that is from branches covered with a mixture of mud and manure. ok lét þat bera yfir skip sín svá vítt, at tók út af borðum: ‘and had them carried [placed] over his ships so far that they stretched out over the sides of the ships.’ at bæði var hœgt at vega undan: ‘that [the wicker shield) was both easy to fight underneath.’ vega: ‘to thrust or hew with weapons.’ ef ofan væri á borit: ‘if these were borne [thrown] down upon it from above.’ þá veita þeir atróðr neðan eptir ánni: ‘they set out rowing up along the river.’ ok skipin meiddusk sjálf ákafliga: ‘and the ships themselves were exceedingly damaged.’ allt upp undir bryggjurnar: ‘all the way up under the bridges.’ þá: refers to the ropes. They used the strength of the river´s downstream current to pull down the bridge. Stafirnir drógusk með grunni: ‘The poles were pulled along the riverbed.’ allt til þess er: ‘right up to the point when.’ mart = margt (n nom/acc sg of margr). 46 CHAPTER 2 – CREATION OF THE WORLD – CHAPTER 2 – CREATION OF THE WORLD: YMIR, YGGDRASIL, AND ASGARD EW Fátt er rammara en forneskjan – Grettis Saga (Little is mightier than old lore) PR EV I MYTHOLOGICAL READINGS. The readings in this chapter are drawn from The Prose Edda. They recount events from the creation and earliest days of the world.1 The next chapter looks to the doom of the gods at the final battle. The Prose Edda is also called Snorra Edda (Snorri’s Edda), because it is attributed to the Icelander Snorri Sturluson (d 1241).2 The Prose Edda, along with the poems of The Poetic or Elder Edda, is our most extensive source for Norse mythology. In straightforward prose, inter‐ spersed with eddic and skaldic stanzas, it recounts stories of the gods, giants, dwarves and other mythic and supernatural creatures. The Prose Edda also preserves heroic tales and parts of ancient lays about the struggles of legendary kings, queens, and war‐ riors. Like the poems of The Poetic Edda, The Prose Edda incorporates stories from the Viking Age. Some of the narratives reach as far back as the Migration Figure 2.1. A one‐eyed god who sees all. Nineteenth‐ century Norwegian woodcut. 1 2 Modern editions of The Prose Edda rely principally on one largely intact vellum manuscript Gks 2367 4to, known by its Latin name, Codex Regius, or by its Icelandic name, Konungsbók (the King’s Book). This name is shared with manuscript Gks 2365 4to, which contains a majority of the known eddic poetry. Manuscripts are typically named after a collection where they are or have been housed. For example, ‘Gks’ is an abbreviation for ‘Gammel kongelig samling,’ (‘Old Royal Collection’) in Copenhagen. The ‘4to,’ (quarto) in the name refers to the size of the parchment. Many of the manuscripts that were previously in Copenhagen are now housed in Reykjavík at the Árni Magnusson Institute (AM). The main reason for assuming Snorri's authorship of The Prose Edda is the following short passage from the Codex Upsaliensis, an early fourteenth‐century Icelandic manuscript, which today is in Uppsala University Library. The passage reads: ‘This book is called Edda. Snorri Sturluson compiled [literally, assembled] it in the way that it is arranged here.’ First it tells about the Æsir [the gods] and Ymir [the primordial giant], then comes the poetic diction section with the poetic names of many things and lastly a poem called Háttatal (‘List of Meters’) which Snorri composed about King Hakon and Duke Skuli.’ Snorre Sturlusons Edda: Uppsala‐Handskriften DG 11. Vol II. Transcribed by Anders Grape, Gotfried Kallstenius and Olof Thorell. Uppsala, 1977, p. 1. For a modern transaltion, see Snorri Sturluson, The Prose Edda: Norse Mythology. Penguin Classics. VIKING LANGUAGE 2: THE OLD NORSE READER 47 PR EV I EW Period, the time in Northern Europe from the fourth to sixth centuries AD when the Roman Empire was collapsed, and northern clans and tribes moved from their homelands into regions of the Empire. The central group of mythological stories in The Prose Edda is called Gylfaginning (The Deluding of Gylfi). Gylfaginning is written as a dialogue between the Swedish King Gylfi and three formidable god‐like figures, High, Just‐as‐High and Third (Hár, Jafnhár, and Þriði). Seeking knowledge, Gylfi disguises himself as a traveler named Gangleri (meaning ‘strider,’ ‘walker,’ or ‘wanderer’) and journeys to visit the Æsir, a mysterious people said to be newly arrived in the North. In the majestic but illusory hall of the Æsir, Gangleri/Gylfi meets High and his two companions, who sit on thrones, one above the other. The three are manifestations of Odin. From them Gangleri tries to discover the source of the Æsir’s power, and he probes these Æsir with questions. Story by story, the three reveal what they know. Gangleri’s dialogue with High, Just‐as‐High and Third resembles contests of wisdom found in eddic poems such as The Lay of Vafthrudnir (Vafþrúðnismál), where Odin pits his mastery of mythic knowledge against the giant Vafthrudnir. Such wisdom contests were adversarial, and Gangleri is told at the start of the contest that he will not leave unharmed unless he grows wiser. EDDIC POEMS CITED IN THE PROSE EDDA. The mythic stories retold in The Prose Edda rely on a number of eddic poems. Some of these are now lost. For example, Chapter 27 of Gylfaginning mentions Heimdall’s Chant (Heimdallargaldr), but this eddic poem is lost. Many eddic poems about the gods, however, survive in The Poetic Edda. Below is a list of the mythological poems from The Poetic Edda which are cited in Gylfaginning. The Lay of Fafnir (Fáfnismál) The Lay of Grimnir (Grímnismál) The Lay of Hyndla (Hyndluljóð) The Lay of Skirnir (Skírnismál) The Lay of Vafthrudnir (Vafþrúðnismál) Loki’s Flyting (Lokasenna) The Sayings of the High One (Hávamál) The Sibyl’s Prophecy (Völuspá) The Shorter Sibyl’s Prophecy (Völuspá in skamma) At times, stanzas found in The Poetic Edda vary from their counterparts in The Prose Edda. The differences of wording between lines found in The Prose Edda and The Poetic Edda can be significant. 2.1 CREATION: YMIR, AUDHUMLA, AND ODIN The Norse gods live in a world of constant danger, and their actions frequently have unanticipated consequences. In the creation story told in Gylfaginning, Odin (Óðinn) and his two brothers (Vili and Vé)3 slay Ymir4 the primordial giant. Ymir is a frost giant, a hrímþurs, and the gods use Ymir’s body, together with his bones, and blood, to create the world by filling 3 4 Known also as Vilji and Véi. Ymir: also Ýmir. 48 CHAPTER 2 – CREATION OF THE WORLD Ginnungagap, the great void. The slaying gives rise to life, but it also unleashes the power of the giants, the gods’ enemies. In the following passage, Gangleri questions High about Ymir, after High tells him: ‘Hinn gamli hrímþurs, hann köllum vér5 Ými.’ YMIR (THE PRIMORDIAL GIANT), AUÐHUMLA (THE FERTILE COW), AND THE BIRTH OF ÓÐINN AND HIS TWO BROTHERS VILI AND VÉ (GYLFAGINNING 6) EW Þá mælir Gangleri: ‘Hvar byggði Ymir? Eða við hvat lifði hann?’ ‘Næst var þat, þá er hrímit draup,6 at þar varð af kýr sú er Auðhumla7 hét, en fjórar mjólkár8 runnu ór spenum hennar, ok fœddi hon Ymi.’ Þá mælir Gangleri: ‘Við hvat fœddisk kýrin?’ Hár segir: ‘Hon sleikti hrímsteinana, er saltir váru,9 ok hinn fyrsta dag, er hon sleikti steina, kom ór steininum at kveldi manns hár, annan dag manns höfuð, þriðja dag var þar allr maðr; sá er nefndr10 Búri. Hann var fagr álitum, mikill ok máttugr. Hann gat son þann, er Borr hét. Hann fekk þeirar konu, er Besla hét, dóttir Bölþorns jötuns, ok fengu þau þrjá sonu: hét einn Óðinn, annarr Vili, þriði Vé; ok þat er mín trúa, at sá Óðinn ok hans brœðr munu vera stýrandi himins ok jarðar.’ PR EV I Translate:__________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ BERGELMIR AND THE SECOND RACE OF FROST GIANTS (GYLFAGINNING 7) Þá mælir Gangleri: ‘Hvat varð þá um þeira sætt, eða hvárir váru ríkari?’ Þá svarar Hár: ‘Synir Bors drápu Ymi jötun; en er hann fell, þá hljóp svá mikit blóð ór sárum hans, at með því drekktu þeir allri ætt hrímþursa, nema einn komsk undan með sínu hýski; 5 6 7 8 9 10 vér pl pron we <acc/dat oss, gen vár>. draup ‘dripped’ from drjúpa. Auðhumla: The great cow at the start of time. Auð means ‘rich,’ ‘fertile,’ and ‘fruitful’ and humla ‘without horns.’ mjólkár (nom sg mjólká) f ‘rivers of milk.’ váru 3pl past of vera. nefndr ‘named’ from nefna. VIKING LANGUAGE 2: THE OLD NORSE READER 105 – CHAPTER 7 – SETTLING THE NORTH ATLANTIC: ICELAND PR EV I EW Þykkir maðr við þat fávíss verða, ef hann kannar ekki víðara en hér Ísland –Laxdœla saga Figure 7.1. The North Atlantic World of the Medieval Icelanders with locations along the sailing routes described in The Book of Settlements. WEST INTO THE NORTH ATLANTIC Viking Age voyages into the far North Atlantic to Iceland, Greenland, and Vinland were part of an epoch of seaborne expansion that saw Scandinavian peoples settle in Shetland, Orkney, the 106 CHAPTER 7 – SETTLING THE NORTH ATLANTIC, ICELAND Hebrides, Scotland, Ireland, and the Faroe Islands.1 Many landnámsmenn (‘landtakers’ or first settlers; the term includes women) came directly from Scandinavia, especially from Norway. Some also came from Viking encampments and Norse colonies in the Celtic lands, especially the Hebrides and Ireland. Norse settlers brought with them Gaelic wives, followers, and slaves. Some colonists were part or all Celt.2 7.1 SAILING ROUTES PR EV I EW The two reading passages below from Landnámabók describe sailing routes in the North Atlantic from Viking times through the thirteenth century. If all went well, the voyages were accomplished within the time frames given. If winds and storms proved contrary, as they often did, the voyages could be much longer and the seafarers might end up in places as distant as North America. The manuscripts of Landnámabók have a complicated transmission history. The first versions are thought to have come from the twelfth century, but these earliest variants are lost. Versions from the thirteenth century and later often contain additional material added by scribes and owners. The two passages below come from two closely connected Landnámabók manuscripts, Hauksbók and Sturlubók. The first passage is from Sturlubók and the second from Hauksbók. They provide examples of variations among different manuscripts with similar passages. Landnámabók (Sturlubók 2) Svá segja vitrir menn, at ór Nóregi frá Staði sé sjau dœgra sigling í vestr til Horns á Íslandi austanverðu, en frá Snæfellsnesi, þar er skemmst er, er fjögurra dœgra haf í vestr til Grœnlands. En svá er sagt, ef siglt er ór Björgyn3 rétt í vestr til Hvarfsins4 á Grœnlandi, at þá mun siglt vera tylft5 fyrir sunnan Ísland. Frá Reykjanesi á sunnanverðu Íslandi6 er fimm dœgra haf til Jölduhlaups7 á Írlandi [í suðr; en frá Langanesi á norðanverðu Íslandi er] fjögurra dœgra haf norðr til Svalbarða í hafsbotn. Landnámabók (Hauksbók 2) Svá segja vitrir menn, at ór Nóregi frá Staði sé sjau dœgra sigling til Horns á austanverðu Íslandi, en frá Snjófjallsnesi8 fjögurra dœgra sigling til Hvarfs á Grœnalandi. Af Hernum9 af Nóregi skal 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 For more on the settlement of the North Atlantic, especially Iceland, see Viking Age Iceland, Penguin Books, 2001, Chapter 1, ‘An Immigrant Society.’ In the sagas there are many Celtic names, such as Njáll and Kormákr (Old Irish, Níall [Neal or Neil] and Cormac). Bergen in Norway. Cape Farewell. tylft: from the number twelve, i.e. twelve miles or leagues distant, the connotation is a ‘half day´s sail.’ The Reykjanes Penisula. Probably Slyne Head. Snæfellsnes. Hernar, near Bergen (Björgvin) in Norway. VIKING LANGUAGE 2: THE OLD NORSE READER 107 sigla jafnan í vestr til Hvarfs á Grœnlandi, ok er þá siglt fyrir norðan Hjaltland,10 svá at því at eins sé þat, at allgóð sé sjóvar sýn, en fyrir sunnan Færeyjar,11 svá at sjór er í miðjum hlíðum,12 en svá fyrir sunnan Ísland, at þeir hafa af fugl ok hval. Frá Reykjanesi á sunnanverðu Íslandi er þriggja dœgra haf til Jölduhlaups á Írlandi í suðr; en frá Langanesi á norðanverðu Íslandi er fjögurra dœgra haf til Svalbarða norðr í hafsbotn, en dœgrsigling er til óbyggða á Grœnalandi 7.2 DIRECTIONS AND TIME EW ór Kolbeinsey norðr. PR EV I COMPASS DIRECTIONS. The Old Norse words for north, south, east, and west are norðr, suðr, austr, and vestr. Direc‐ tions in the West Norse Atlantic re‐ gion, including those found in the Icelandic sagas, were based on Nor‐ wegian geography. Using Norway as a point of reference, northwest was (útnorðr), southwest (útsuðr), north‐ east (landnorðr) and southeast (landsuðr). In Iceland, útnorðr meant going northwest, which is the direction one would take from Norway if going ‘out’ and ‘north’ over the ocean. Landnorðr meant northeast, as if going ‘inland’ Figure 7.2. The Names of the Old Icelandic Compass and ‘north’ from the coast of Norway. Points are connected to directions of winds blowing in western Norway. For example, útnyrðingr was the name Vestr um haf was a common phrase of a wind blowing from the northwest, out (út) from the meaning ‘west over the ocean’ from sea toward land. The direction that the wind is coming Norway and referred to sailing to the from is called útnorðr. There was also útsynningr. In the Viking Age these terms were used in West Old Norse, and British Isles west from Norway. Some populations were named although they do not quite fit Iceland, they passed into Old Icelandic and are found in the sagas. according to the location of their lands relative to Scandinavia. For example, Suðrmenn (south‐men or southerners) referred particularly to Germans or Saxons. Icelanders called Norwegians Austmenn, referring to the location of Norway east of Iceland. RELATIVE DIRECTIONS. A relative sense of geography applied to compass directions as well as to population names. Iceland was divided into four political quarters, each named after the 10 11 12 The Shetlands. The Faroe Islands. ‘So that the sea on the horizon stands halfway up the face of the cliffs.’ 108 CHAPTER 7 – SETTLING THE NORTH ATLANTIC, ICELAND TELLING TIME (DAYMARKS) EW cardinal points. For example, the Western Quarter (Vestfirðinga fjórðungr, ‘the quarter of the people of the West Fjords’) and Northern Quarter (Norðlendinga fjórðungr). When traveling into a different quarter of Iceland, people were said to be traveling in the direction of that quarter even if this were not the strict compass direction. Hence, when someone from the Eastern Quarter (Austfirðinga fjórðungr) rode west to the Althing, which was in the Southern Quarter (Sunnlendinga fjórðungr), he was said to be riding south. Relative directions were also applied to Europe, which in the Norse sense of geography was divided into cardinal quarters: norðrlönd, the ‘northern lands,’ included Scandinavia; suðrlönd included the regions of Germany; vestrlönd included the British Isles and France; and austrlönd encompassed eastern Europe, Russia, and the Orient. It was possible to travel ‘east’ from Norway and arrive at Constantinople, which was in austrlönd. For Norse seamen and Icelandic writers, the system of relative geography did not conflict with their ability to orient themselves by true compass directions. Even today, if one travels within Iceland from Reykjavík to the town of Ísafjörður in the West Fjords, one is said to fara vestur til Ísafjarðar frá Reykjavík (‘travel west to Ísafjörður from Reykjavík’) even though the direction is straight north. Similarly, if one travels from eastern Iceland to Reykjavík, a twenty‐ first‐century Icelander would say fara suður til Reykjavíkur (‘travel south to Reykjavík’) even though Reykjavík is to the west. PR EV I Rather than employing hours, the Norse divided the day into day‐marks (dagsmörk) which recorded the position of the sun over the horizon. Day marks were especially useful in seafaring. They coincided with the compass points and often corresponded with landmarks. The time when the sun passed over a day‐mark varied, depending on latitude and season. Rismál (rising time) might be 6:00 am in winter but 5:00 am in summer. Dagmál could vary seasonally between 8:30 am and 9:30 am, while miðnætti (midnight) and hádegi (‘highnoon’) varied less. Some day‐marks were known by multi‐ ple names, much like the words ‘noon’ and ‘midday’ in English. For example, rismál is also miðrmorginn, hádegi is also miðrdagr or miðdegi, and eykt is also eyktarmörk and Figure 7.3. Daymarks (dagsmörk). nón.13 Miðnætti is also mið nótt, and ótta is also elding, aftrelding, or miðeykt. Eykt, which is part of several daymarks, refers to 1/8, that is increments of three hours of the day. 13 Noon in English usage is 12pm, whereas nón is 3pm. 126 CHAPTER 9 – AUDUN FROM THE WEST FJORDS – CHAPTER 9 – THE TALE OF AUDUN FROM THE WEST FJORDS, AUÐUNAR ÞÁTTR VESTFIRZKA PR EV I EW Er konungsgarðr rúmr inngangs, en þröngr brottfarar – Egils saga Figure 9.1. Travels of Audun from Iceland’s West Fjords. A TALE (ÞÁTTR) FROM THE WEST FJORDS. At the core of Auðunar þáttr lies the issue of luck, a concept which in Old Norse culture was termed gæfa or gipta. In the sagas, gæfa has little to do with blind chance, rather luck turns on how individuals successfully or unsuccessfully manage their opportunities. A person of good luck was called a gæfumaðr, a term which appears prominently in Auðunar þáttr. Audun, a poor boy from Iceland’s West‐Fjords, travels widely. As a young man, he finds himself in Greenland where he seizes the opportunity to purchase a great treasure, a white bear from the far north. Set in the mid‐eleventh century, Auðunar þáttr displays a detailed understanding of the history and geography of the Viking world. It relates the natures of two famous kings from the late Viking period. One, Harald Hardradi (Harðráði, ‘hardruler’) ruled Norway from 1046‐1066. The other, Svein Estridsson or Ulfsson (Ástríðarson or Úlfsson) reigned in Denmark from 1047‐ VIKING LANGUAGE 2: THE OLD NORSE READER 127 PR EV I EW 1076.1 The þáttr is a study of character, and events turn on the differing treatment that Audun receives from the two kings. Forming a backdrop to Audun’s Tale, these Viking Age sovereigns were sworn enemies involved in years of rivalry and warfare. The medieval audience would have quickly grasped the danger that Audun finds himself in when he refuses to give a gift to one king in order to give a gift to the other. Audun’s personal qualities and the temperaments of the two kings are well drawn. On the one hand, the þáttr has a folkloristic quality. It follows its hero’s journey and assesses his ability to seize opportunity, pass safely through dangers, and then return home with wealth and renown. On the other, the tale is firmly anchored in Icelandic history and genealogy. The last line of the þáttr tells that Audun is the ancestor of Thorstein Gyduson (Þorsteinn Gyðuson). Thorstein lived on Flatey (Flat Island) in Breiðafjörðr (‘Broadfjord’ in western Iceland) and drowned in 1190. Thorstein is mentioned three times in Sturlunga saga as well as in The Saga of Bishop Gudmund Arason (Guðmundar saga biskups Arasonar). Some of the Icelandic annals note his death.2 Auðunar þáttr is found in medieval mansucript collections of both kings’ sagas and family sagas. It is preserved in two large and important Icelandic skin books. One, Flateyjarbók (The Book of Flatey) contains many stories of the kings. The other, Morkinskinna (‘moldy skin’), preserves the þáttr among a collection of kings' sagas set in the years from ca. 1025 to 1157. The text given below is based on the Íslenzk fornrit edition in Vestfirðinga sögur, edited by Björn K. Þórólfsson and Guðni Jónsson (Íslenzk fornrit 6. Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag, 1943). The tale is also found in Ármann Jakobsson and Þórður Ingi Guðjónsson (eds.). Morkinskinna I‐II. (Íslenzk fornrit 23–24. Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag, 2011). 9.1 Auðunar þáttr vestfirzka 1. kapítuli 3 Maðr hét Auðunn, vestfirzkr at kyni ok félítill. Hann fór útan vestr þar í fjörðum með umbráði Þorsteins,4 búanda góðs, ok Þóris stýrimanns, er þar hafði þegit vist of vetrinn með Þorsteini.5 Auðunn var ok þar ok starfaði fyrir honum Þóri ok þá þessi laun af honum, útanferðina ok hans umsjá. Hann Auðunn lagði mestan hluta fjár þess, er var,6 fyr móður sína, áðr hann stigi á skip, ok var kveðit á þriggja vetra björg.7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Svein was named after both his father Ulf (Úlfr) and his mother Estrid (Ástríðr). Unusual for a prominent man of the period, Svein often is known by the name of his mother Ástríðr, the daughter of the Danish King Svein Forkbeard (Sveinn tjúguskegg). Svein’s father Jarl Úlfr was involved in unsuccessful intrigues, and Svein seems to have adopted his mother’s name in order to emphasize that he was a member of the Danish royal line through his mother. Saga Guðmundar Arasonar, Hóla‐biskups, hin elzta, says that he drowned. vestfirzkr at kyni: ‘of West Fjord descent.’ þar í fjörðum með umbráði Þorsteins: ‘from the fjords under the guidance of Thorstein.’ er þar hafði þegit vist of vetrinn með Þorsteini: ‘who had accepted lodgings with Thorstein that winter.’ Þess er var: ‘of that which there was’, i.e., ‘that he owned.’ var kveðit á þriggja vetra björg: ‘this was agreed to be subsistence [food and lodging] for three winters [i.e., three years].’ 128 CHAPTER 9 – AUDUN FROM THE WEST FJORDS EW __________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Ok nú fara þeir út heðan, ok fersk þeim vel,8 ok var Auðunn of vetrinn eptir með Þóri stýrimanni; hann átti bú á Mœri. Ok um sumarit eptir fara þeir út til Grœnlands ok eru þar of vetrinn. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ PR EV I Þess er við getit, at Auðunn kaupir þar bjarndýri9 eitt, gersimi mikla, ok gaf þar fyrir alla eigu sína. Ok nú of sumarit eptir þá fara þeir aptr til Nóregs ok verða vel reiðfara;10 hefir Auðunn dýr sitt með sér ok ætlar nú at fara suðr til Danmerkr á fund Sveins konungs11 ok gefa honum dýrit. Ok er hann kom suðr í landit, þar sem konungr var fyrir,12 þá gengr hann upp af skipi ok leiðir eptir sér dýrit13 ok leigir sér herbergi. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 8 9 10 11 12 13 fersk þeim vel: ‘their journey went well.’ bjarndýri: compound word of björn and dýri (‘bear’ and ‘animal’), probably a polar bear, which was highly valued in Europe in that time. Dýri is an unusual form for dýr. The Flateyjarbók version of Auðunar þáttr tells this about Audun´s trip back to Norway: Þórir stýrimaðr fór þar til bús síns, en Auðunn fekk sér far austr til Víkr ok hafði dýr sitt með sér. En er hann kom til Ósló, gekk hann á land með dýr sitt. Sveinn konungr: Svein Ulfsson, reigned over Denmark from 1047‐1076. var fyrir: ‘was to be found.’ leiðir eptir sér dýrit: ‘leads the bear behind him.’ VIKING LANGUAGE 2: THE OLD NORSE READER 129 PR EV I EW Haraldi konungi var sagt brátt, at þar var komit bjarndýri, gersimi mikil, ok á14 íslenzkr maðr. Konungr sendir þegar menn eptir honum, ok er Auðunn kom fyrir konung, kveðr hann konung vel. Konungr tók vel kveðju hans ok spurði síðan: "Áttu gersimi mikla í bjarndýri?" Hann svarar ok kvezk eiga dýrit eitthvert. Konungr mælti: "Villtu selja oss dýrit við slíku verði15 sem þú keyptir?" Hann svarar: "Eigi vil ek þat, herra." "Villtu þá," segir konungr, "at ek gefa þér tvau verð slík,16 ok mun þat réttara,17 ef þú hefir þar við gefit alla þína eigu?" "Eigi vil ek þat, herra," segir hann. Konungr mælti: "Villtu gefa mér þá?’ Hann svarar: ‘Eigi herra.’ Konungr mælti: ‘Hvat villtu þá af gera?’ Hann svarar: ‘Fara,’ segir hann, ‘til Danmerkr ok gefa Sveini konungi.’ Haraldr konungr segir: ‘Hvárt er, at þú ert maðr svá óvitr, at þú hefir eigi heyrt ófrið þann, er í milli er landa þessa,18 eða ætlar þú giptu þína svá mikla, at þú munir þar komask með gersimar, er aðrir fá eigi komizk klaklaust, þó at nauðsyn eigi til?19 Auðunn svarar: ‘Herra, þat er á yðru valdi, en engu játu vér öðru en þessu, er vér höfum áðr ætlat.’20 Þá mælti konungr: ‘Hví mun eigi þat til, at þú farir leið þína, sem þú vill, ok kom þá til mín, er þú ferr aptr, ok seg mér, hversu Sveinn konungr launar þér dýrit, ok kann þat vera, at þú sér gæfumaðr.’‘Því heit ek þér,’ sagði Auðunn. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 á: present of eiga, past átti. við slíku verði: ‘at the same price.’ tvau verð slík: ‘twice the price you gave.’ mun þat réttara: ‘that would be fairer.’ A detailed depiction of this war is given in the Saga of Harald Hardradi (Haralds saga harðráða) in Morkinskinna, Fagrskinna, and Heimskringla. þó at nauðsyn eigi til: ‘though they might have (eigi is subjunc of eiga) urgent business there.’ en engu játu ... áðr ætlat: ‘but I [we] will not agree to anything other than what I intended before.’ 138 CHAPTER 10 – HRAFNKEL’S SAGA – CHAPTER 10 – HRAFNKEL’S SAGA, HRAFNKELS SAGA FREYSGOÐA PR EV I EW Skömm er óhófs ævi – Hrafnkels saga Figure 10.1. The Region of Hrafnkel’s Saga in Iceland’s East Fjords. Hrafnkel lived first at Aðalból (Main Farm) in Hrafnkelsdalr (Hrafnkel’s Valley) and later at Hrafnkelsstaðir (Hrafnkel’s Steads) in Fljótsdalr (River Valley) in Fljótsdalsherað (River Valley District). A SAGA OF FEUD Hrafnkel’s Saga is a story of ambition, vengeance, and honor in the mountainous Fljótsdalr region of Iceland´s East Fjords. Hrafnkel arrives in Iceland as a boy of fifteen during the 140 CHAPTER 10 – HRAFNKEL’S SAGA south-west] to Eyjafjord [in the north] is no more than going past a few houses. The distant corners of the island are near each other. There is no sense of those impersonal forces, those nameless multitudes that make history a different thing from biography in other lands.3 EW Hrafnkel’s Saga is relatively short. Unlike longer family sagas, which mention many people, it names relatively few characters. For example, the much longer Njal’s Saga names almost six hundred people, while Hrafnkel’s Saga names twenty-four and has only eight main characters. Except for one vellum leaf from an early fifteenth century manuscript, Hrafnkel´s Saga survives in only late paper manuscripts. The following text of the saga is drawn from, Austfirðinga sögur, ed. Jón Jóhannesson, Íslenzk fornrit 11. Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag, 1950. 12.1 HRAFNKELS SAGA FREYSGOÐA 1. kapítuli Þat var á dögum Haralds konungs ins hárfagra, Hálfdanar sonar ins svarta, Guðrøðar sonar veiðikonungs, Hálfdanar sonar ins milda ok ins matarilla, Eysteins sonar freys, Óláfs sonar trételgju Svíakonungs, at sá maðr kom skipi sínu til Íslands í Breiðdal, er Hallfreðr hét. Þat er fyrir neðan Fljótsdalsherað. Þar var á skipi kona hans ok sonr, er Hrafnkell hét. Hann var PR EV I fimmtán vetra gamall, mannvænn ok gørviligr. Hallfreðr setti bú saman. Um vetrinn andaðisk útlend ambátt, er Arnþrúðr hét, ok því heitir þat síðan á Arnþrúðarstöðum.4 En um várit fœrði Hallfreðr bú sitt norðr yfir heiði ok gerði bú þar, sem heitir í Geitdal. Ok eina nótt dreymði hann, at maðr kom at honum ok mælti: 'Þar liggr þú, Hallfreðr, ok heldr óvarliga. Fœr þú á brott bú þitt ok vestr yfir Lagarfljót. Þar er heill þín öll.' Eptir þat vaknar hann ok fœrir bú sitt út yfir Rangá í Tungu, þar sem síðan heitir á allfreðarstöðum, ok bjó þar til elli. En honum varð þar eptir geit ok hafr. Ok inn sama dag, sem Hallfreðr var í brott, hljóp skriða á húsin, ok týndusk þar þessir gripir, ok því heitir þat síðan í Geitdal. 2. kapítuli 5 Hrafnkell lagði þat í vanða sinn at ríða yfir á heiðar á sumarit. Þá var Jökulsdalr albyggðr upp at brúm. Hrafnkell reið upp eptir Fljótsdalsheiði ok sá, hvar eyðidalr gekk af Jökulsdal. Sá dalr sýndisk Hrafnkatli byggiligri en aðrir dalir, þeir sem hann hafði áðr sét. En er Hrafnkell kom heim, beiddi hann föður sinn fjárskiptis, ok sagðisk hann bústað vilja reisa sér. Þetta veitir faðir 3 4 5 W. P. Ker, The Dark Ages. New York: Mentor Books, 1958: 200-201. heitir þat síðan á Arnþrúðarstöðum: ‘later it was called [at] Arnthrudarstadir.’ A common feature of Old Icelandic place names is to treat the preposition (here á) as part of the name and for the place to be in the dative case. For example, á Hóli, ‘(at) Hol.’ lagði þat í vanða sinn: ‘made it his custom.’ VIKING LANGUAGE 2: THE OLD NORSE READER 141 hans honum, ok hann gerir sér bœ í dal þeim ok kallar á Aðalbóli. Hrafnkell fekk Oddbjargar Skjöldólfsdóttur ór Laxárdal. Þau áttu tvá sonu. Hét inn ellri Þórir, en inn yngri Ásbjörn. En þá er Hrafnkell hafði land numit á Aðalbóli, þá efldi hann blót mikil.6 Hrafnkell lét gera hof mikit. Hrafnkell elskaði eigi annat goð meir en Frey, ok honum gaf hann alla ina beztu gripi sína hálfa við sik.7 Hrafnkell byggði allan dalinn ok gaf mönnum land, en vildi þó vera yfirmaðr þeira ok tók goðorð8 yfir þeim. Við þetta var lengt9 nafn hans ok kallaðr Freysgoði, ok var EW ójafnaðarmaðr10 mikill, en menntr11 vel. Hann þrøngði undir sik Jökulsdalsmönnum til þingmanna hans,12 var linr ok blíðr við sína menn, en stríðr ok stirðlyndr við Jökulsdalsmenn, ok fengu af honum engan jafnað. Hrafnkell stóð mjök í einvígjum13 ok bœtti engan mann fé,14 því at engi fekk af honum neinar bœtr, hvat sem hann gerði. Fljótsdalsheiðr er yfirferðarill, grýtt mjök ok blaut, en þó riðu þeir feðgar jafnan hvárír til annarra, því at gott var í frændsemi þeira. Hallfreði þótti sú leið torsótt ok leitaði sér leiðar fyrir ofan fell þau, er standa í Fljótsdalsheiði. Fekk hann þar þurrari leið ok lengri, ok heitir þar Hallfreðargata. Þessa leið fara þeir einir, er kunnugastir eru um Fljótsdalsheiði. 3. kapítuli PR EV I Bjarni hét maðr, er bjó at þeim bœ, er at Laugarhúsum heitir. Þat er í Hrafnkelsdal. Hann var kvángaðr ok átti tvá sonu við konu sinni, ok hét annarr Sámr, en annarr Eyvindr, vænir menn ok efniligir. Eyvindr var heima með feðr sínum, en Sámr var kvángaðr ok bjó í norðanverðum dalnum á þeim bœ, er heitir á Leikskálum, ok átti hann margt fé. Sámr var uppivözlumaðr mikill ok lögkœnn, en Eyvindr gerðisk farmaðr ok fór útan til Nóregs ok var þar um vetrinn. Þaðan fór hann ok út í lönd ok nam staðar15 í Miklagarði ok fekk þar góðar virðingar af Grikkjakonungi ok var þar um hríð. 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 efldi hann blót mikil: ‘he performed great sacrifices,’ possibly as much worship as sacrifice. honum gaf hann alla ina beztu gripi sína hálfa við sik: ‘to him [Frey], he [Hrafnkel] gave half of all the best possesions he had.’ Rather than divide or cut everything in half in order to sacrifice half to the god, Hrafnkel is declaring a form of joint property ownership or partnership with Frey. Later in the saga, Hrafnkel ‘gave half the horse to Frey.’ The horse remained whole, and Hrafnkel shares his possession with Frey as his félagi. In Vápnfirðinga saga, Thorleif the Christian (Þorleifr Kristni) calls Christ his félagi. tók goðorð: ‘took the chieftaincy.’ lengt: from lengja ‘lengthened.’ ójafnaðarmaðr: ‘unjust, overbearing man.’ menntr: ‘accomplished.’ þrøngði undir sik Jökulsdalsmönnum til þingmanna hans: ‘forced the men of Jokulsdalr to be his thingmen.’ Both pronouns sik and hans in þrøngdi undir sik and þingmanna hans refer to Hrafnkel. stóð mjök í einvígjum: ‘was involved in many duels’ bœtti engan mann fé: ‘never paid anyone compensation,’ (lit, 'compensated no man with payment [money]'). nam staðar: ‘stopped.’ 142 CHAPTER 10 – HRAFNKEL’S SAGA Hrafnkell átti þann grip í eigu sinni,16 er honum þótti betri en annarr. Þat var hestr brúnmóálóttr at lit,17 er hann kallaði Freyfaxa sinn. Hann gaf Frey, vin sínum, þann hest hálfan.18 Á þessum hesti hafði hann svá mikla elsku, at hann strengði þess heit,19 at hann skyldi þeim manni at bana verða, sem honum riði án hans vilja.20 Þorbjörn hét maðr. Hann var bróðir Bjarna ok bjó á þeim bœ í Hrafnkelsdal, er á Hóli hét, gegnt Aðalbóli fyrir austan. Þorbjörn átti fé lítit, en ómegð mikla. Sonr hans hét Einarr, inn EW elzti.21 Hann var mikill ok vel mannaðr. Þat var á einu vári, at Þorbjörn mælti til Einars, at hann mundi leita sér vistar nökkurar, -- 'því at ek þarf eigi meira forvirki en þetta lið orkar, er hér er, en þér mun verða gott til vista,22 því at þú ert mannaðr vel. Eigi veldr ástleysi þessari brottkvaðning við þik, því at þú ert mér þarfastr barna minna. Meira veldr því efnaleysi mitt ok fátœkð. En önnur börn mín gerask verkmenn. Mun þér þó verða betra til vistar23 en þeim.' Einarr svarar: 'Of síð hefir þú sagt mér til þessa, því at nú hafa allir ráðit sér vistir, þær er beztar eru, en mér þykkir þó illt at hafa órval af.'24 Einn dag tók Einarr hest sinn ok reið á Aðalból. Hrafnkell sat í stofu. Hann heilsar honum vel ok glaðliga. Einarr leitar til vistar við Hrafnkel. Hann svaraði: 'Hví leitaðir þú þessa svá síð, því at ek munda við þér fyrstum tekit hafa?25 PR EV I En nú hefi ek ráðit öllum hjónum nema til þeirar einnar iðju, er þú munt ekki hafa vilja.' Einarr spurði, hver sú væri. Hrafnkell kvazk eigi mann hafa ráðit til smalaferðar, en lézk mikils við þurfa.26 Einarr kvazk eigi hirða, hvat hann ynni, hvárt sem þat væri27 þetta eða annat, en lézk tveggja missera björg hafa vilja. 'Ek geri þér skjótan kost,' sagði Hrafnkell. 'Þú skalt reka heim fimm tigu ásauðar28 í seli ok 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 í eigu sinni: ‘in his possession.’ at lit: ‘in color.’ Hann gaf Frey, vin sínum, þann hest hálfan: ‘He gave his friend Frey, half that horse.’ hann strengði þess heit: ‘he made this solemn vow.’ sem honum riði án hans vilja: ‘who would ride (subjunct) him without his [Hrafnkel’s] permission.’ Sonr hans hét Einarr, inn elzti: ‘His eldest son was named Einar.’ þér mun verða gott til vista: ‘you will find it easy to find employment.’ til vistar: vist means ‘stay, dwelling.’ The word is related to vesa or vera. nú hafa allir ráðit sér vistir, þær er beztar eru, en mér þykkir þó illt at hafa órval af: ‘now everyone [will] have found themselves situations [places to stay], those which are best, and it ill suits me to have [to make do with] what is left of [them].’ órval does not mean a selection, but what is left over when others have picked or chosen. því at ek munda við þér fyrstum tekit hafa: ‘otherwise you would have been the first I would have engaged.’ Hrafnkell kvazk eigi mann hafa ráðit til smalaferðar, en lézk mikils við þurfa: ‘Hrafnkel said he had not hired a shepherd but let it be known that he was in great need of one.’ hvárt sem þat væri: ‘whatever there might be.’ fimm tigu ásauðar: ‘fifty ewes.’ VIKING LANGUAGE 2: THE OLD NORSE READER 165 – CHAPTER 11 – RUNES IN VIKING AND MEDIEVAL TIMES PR EV I EW uilburk : amik1 Figure 11.1. Runic Letters of the Younger Futhark often represented multiple sounds or phonemes. Here are some examples. THE YOUNGER FUTHARK Runes are often overlooked because of the variety, quality, and volume of Old Norse / Icelandic sources. Yet runic writing was an integral part of Old Norse language and culture. During the Viking Age and in the following medieval centuries, people of all social classes wrote in runes. They called their runic script the ‘futhark’ after the first six runic letters FUÞARk. Runes were carved on wood, bark, stone, bone, antler, and metal, and inscriptions were employed for identification, messaging, magic, and commemoration. Runes are found on weapons, jewelry, runestones, and everyday items as far afield from mainland Scandinavia as Greenland, Iceland, 1 An Icelandic inscription from ca. 900 in the younger futhark. The runes were carved on a spindle whorl found in the oldest part of Reykjavík by the archaeologist Vala Garðarsdóttir in 2009. The whorl is made from red sandstone thought to be from Mount Esja across Faxaflói Bay from Reykjavík. The stone shows considerable wear, and the whorl, which was a useful everyday item, may have been in use for decades. It was owned by a woman named Vilborg. 166 CHAPTER 11 – RUNES the British Isles, the Baltic regions, Central Europe, Russia, and the Mediterranean. Runes were in use in Scandinavia for more than thirteen centuries. They first appear toward the end of the first century AD and continue in active use into the fourteenth century, when they are mostly replaced by writing in Latin.2 Several related futharks evolved. The earliest was called the elder futhark, divided into three groups. THE ELDER FUTHARK HNIJYPZS f u þ a r k g w h n i j TBEML Q OD EW FUÞARKG W E p R s t b e m l ng o d The elder futhark had twenty-four symbols representing an almost one-to-one agreement between each rune and each sound in the language. As an alphabet, the elder futhark was highy serviceable. With variations, it remained in use into the eighth century, or toward the beginning of the Viking Age, when the elder futhark was replaced by the younger futhark. This new, shortened futhark reduced the number of runes to sixteen, dropping the earlier one-toone correspondence between runic letter and the sounds in the language. Like the elder futhark, the younger futhark was divided into three groups. In the Viking Age these groups were called ættir (‘families’). PR EV I THE YOUNGER FUTHARK3 f u þ f u þ o r k a3 ,o r k h n I a s t b m q l z h a t n i s b m l R Individual runes in the younger futhark now represented more than one sound. The younger futhark was easier to learn but inscriptions were harder to read. Some of the sounds in the language from before the Viking Age, for example, /e/, /o/, /w/, /p/, /d/, /g/, are not clearly distinguished in the younger futhark. During the Viking Age, the sounds in the language increased, and vowels that were introduced or became prominent at the start of the Viking Age, such as /æ/, /ø/, /y/, /o3 / are not clearly represented in the younger futhark. Why available letters were dropped from the writing system when the sounds of the language were increasing is a mystery. The opposite took place in the Old English use of runes, where rune carvers added new runes to reflect the new sounds in their Anglo-Saxon language. As time passed, several variations of the younger futhark evolved, adding new runic letters to compensate for the limitations of the original sixteen runes. Some variations also reduced the number of strokes or cuts needed to form individual runes. These shortened runes are known as short-twig runes. They were faster and easier to carve than the long-stem characters 2 3 In some places in Scandinavia the use of runes continues into early modern times. This later tradition often shows significant changes from the earlier futharks. This listing of the younger futhark contains seventeen runes with two variants of the m-rune: m and q. VIKING LANGUAGE 2: THE OLD NORSE READER 167 of the younger futhark. Here is a sampling of an intermediate futhark with some short twig runes. THE BEGINNING OF SHORT-TWIG RUNES f u þ f u þ o r k a3 ,o r k h n I a s t i h n a t i s b b m m l z l R ADDITIONAL VARIANTS AND DOTTED RUNES EW Toward the end of the Viking Age and continuing into the medieval centuries, additional variants of the younger futhark came into use. These employed shorttwig runes as well as what are known as dotted-runes. The latter added new letters, for example e/e/, g/g/, and y/y/. Short-twig and dotted runes were frequently combined. RUNIC SPELLING PR EV I Spelling varies among runic inscriptions due to differences in pronunciation, the presence of regional dialects, the skill and education of rune carvers, and the lack of a recognized spelling standard. For example, gerði, the past tense of gera, is spelled karþi (karþi/gærði) on the Danish Jelling stone and kIarþi (kiarþi/gjærði) in the Swedish Ramsund inscription.4 Similar spelling variations exist in vellum manuscripts. For example, the verb gera (‘do’ or ‘make’) is spelled gøra, göra, görva, görwa, giörva, giora, and gjöra in different manuscripts. To overcome the problem of variation and to make possible the production of dictionaries, scholars standardize Old Norse spelling when reproducing the Figure 11.2. The Hørning Runestone in contents of manuscripts and runic inscriptions. Most the younger futhark with long-branch standardizations are based principally on Old Icelandic, runes. the dialect that we know best because of a large number of surviving manuscripts. The following examples and exercises in this chapter present runic inscriptions in three ways: 1) the original runes; 2) a transliteration of the runes into their Latin equivalents; and 3) a transcription of the runes into standardized Old Norse. 4 Both inscriptions are given in Viking Language 1. 168 CHAPTER 11 – RUNES 11.1 THE HØRNING RUNESTONE FROM JUTLAND IN DENMARK, THE GRATITUDE OF A FREED MAN 5 PR EV I EW The Hørning Runestone probably dates from the late tenth or early eleventh century. The stone was first recorded at the top of a bank close to a bridge across the Århus River at Bering in the parish of Hørning in Jutland. A commemorative stone, it declares the status of Tóki the smith, the man who commissioned it, as a newly freed man. The inscription acknowledges the patronage of Þorgísl Guðmundarson,6 the man who freed Tóki. It is of especial interest that Tóki is identified by his profession as a smith, but we do not know his range of skills. As well as giving an example of social emancipation, this inscription is evidence that skilled craftsmen could have unfree status even at the end of the Viking period. The inscription is in three lines on one face of the stone. It starts at the bottom on the left-hand side and reads upwards. Then it continues down the right-hand side from the apex of this pointed stone. Finally it goes back up a central line to end in an incised Christian cross. The name of Þorgísl, the man honoured, stands very prominently at the top of the stone. The text is constructed using a common formula: X raised this stone after Y, followed by an extension which tells us something about the individual commemorated (Y), or the circumstances in which the inscribed stone was erected. The runes used are characteristic of the younger futhark, and particularly of the slightly conservative variant of that script which was maintained in Denmark. There are no dotted runes, and the original form of t, t, appears. A curiosity is the preservation of the archaic palatal R-rune z at the end of the genitive Guðmundar while the simple r, r, appears in the nominative singular sqiþr (smiþr) The spelling conventions of the younger futhark render the word kul ambiguous: it could represent either kol ('coal') or gull ('gold'). Even in the case of a smith, the latter seems more likely in a commemorative inscription of this kind. Tóki the smith also sponsored another runestone, raised 30km from the site of the Hørning stone. This second stone commemorates a man called Refli, whose father and grandfather are also named through patronymic formulae. That inscription ends with the Christian prayer, Guð hjálp þeira sálu, 'God help their souls.' THE HØRNING RUNES Tuki:sqiþr:riþ:stin:ift þurkisl:kuþqutaz:sun:is:hanuq kaf:kul:uk:frialsi+ 5 6 The following discussion of the Hørning, Tu, and Klepp 1 runestones was prepared by John Hines, professor of Archaeology at the University of Cardiff, Wales. John (Professor Yr Athro) is an expert on runes and Vikings. Þorgísl (þurkisl) may be a misspelling for the common name Þorgils. In some sources Þorgísli is given as the dative of Þorgils. VIKING LANGUAGE 2: THE OLD NORSE READER 169 TRANSLITERATION OF THE HøRNING RUNES tuki : smiþr : riþ : stin : ift þurkisl : kuþmutaR : sun : is : hanum kaf : kul : uk : frialsi Tóki smiðr reisti stein eptir Þorgísl Guðmundarson, er honum gaf gull ok frjálsi. 11.1-A. TRANSLATE THE HØRNING RUNES EW STANDARDIZATION ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ VOCABULARY FOR THE HØRNING RUNESTONE PR EV I eptir prep after er (es) rel particle who, which, that frjálsi n freedom gefa <gefr, gaf, gáfu, gefinn > vb give Guðmundarson m Gudmundarson (personal name, patronymic) gull n gold hann <dat honum> pron him ok conj and reisa vb <-ti, tr> vb raised smiðr m smith steinn <acc stein> m stone Þorgísl m Thorgisl (Personal name), possibly Þorgils Þorgils m Thorgils (personal name) Tóki m Toki (personal name) Figure 11.3. The Tu Runestone. The larger flat surface shows two figures, a man and a woman. The drawing, which shows the rune carving from two different angles, also shows where the stones is slightly damaged. 11.2 TWO RUNESTONES FROM THE PARISH OF KLEPP IN JÆREN, ROGALAND, NORWAY The parish of Klepp lies in the Jæren region of Rogaland, south of Stavanger. From this parish, we have a pair of runestones, one from the farm of Tu and the other from the Klepp church (ON kleppr ‘rocky knoll, raised rock outcrop’). The runes are thought to be from the end of the tenth century. The two stones are connected to one another through a shared reference to a VIKING LANGUAGE 2: THE OLD NORSE READER 207 – CHAPTER 14 – THE LAY OF THRYM (ÞRYMSKVIÐA): A COMPLETE EDDIC POEM AND POETIC DEVICES EW JESSE BYOCK AND RUSSELL POOLE Þat mun fram koma, sem auðit verðr – Gísla saga Súrssonar PR EV I Þrymskviða is composed in fornyrðislag meter. Mythological scenes rush by with incremental repetition as the stanzas recount Thor’s struggle with the giant Thrym. The poem begins in Ásgarðr,1 but the action soon leads to the world of the giants. Þrymskviða displays a variety of poetic devices, the most important of which are described below. The poem also displays varying sentence lengths. Sometimes a sentence spreads over both halves of a long line, but sometimes one sentence fills a whole helming or half stanza. On occasion, a whole stanza is a single sentence. 14.1 POETIC DEVICES KENNINGS AND HEITI, A FIRST LOOK Figure 14.1. A Thor’s Hammer Pendant from Östergötland, Sweden. Similar pendants have been found throughout the Viking world, including in Lolland, Denmark, where one was inscribed with runes saying ‘hamarr es,’ establishing what the pendants are meant to symbolize. Thor’s hammer Mjollnir is stolen from him in The Lay of Thrym. Kennings (kenning, pl kenningar), and heiti (sg and pl) are among the most colorful features of Old Norse poetry. They appear in eddic poems such as Þrymskviða, but they are found most frequently in skaldic poetry. The following discussion of kennings and heiti is a short introduction. These poetic devices are discussed more thoroughly at the beginning of the chapter on skaldic poetry. Kennings, an English word derived from the ON feminine noun kenning, can be described as circumlocutions. A kenning consists of at least two elements: a basic word and a determinant, the latter usually in the genitive or possessive case. 1 The poet takes it for granted that the audience knows that Odin is Thor's father and that Thor's mother is the goddess Earth (Jörð). 208 CHAPTER 14 – THE LAY OF THRYM (ÞRYMSKVIÐA) ALLITERATION EW For example, battle can be referred to as söngr sverða (‘the song of swords’). Söngr is the basic word and sverða (gen pl) is the determinant. Kennings are found in many languages. An English kenning is ‘ship of the desert,’ meaning camel. ‘Ship’ is the base word and ‘of the desert’ is the determinant or qualifier in the possessive. A heiti can be understood as a poetic name or a synonym. For example, instead of naming Odin as Odin, it is common to disguise him with one of his many other names, such as Yggr. Heiti are also words used in poetry that are seldom used in common speech. For example, svani is a poetic word for ‘woman’ that was rarely used in daily speech. Another example of a heiti is the noun drasill. It is used for ‘horse’ and can be translated as ‘steed.’ Often a heiti is used within a kenning. In such situations, the meaning becomes more riddle-like, as in leikr Yggjar (‘the game of Yggr’). Knowing that Yggr is Odin and that Odin is the god of war helps to decipher this kenning as ‘battle,’ the ‘game’ or leikr of the war god. PR EV I As mentioned in the earlier chapter on eddic meter, alliteration is the repetition of initial sounds in two or more words. This repetition across half lines binds them into cohesive long lines. Alliteration, along with syllable stress, forms the basic structure of the verse. Alliterating sounds are often single consonants or single vowels. For example, the initial sound in the accented syllable can be a þ- in Þrymr sat á haugi – þursa dróttinn. The consonant s- is a special case. Sk- can alliterate only with sk-, as in skegg nam at hrista – skör nam at dýja. Similarly st- with st-, as in Standið upp, jötnar – ok stráið bekki, and sp- with sp-. Single s- can alliterate both with another single s-, as in opt sitjanda – sögur um fallask, and with other consonant clusters beginning with s-, such as sn- and sl-. Any vowel can alliterate with any other vowel or with itself across half lines as in né upphimins followed by áss er stolinn hamri, where u- alliterates with á-. Also , the letter j(always pronounced like the y in ‘yes’) counts as a vowel. For example, stanza 2 of Þrymskviða has the long line: er eigi veit – Jarðar hvergi. In this line, ja- from jarðar in the second half line alliterates with ei- from eigi in the preceding half line. In second half lines, the structural alliteration is most frequently carried by the first prominently accented syllable. This rule means that some alliterating syllables are not structural but ‘extras’ to the essential pattern. In ef ek minn hamar – mættak hitta, it is minn and mættak that carry the structural alliteration. The alliteration between hamar and hitta is secondary, perhaps decorative or merely accidental. AGAIN SOME CAUTION Despite these rules, a great deal of liberty prevailed. For example, a significant number of lines in Þrymskviða cannot be explained according to these rules. The poetic text appears to reflect varying metrical practices that have built up over a long tradition of verse-making. To cite one example among many, in ok þó selja – at væri ór silfri, the alliterating consonant can only be s-. Regularly, therefore, silfri should be the first prominent word in the line; væri (as part of the verb ‘to be’) is a weak candidate for this slot. The line could be amended as follows to gain VIKING LANGUAGE 2: THE OLD NORSE READER 209 regularity: ok þó selja – at ór silfri væri. That would give us the same pattern as we see in the immediately preceding line pair: Þó mynda ek gefa þér – þótt ór gulli væri. SYLLABLE STRESS: PROMINENT AND SUBORDINATE PR EV I EW Old Norse poetry was accentual. Each half line in a long line contains two comparatively prominent syllables accompanied by a less definite number of subordinate syllables. The terms ‘prominent’ and ‘subordinate’ cannot be rigidly quantified in terms of linguistic stress values (stressed and unstressed). Instead, they are assessed from the verse context. If a syllable is at the start of a noun or adjective, it can safely be classed as ‘prominent,’ because the great majority of Old Icelandic nouns and adjectives had stress on the first syllable. Subsequent syllables classed as ‘subordinate’ include inflections, such as case endings, as well as conjunctions, prepositions, and definite articles. Verbs, adverbs, and pronouns come somewhere in between, depending on how much meaning they carry. They can be classified as ‘intermediate’, discussed below. The line brúðar líni (‘linen of the bride’) from Þrymskviða consists of two nouns. The two prominent syllables are brúð- and lín- and the two subordinates are -ar and -i. Similarly, in miðra garða, which consists of an adjective and a noun, the two prominent syllables are miðand gar-, and the two subordinates are -ra and -ða. In um kné falla, which consists of a noun and a verb, the two prominent syllables are kné- and fall-, and the two subordinates are -um and -a. Here the verb assumes prominence because there is no second noun or adjective to eclipse it. But in reið varð þá Freyja, where an adjective, a verb, an adverb, and a noun are in competition for prominence, the verb (varð) and the adverb (þá) are relegated to subordinate status along with the -ja in Freyja. Reið and Frey- are the prominent syllables. INTERMEDIATE SYLLABLE STRESS. Some syllables are at an intermediate point between prominent and subordinate, often employing the second part of a compound word. Examples are the element -ing- (as in geldingr), the superlative suffix -ast- (göfgastr), the adverbial or adjectival element -lig- (einkanliga), and the -að-/-uð- preterite element in weak verbs (smíðuðu). These syllables are of intermediate stress value. In some cases, they can substitute for a prominent syllable. If a syllable with intermediate stress is not substituting for a prominent syllable, it may still accompany two prominent syllables. Thus björg brotnuðu shows two prominent syllables followed by an intermediate stress -uð-, which in turn is followed by the subordinate -u. A similar situation is found in hvítastr ása and Laufeyjar sonr. Whether a syllable is of prominent or intermediate stress is not always apparent. For instance, in brann jörð loga, the alliteration of b- from the previous half line makes brann (a verb) the first prominent syllable and jörð as the second prominent syllable, leaving log- as an intermediate stress. Assignations like these are somewhat arbitrary. The poets enjoyed a great deal of freedom in the exact weighing of stresses within a line. In the line ók Óðins sonr, for example, if we take our cue from the alliteration, ók and Óð- are the prominent stresses, and sonr is an intermediate stress. On the other hand, if ók is considered subordinate because it 210 CHAPTER 14 – THE LAY OF THRYM (ÞRYMSKVIÐA) is a verb, then Óð- and son- are the prominent syllables. 14.2 POETIC GRAMMAR The following is a series of grammatical rules and guidelines useful for the reading of Þrymskviða in particular and Old Norse poetry in general. The explanations concentrate on those instances where the poetic grammar differs from that of Old Norse prose. EW DEFINITE ARTICLE. In Old Norse poetry, the definite article (‘the’) is normally omitted. In translating, one needs to decide when and where to add it. Here are some examples: áss [not áss-inn] er stolinn hamri: ‘the god has been robbed of his hammer.’ fjaðrhamr dunði: ‘the feather-cloak whirred.’ Not fjaðrhamr-inn. allr ása salr: ‘the entire hall of the Æsir.’ Not ásanna or salr-inn. Occasionally the article appears to provide emphasis. In such instances, it often is accompanied by an adjective as in the following example: þat it mikla men Brísinga: ‘that, the great necklace of the Brísings:’ ‘that great necklace...’ PR EV I PERIPHRASTIC (CIRCUMLOCUTORY) PRETERITES. In poetry the simple preterite (past tense) is frequently replaced by a periphrastic or circumlocutory formation. This occurs when verbs such as nema (‘take’) and ráða (‘manage to’) function as auxiliary verbs. In these constructions, the underlying meaning of these verbs is largely lost. For example, nam hrista (‘took to shake’) means little more than hristi (‘shook’) and réð þreifask (‘resolved to fumble’) means little more than þreifaðisk (‘fumbled’). The reason for the circumlocution may be partly to maintain the meter. EXPLETIVE UM PRECEDING VERBS. In some poems, the expletive um adds the idea of completion to the verb that it precedes. Thus um saknaði, strictly construed, might equate to ‘missed totally.’ Similarly Ek hefi ... hamar um fólginn might be translated as ‘I have the hammer completely hidden.’ With other verbs, the idea of completion is lacking, as in alls fyrst um kvað (‘said first of all’). Perhaps it is best to understand the expletive um as an element that emphasizes the verb while carrying no real meaning of its own. The chief use of um in poetry may be to achieve the correct metrical configuration of a line. Systematic use of um, such as in Þrymskviða, often correlates with an early date of composition, even though many scholars regard Þrymskviða as a late poem. IDIOMATIC USES OF THE GENITIVE CASE. In poetry, the genitive case is occasionally used to indicate ‘place where’ or ‘place toward which.’ An example of ‘place where’ is in the following long line: mœtti hann Þór – miðra garða (‘met he Thor – midways in the courtyard’). An example of ‘place toward which’ is gengu þeir fagra – Freyju túna (‘go they to fair – Freya’s dwellings’). WORD ORDER. Poetic word order often conforms to an archaic or purposefully poetic system with the verb at the start of the sentence. The verb is often followed by particles such as þá and then by the subject, object, or other major components of the sentence: Fló þá Loki (‘flew CHAPTER 14 – THE LAY OF THRYM (ÞRYMSKVIÐA) PR EV I EW 212 Figure 14.2. The Lay of Thrym from the Codex Regius (GKS 2365 4to). This single page contains half of the poem, begining with ‘reið var þá Freyja’ (stanza 13) and ending with ‘Hló Hlórriða hugr í brjósti...Þrym drap hann’ (stanza 31). Scribes used abbreviations to conserve space on vellum. The end of line 11 from ‘Bundu’ (‘Būd’o’) and line 12 almost condenses stanza 19 into a single line. Courtesy of Árni Magnússon Institute, Reykjavik. VIKING LANGUAGE 2: THE OLD NORSE READER 213 14.3 ÞRYMSKVIÐA (THE LAY OF THRYM) THE MYTHOLOGICAL BACKGROUND PR EV I EW Þrymskviða portrays Thor in his capacity as god of strength and combat, and the kviða shows Thor relying on his hammer, Mjöllnir, to defend the gods against the giants. Thor was a popular god, a patron of farmers and warriors. His exuberant behavior, as in Þrymskviða, warmed the hearts of his devotees, and his antics were often amusing. Þrymskviða displays rough humor as Thor disguises himself as an anxious bride preparing to marry a giant. Some scholars believe the poem is old, composed as far back as the tenth century with the verse reflecting heathen tradition, including the playful way the poem treats Thor. Others regard the poem as a Christian mockery of Thor composed in the twelfth or early thirteenth century by a poet who accumulated allusions to older narratives. The inherent question is whether or not pagans could laugh at their gods. In the poem, Thrym, a lord among the giants, steals Mjöllnir. The loss of Thor’s hammer is a blow to the gods, leaving them unprotected against their foes. The theft becomes even more serious when Thrym demands Freyja, the goddess of fertility, as ransom for the hammer. Heimdall, the watchman of the gods, counsels Thor to disguise himself as Freyja in order to gain entry into Thrym’s hall. Loki, the mercurial trickster of Norse myth, agrees to accompany Thor on his journey to Jotunheim. Loki often causes trouble, but in this instance he helps Thor. The story mentions Freyja’s most valued possession, her magic shape-changing ‘feather-shape’ (fjaðrhamr). Þrymskviða also speaks of Freyja’s prized necklace, the Brísingamen,2 a treasure crafted by four dwarves. Beowulf speaks of a similar mysterious piece of jewelry called in Old English the Brosinga mene (‘the necklace of the Brosings’). Þrymskviða 1. Reiðr var þá Ving-Þórr er hann vaknaði ok síns hamars um saknaði. Skegg nam at hrista, skör nam at dýja; réð Jarðar burr um at þreifask. ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________ (1) Ving-Þórr: ‘brandishing-Thor,’ describes his use of his hammer. (2-3) síns ... saknaði: ‘missed his hammer.’ Sakna takes the genitive case. (5) nam ...hrista: ‘his beard took to shaking.’ (6) skör ... dýja ‘his hair to shaking.’ (8) um at þreifask: ‘Jörð’s son groped around (um)’ [trying to locate his hammer]. 2 Brísingamen (men Brísinga, ‘necklace of the Brisings’). CHAPTER 14 – THE LAY OF THRYM (ÞRYMSKVIÐA) 2. Ok hann þat orða alls fyrst um kvað: ‘Heyrðu nú, Loki, hvat ek nú mæli, er eigi veit jarðar hvergi né upphimins: áss er stolinn hamri!’ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________ EW 214 (1-2) hann ... kvað: ‘that of words first of all he said,’ [‘the first thing he said was’]. (3) heyrðu: ‘hear you!’ -ðu is the pronoun þú affixed to the verb. (5) eigi veit: ‘no one has heard,’ (6-7) jarðar ... upphimins: ‘nowhere of earth nor of heaven’ [‘anywhere on earth or in heaven’]. (8) áss ... hamri: ‘the god has been robbed of his hammer.’ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________ PR EV I 3. Gengu þeir fagra Freyju túna, ok hann þat orða alls fyrst um kvað: ‘Muntu mér, Freyja, fjaðrhams ljá, ef ek minn hamar mættak hitta?’ (1-2) fagra Freyju túna: túna (gen pl), ‘to the beautiful dwellings of Freyja.’ (5) muntu: ‘will you.’ -(t)u in muntu is the pronoun þú affixed to the verb. (6) ljá: takes a genitive object as here (fjaðrhams). (7) ef: normally ‘if,’ but here means ‘in case/in the hope that/so that.’ (7-8) ek ... mættak: ‘I could,’ with -k (mætta+k) repeating ek. 4. Freyja kvað: Þó mynda ek gefa þér, þótt ór gulli væri, ok þó selja, at væri ór silfri.’ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ______________________________________ (1) þó: ‘even so/though.’ (2) gefa þér: ‘give [it] to you.’ væri: past subjunct, indicating a supposed condition. (3) selja: ‘hand [it] over.’ 5. Fló þá Loki – fjaðrhamr dunði – uns fyr útan kom ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ VIKING LANGUAGE 2: THE OLD NORSE READER 249 – APPENDIX 1 – OLD NORSE REFERENCE GRAMMAR EW NOUNS STRONG NOUNS MASCULINE (WA-STEMS) (JA-STEMS) (IA-STEMS) [-v-] söngr söng söngvi söngs söngvar söngva söngum söngva [-j-] niðr nið nið niðs niðjar niðja niðjum niðja [-i- in sg] hirðir hirði hirði hirðis hirðar hirða hirðum hirða PR EV I Sg nom acc dat gen Pl nom acc dat gen Type 1 (A-STEMS) C nom pl -ar C acc pl -a [-l/-n/-s] [a/ö] hestr stóll garðr hest stól garð hesti stóli garði hests stóls garðs hestar stólar garðar hesta stóla garða hestum stólum görðum hesta stóla garða Type 2 (I-STEMS) C nom pl -ir C acc pl -i Sg nom acc dat gen Pl nom acc dat gen Sg nom acc dat gen Pl nom acc dat gen [a/ö] staðr stað stað staðar staðir staði stöðum staða [gen -s] gestr gest gest(i) gests gestir gesti gestum gesta [-j-] bekkr bekk bekk bekkjar bekkir bekki bekkjum bekkja Type 4 (ROOT STEMS) C nom & acc pl -r with i-shift fingr fótr fingr fót fingri fœti fingrs (~ar) fótar fingr fœtr fingr fœtr fingrum fótum fingra fóta Type 3 (U-STEMS) C nom pl -ir C acc pl -u C u-shift nom & acc sg C i-shift dat sg and nom pl [a/e/ö] [ja/i/jö] litr köttr skjöldr lit kött skjöld liti ketti skildi litar kattar skjaldar litir kettir skildir litu köttu skjöldu litum köttum skjöldum lita katta skjalda vetr vetr vetri vetrar vetr vetr vetrum vetra maðr mann manni manns menn menn mönnum manna [á/æ] þáttr þátt þætti þáttar þættir þáttu þáttum þátta nagl nagl nagli nagls negl negl nöglum nagla VOCABULARY pref prep pres pres part pret-pres pron refl rel sg str subj prefix preposition present present participle preterite-present (verb) pronoun reflexive (verb or pronoun) relative (pronoun or particle) singular strong (adjective or verb) subject subjunct subjunctive superl superlative (adjective or ad-verb) trans transitive (verb) transl translation usu usually var variant vb verb w with wk weak (adjective or verb) + plus = equals EW 276 A mid be raised, reared albúa <albýr, albjó, albjoggu, albúinn> vb fit out, furnish or equip fully albúinn ppart of albúa (m nom/acc sg), fully equipped; [e-s] albúinn quite ready, willing to do [sth] albyggðr = al + byggðr completely settled, completely inhabited aldinn adj aged, old; it aldna tré the old tree aldir acc pl of öld aldr <-rs, -rar> m age; ungr at aldri young, young in age aldrbót f fame, honour ˜ aldri (also aldregi) adv never aldri dat sg of aldr aldrlag n fate; end of life aldnari m poet fire, lit life nourisher Alföðr see Allföðr alin f var of öln alla str m acc pl, f acc sg; wk m acc/dat/gen sg, f acc sg, n all sg of allr allan m acc sg of allr allar f nom/acc pl of allr alldýrr adj very dear allfast adv very firmly, steadfastly allfár adj very few allfríðr adj very beautiful Al(l)föðr m All-father, father of all, Odin allgløggsær adj clearly seen, transparent allgóðr adj very good allharðr adj very hard, very violent allhjaldrjúgr adj very talkative; [e-m] verðr PR EV I -a (also -at, -t) negative suffix, esp poet, leg not Aðalráðr konungr m King Æthelred II (the unready) of England aðra m acc pl, f acc sg of annarr aðrir m nom pl of annarr ˜ af prep [w dat] from; out of, of, by; off (of), adv off, away afar adv very, extremely, exceedingly afarkaldr adj very cold afarmenni n outstanding man afbragð n outstanding example, paragon; afbragð þeira manna allra the most outstanding of all those men afbrigði n deviation, transgression, offense afhús n outhouse; out building; side room afl n physical strength, might, power; rammr at afli extremely strong afl m hearth of a forge, fireplace afla m acc pl of afl (m) aflafár adj short of strength; [e-m] verðr aflafátt impers [sb] is short of support (supporters) afréttr m common pasture (up in the mountains or wilderness) afskipta indecl adj cut off from inheritance aftaka f damage, injury aka <ekr, ók, óku, ekinn> vb drive akarn <pl akörn> n acorn akkeri n anchor akr <-rs, -rar> m field; arable land; hveitiakr wheatfield ala <elr, ól, ólu, alinn> vb bring up, raise; be born; alask a, á, b, d, ð, e, é, f, g, h, i, í, j, k, l, m, n, o, ó, p, r, s, t, u, ú, v, x, y, ý, z, þ, æ, œ, ö/ø VIKING LANGUAGE 2: THE OLD NORSE READER andlit n face, countenance andskoti <-a, -ar> m adversary, opponent; Satan, devil Andvari m Andvari (personal name), ‘Vigilance,’ dwarf whose gold is used to pay Otr’s wergild, in Skáldskáparmál, Reginsmál, and Völsunga saga andviðri n head-wind angan n delight; angan Friggjar Frigg’s delight (kenning for Odin) angrsamr adj sorrowful, anguished ann 1/3sg pres of unna annan m acc sg of annarr ˜ annarr <f önnur, n annat> adj pron one of two, other, another; ord second; annarr ... annarr conj one ... the other; annan dag eptir the next day; í annat sinn the second time annars m/n gen sg of annarr annask <-að-> mid vb take care of; provide for annat n nom/acc sg of annarr annathvárt adv either apaldr <gen -rs~-s, pl -rar~-ar> m apple-tree aptaninn acc sg + def of aptann aptann <dat aptni, gen aptans, pl aptnar> m evening aptari see eptri aptastr see epztr ˜ aptr adv back, backwards, behind arfsal n leg transfer to another party of rights to an inheritance argr adj cowardly, effeminate, (passively) homosexual, unmanly, lewd; wicked ari m eagle (see also örn) aringreypr adj round the hearth armgrjót n poet ‘arm’s stone,’ gold or silver arm ring armr <f örm> adj vile, wretched, wicked; poor, unfortunate, unhappy arnar gen sg of örn aska <acc/dat/gen sg ösku> f ash, ashes askr <-s, -ar> m ash tree; ash spear; small ship; the great ash tree, Yggdrasill at prep [w dat] at, in; as to, as, with respect to; on account of, by reason of; close up to, around, by; [w inf] to; conj that ˜ at conj that at inf marker to -at see -a atall <f ötul, n atalt> adj fierce, aggressive atbeini n assistance atburðr <-ar, -ir> m occurrence, event, circumstance; PR EV I EW allhjaldrjúgt impers [sb] talks at very great length allhræddr adj very much afraid allir m nom pl of allr alllítill adj very little allmannskœðr (also -skæðr) adj very injurious to men, very murderous (of battle) almennilegr (also almennigligr) adj Catholic, general, common allmikill adj very great allnærri (also allnær) adv very near allógurligr adj very terrible ˜ allr <f öll, n allt> adj pron all, entire, whole; at öllu in all respects, in every way; með allt sitt with all one’s possessions; með öllu wholly, completely allra all gen pl of allr alls m/n gen sg of allr allsíð adv very late allsterkligr adj very strong-looking allstórum adv very greatly allsœmiligr adj very honorable allt adv all, entirely, altogether, completely; allt saman wholly, entirely, altogether; allt til þess right up to that point; allt upp undir right up under allt n nom/acc sg of allr allvaldr m mighty one; king allvegligr adj very grand allvel adv very well almannavegr m main road, common route, path normally followed alsekr m full outlaw alsnotr adj sagacious, wise, very clever alsvartr adj very black, pure black alsvinnr (also alsviðr) adj ‘all-wise,’ or ‘very swift,’ also a name of one of the horses that draw the sun through the sky in Gylfaginning and Grímnismál (see also árvakr) alt adv quite altarisstaðr <-ar, -ir> m altar-place alvæpni n complete arms; með alvæpni, to be fully armed alþingi n national assembly of Iceland alþýða f all the people, the majority of the people, the public, the common people ambátt (also ambótt) <pl -ir> f handmaid, maidservant; bondwoman anda <-að-> vb breathe; andaðr ppart dead; andask mid die, breathe one’s last 277 e-n (einhvern) = somebody, acc; e-t (eitthvat) = something, acc; e-m (einhverjum) = (for) somebody, dat; e-u (einhverju) = (for) something, dat; e-s (einhvers) = (of) somebody or something, gen VOCABULARY auðskaddr (also -skœðr) adj easily damaged, fragile auðsóttr adj easily won, easy to win augsýn f sight auðsýnn adj clear, evident auðugr var of auðigr auðœfi f wealth, possessions auga <pl augu, gen augna> n eye augna gen pl of auga augsýn f sight auka <eykr, jók, jóku, aukinn> vb increase, augment; [w dat] add; exceed, surpass; auka [e-u] við add [sth]; aukask mid be increased aukisk 2/3 sg pres subjunct of aukask aurar pl of eyrir aurr <-s> m mud ausa <eyss, jós, jósu, ausinn> vb pour, sprinkle; ausa [e-n]/[e-t] [e-m] sprinkle [sb]/[sth] with [sth]; ausa bát bail a boat austan adv from the east austanverðr adj eastern, easterly Austfirðingar m pl men of the East fjords of Iceland Austmaðr m person from the east, Norwegian austr <-rs> m east; adv eastward austrför <pl austfarar> f (usu in pl) travels to the east austrvegr <-s, -ir> m the east, i.e., the Baltic (lit the eastern way); fara í austrveg trading or raiding in the Baltic or journeying east and south down the rivers of Russia austrœnn adj coming from the east; eastern auvirði n worthless wretch ax n ear of corn; hveitiax ear of wheat PR EV I af þessum atburði because of this incident; verðr sá atburðr it so happened atdráttr m provisions, supplies atferli n proceeding atganga f attack; veita [e-m] atgöngu attack [sb] atgangr m fighting atgørvi f & n ability, talent, accomplishment; at atgørvi in ability (esp physical) athöfn f business, work athæfi n conduct, actions atlaga f attack; laying ships alongside for attack Atli m Atli (personal name), Attila the Hun atróðr <gen atróðrs> m rowing towards, rowing against, an attack made by a ship with oars atsókn f onslaught, attack attú = at þú, that you [sg] auð- adv prefix easily auðit ppart of defect vb; be fated, fall to sb; [e-m] verðr [e-s] auðit [sth] is fated for [sb] auðkendr adj easy to be recognized, easily distinguishable auðkenniligr adj easy to recognize ˜ auðigr (older auðugr) adj rich, wealthy; auðigr at fé very wealthy, rich in wealth auðn f wilderness; deserted area; destruction auðr m wealth; hafa auð fjár to be very wealthy, have an abundance of wealth auðr adj empty, deserted, void, without men Auðr f Aud (personal name) Auðr in djúpúðga, ‘Aud the deepminded,’ of Laxdæla saga auðsénn adj clearly seen, evident (auð- + sénn) auðsét n nom/acc sg of auðsénn EW 278 Á ˜ á prep [w acc] onto, on, towards (motion); with respect to; [w dat] on; upon; at; in (position) á <gen ár, pl ár, dat ám, gen á> f river á 1/3sg pres of eiga ábyrgð f liability; vera til ábyrgðar be risked ˜ áðr adv before, already; áðr en conj before áfenginn (also áfengr) ppart (m nom/acc sg) intoxicating ágirni f [w gen] greed (for [sth]); ambition ágætastr var of ágæztr ágætavel adv excellently ágæti n excellence, glory, fame; pl ‘glorious deeds’ ágætliga adv capitally, splendidly ˜ ágætr adj excellent, famous ágætust f nom sg, n nom/acc pl of ágætastr ágæztr superl adj of ágætr áheit n vow, invocation (see á, heita) áhyggja f care, anxiety ákafi m vehemence, fierceness, eagerness; í ákafa vehemently, eagerly, fiercely a, á, b, d, ð, e, é, f, g, h, i, í, j, k, l, m, n, o, ó, p, r, s, t, u, ú, v, x, y, ý, z, þ, æ, œ, ö/ø