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Manuscript Number: JQSR-D-13-00483R1
Title: Examination of Late Palaeolithic archaeological sites in Northern Europe for the preservation of
cryptotephra layers
Article Type: SI: Volcanic Ash Synchronisation
Keywords: Tephrostratigraphy; Lateglacial; early Holocene; taphonomy.
Corresponding Author: Dr. Rupert Housley,
Corresponding Author's Institution: Royal Holloway University of London
First Author: Rupert A Housley
Order of Authors: Rupert A Housley; Clive S Gamble; RESET Associates
Abstract: We report the first major study of cryptotephra (non-visible volcanic ash layers) on Late
Palaeolithic archaeological sites in northern Europe. Examination of thirty-four sites dating from the
Last Termination reveals seven with identifiable cryptotephra layers. Preservation is observed in
minerogenic and organic deposits, although tephra is more common in organic sediments.
Cryptotephra layers normally occur stratigraphically above or below the archaeology. Nearby off-site
palaeoclimate archives (peat bogs and lakes <0.3 km distant) were better locations for detecting
tephra however only indirectly can the archaeology be correlated with the cryptotephra. Patterns
affecting the presence/absence of cryptotephra include geographic position of sites relative to the
emitting volcanic centre; the influence of past atmospherics on the quantity, direction and patterns of
cryptotephra transport; the nature and timing of local site sedimentation; sampling considerations and
subsequent taphonomic processes. Overall, while tephrostratigraphy has the potential to improve
significantly the chronology of such sites many limiting factors currently impacts the successful
application.
*Highlights (for review)
Highlights
Cryptotephra study of 34 north European Late Palaeolithic archaeological sites.
Seven sites have identifiable cryptotephra layers.
Best preservation occurs in low-energy off-site palaeoclimate archives.
Geographic position to emitting centre and past atmospherics are influential.
In situ sediment record, preservation and taphonomy impact on outcomes.
*Manuscript
Click here to view linked References
1
Examination of Late Palaeolithic archaeological sites in
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Northern Europe for the preservation of cryptotephra layers
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4
Rupert A. Housley1*, Clive S. Gamble2 and RESET Associates3
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1 Department of Geography, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX, UK
6
2 Faculty of Humanities (Archaeology), Building 65A, Avenue Campus, University of Southampton,
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Southampton SO17 1BF, UK
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3 List of members in Supplementary Materials S1
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* = corresponding author (Rupert.Housley@rhul.ac.uk)
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Keywords: Tephrostratigraphy; Lateglacial; early Holocene; taphonomy
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Abstract: We report the first major study of cryptotephra (non-visible volcanic ash layers) on Late
14
Palaeolithic archaeological sites in northern Europe. Examination of thirty-four sites dating from the
15
Last Termination reveals seven with identifiable cryptotephra layers. Preservation is observed in
16
minerogenic and organic deposits, although tephra is more common in organic sediments.
17
Cryptotephra layers normally occur stratigraphically above or below the archaeology. Nearby off-site
18
palaeoclimate archives (peat bogs and lakes <0.3 km distant) were better locations for detecting
19
tephra however only indirectly can the archaeology be correlated with the cryptotephra. Patterns
20
affecting the presence/absence of cryptotephra include geographic position of sites relative to the
21
emitting volcanic centre; the influence of past atmospherics on the quantity, direction and patterns
22
of cryptotephra transport; the nature and timing of local site sedimentation; sampling
23
considerations and subsequent taphonomic processes. Overall, while tephrostratigraphy has the
1
1
potential to improve significantly the chronology of such sites many limiting factors currently
2
impacts the successful application.
3
4
1. Introduction
5
It has been observed that tephrostratigraphy and tephrochronology have the potential to be of
6
major significance to the study of the environmental history of the Last Termination, c.18-8 ka BP
7
(Davies et al., 2002; Turney et al., 2004, 2006). Tephra layers, once securely identified, provide the
8
means to accurately link and synchronize diverse sedimentary records including terrestrial and
9
marine palaeo-environmental and archaeological sites, with their archives of palaeoclimate and past
10
human behaviour (Lowe 2011). Developments in the detection, isolation and characterisation of
11
cryptotephra (Turney, 1998; Blockley et al., 2005) have allowed tephrostratigraphy to be applied to
12
more situations than hitherto was the case (Davies et al., 2002) including the application to
13
archaeological settings (Balascio et al., 2011). The new contexts open up interesting developments,
14
but as this paper demonstrates, do not come without attendant complexities for the taphonomy of
15
the depositional layers have an all-important influence. Recovery of trustworthy data is not always
16
straightforward and is dependent on multiple, sometimes interrelated, factors.
17
The focus of this paper is the application of tephrostratigraphy to distal Late Palaeolithic sites in
18
northern Europe which date from the Last Termination (i.e. the Oldest Dryas, Bølling, Older Dryas,
19
Allerød, Younger Dryas and Preboreal Chronozones). The research took place in the context of the
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RESET research initiative, a 5-year Consortium funded by the UK’s Natural Environment Research
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Council (NERC). The aim of RESET was to bring together archaeologists, volcanologists,
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tephrochronologists and stratigraphers to investigate the chronology of major phases of human
23
dispersal and development in Europe in the past 100,000 years, and to examine the degree to which
24
these were influenced by abrupt environmental transitions (http://c14.arch.ox.ac.uk/reset/). A
25
survey of Late Palaeolithic sites from north of the Alps, Sudeten, Tatra and Carpathian mountains
2
1
reveals only one-fifth have identifiable cryptotephra. Tephra is detected in both organic and
2
minerogenic sediments, however depositional context, temporal duration of sediment accumulation
3
and site taphonomy appear to be important influencing factors.
4
5
2. Tephrostratigraphy in the context of the north European Late Palaeolithic
6
2.1 The Principles and Application of Tephrostratigraphy
7
Tephrostratigraphy is a method for correlating diverse sedimentary sequences, whether they are
8
palaeoenvironmental, geological or archaeological in nature. It has the advantage over many other
9
chronological tools in that the precision is commonly significantly better (Lowe, 2011). The use of
10
tephra is grounded in the principle that layers are deposited in a stratigraphic sequence and the
11
position is governed by the Law of Superposition (Feibel 1999). If a tephra layer can be identified and
12
characterised, it can be correlated to another tephra layer in another locality and this links the two
13
loci in time (Westgate and Gorton, 1981). Matching of tephra layers can be done by physical
14
properties in the field or using single grain geochemical analyses in the laboratory (e.g. electron
15
microprobe WDS-EPMA and LA-ICP-MS). In some instances the palaeoenvironmental or
16
palaeoclimatic context of a tephra in conjunction with its geochemical-signature may be significant
17
thus allowing correlation (the Borrobol and Penifiler, Vedde Ash and AF555 tephras are prime
18
examples of this, see Matthews et al., 2011). Where an existing age for the tephra is known, be it
19
from historical records, radiometric dating (e.g. 14C or Ar-Ar; Sarna-Wojcicki, 2000), or an
20
incremental archive (e.g. varves or ice core layers; Grönvold et al., 1995), the age may be transferred
21
from one locality to another provided compositional properties, e.g. chemical characteristics, are the
22
same. In such situations tephrostratigraphy becomes tephrochronology, a powerful tool for dating.
23
Many factors potentially limit the application of tephrostratigraphy (Lowe 2011). Those of most
24
relevance in the context of this investigation are:
3
1
(i)
The possibility of tephra being reworked leading to the dissemination or remobilisation
2
of glass shards. This can significantly influence whether correlation is feasible as
3
reworked (remobilised) tephra form diachronous, rather than isochronous, surfaces. The
4
non-reworked part of a tephra deposit does provide an isochron of maximum age (the
5
date of the tephra eruption and primary deposition) but any reworked components are
6
always younger.
7
(ii)
8
9
The vertical spread (dissemination) of shards in a vertical profile may conceal the exact
point in the sediments where a primary tephra layer was deposited.
(iii)
Patchy tephra distribution patterns in peat deposits have sometimes been attributed to
10
post-depositional processes associated with fallout on snow cover, including re-
11
deposition by wind and meltwater. Snow entrapment, wherein cold conditions with little
12
or no summer melt cause a significant lag between the initial deposition of ash and its
13
subsequent deposition into a lake, was identified by Davies et al. (2007) as another
14
factor that could lead to an incorrect interpretation of the true position of the
15
tephrostratigraphic isochron in cold environment lacustrine deposits.
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(iv)
Multiple profiles will sometimes document periods of erosion and reworking, revealing
17
differential effects even when distances are small. Within-site variability is a factor,
18
suggesting that local geographic and stratigraphic taphonomic processes may be
19
complex, requiring careful study and interpretation. Boygle (1999) and Pyne-O’Donnell
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(2011) highlight the drawbacks of single profile crypto-tephrostratigraphic surveys.
21
(v)
Repeated eruptions may sometimes result in chemically similar geochemical datasets.
22
Indeed many Icelandic tephra produced by different eruptions tend to have very similar
23
major element geochemical compositions (Larsen and Eiríksson, 2007). External dating
24
control may be required to differentiate temporally-separate, but compositionally
25
similar, tephra.
4
1
Tephra detection, albeit the crucial starting point in a tephrostratigraphical study, is not sufficient on
2
its own; there are many ancillary requirements if good chronological data are to come from the
3
presence of tephra on an archaeological site.
4
2.2 Linking Volcanic Ash Layers and Late Palaeolithic Archaeology
5
Association between Late Palaeolithic archaeology and tephra is most commonly observed in areas
6
proximal to active Late Pleistocene volcanoes. In such settings volcanic and archaeological layers
7
may be readily observed and characterised in the field. Association between archaeology and
8
volcanic eruption need not be direct, for volcanic sediments can overlie abandoned sites. Lateglacial
9
northern European examples of this include the open-air Magdalenian sites of Andernach-
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Martinsburg and Gonnersdorf in the middle Rhine, which were discovered beneath thick Laacher See
11
tephra (LST) deposits (Baales et al., 2002); and the Grotte du Coléoptère in the Ardennes, a
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Magdalenian cave site in which the occupation horizon was covered by tephra of the same east Eifel-
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sourced eruption (Dewez 1975; Juvigné 1977).
14
More direct ‘Pompeii-like’ association between ash-fall and cessation of human occupation would be
15
expected but are not easily demonstrated in the Lateglacial of north Europe. The situation at l'Abri
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Durif à Enval, a rockshelter in the commune de Vic-Le-Comte, Puy-de-Dôme excavated between
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1969 and 1979 by Yves Boudelle, illustrates some of the complexities. On this site volcanic ash was
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identified in layers I, II and IV in direct contact with a Magdalénien supérieur occupation horizon
19
(Boudelle 1979). The tephra originates from the French Massif Central and is dated to 12 010 ± 150
20
14
21
eruption of La Tephra des Roches. However direct contact is not enough to demonstrate a causal
22
connection between ash-fall and human abandonment since subsequent reworking may bring
23
remobilised tephra into contact with archaeological material. Layer Ia on l'Abri Durif à Enval « …
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contained a large amount of volcanic ash. These ashes are in contact with the flints and bones found
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in this level (0.02 m)». This would suggest direct association, whilst the ash in the underlying layers
C yr BP (GifTan-91102). On the basis of geochemistry Vernet and Raynal (1995) correlate it with the
5
1
(Niveau Ib, II and IVa) could represent remobilised tephra. Residuality of archaeological material
2
needs to be considered. For these reasons, in the absence of compelling associations, direct linkage
3
of ash-fall to human abandonment is hard to prove.
4
Visible ash horizons may sometimes be observed in contact with archaeological material in distal
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and mid distal settings. The early Upper Palaeolithic sites in Kostenki-Borshchevo (Sinitsyn 2001;
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Anikovitch 2005; Anikovitch et al., 2007) are examples which have been known for many years
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(Melekestsev et al., 1984). At Kostenki-Borshchevo aeolian reworking of the tephra together with
8
cryoturbation is believed responsible for making a 1-2 cm ash-fall into 10-30 cm in thickness horizons
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(Pyle et al., 2006). Distance from source in this instance is 2250 km. Bettenroder Berg IX in the valley
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of the River Leine in central Germany is a Lateglacial example of a visible volcanic layer on a mid
11
distal site located 280 km from source. Here layer 17a – an occupation horizon of the Federmesser-
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Gruppen technocomplex is overlain by layer 16, a substantial 20-40 cm thick primary deposit of LST,
13
demonstrating thickness and distance from source are influenced by the dynamics of ash transport,
14
fall and sedimentation (Riede, 2008; Riede et al., 2011). This example would appear to represent the
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rapid fallout of very fine ash occurring as ‘mass deposition’, the result of meteorological aggregation
16
processes a few hundred kilometres downwind of the emitting source.
17
In distal localities removed from the eruptive vent, recognition of tephra by the naked eye is rarely
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possible. However, development of laboratory processing methods (Turney, 1998; Blockley et al.,
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2005) have allowed systematic screening for cryptotephra so that the ash ‘footprints’ of eruptions
20
have been significantly extended into new geographical regions. Bearing these points in mind,
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attention now turns to cryptotephra, which are subject to additional constraints.
22
3. Cryptotephra associated with Late Palaeolithic sites
23
Between 2008 and 2012 thirty-four north European Late Palaeolithic sites were investigated for
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cryptotephra (figures 1a and 1b). On- and off-site loci were sampled. On-site locations had in situ
25
Late Palaeolithic or early Mesolithic archaeology (table 1, figure 2), whilst off-site contexts were
6
1
natural sediments which accumulated concurrent with nearby human activity (typically c.10-300 m
2
distant). Tables 2 and 3 summarize the results, recording the presence/ absence of cryptotephra.
3
Supplementary Materials (S2) contains an individual site-by-site compendium, and (S3) details the
4
methodology used. Because individual site studies appear elsewhere (Brock et al., 2011; Housley et
5
al., 2012, 2013, 2014a, b, c; MacLeod et al., in prep.; Tipping et al., in prep.; Torksdorf et al., 2013;
6
Weber et al., 2010) this paper focuses on only the broad patterns.
7
Seven sites yielded identifiable analysable tephra, a success rate of 21% (table 4). Thirty-two
8
sampling localities were open-air sites, with only two caves / rockshelters. Neither of the latter
9
recorded cryptotephra but two is too small a sample to properly assess the viability of such
10
sediment traps. The low representation of caves and rockshelters reflects a sampling bias to the
11
North European Plain, where sites such as these are rare.
12
13
In the first stage of processing, where bulk 5-10 cm depth samples were examined, a few sites
14
yielded occasional isolated tephra shards. Such records may be accessed from the RESET database
15
(Bronk Ramsey et al., this volume). Bulk samples with isolated shards proved impossible to process
16
further or prepare for geochemical analysis and have been excluded from the 7 ‘successful’ sites.
17
Precisely what this ‘background’ level of tephra represents is difficult to define – very low input,
18
residual material, disturbance and reworking may all be responsible.
19
20
With exceptions, most sites were associated with one of several lithics industries (techno-
21
complexes: Magdalenian, classic Hamburgian, Havelte, Federmesser and Ahrensburgian. However,
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some sites had more than one industry (e.g. Dourges, Sowin 7). Approximate dating of the
23
archaeological techno-complexes is presented in table 1. Palaeoenvironmental archives could be
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proximal to more than one Late Palaeolithic activity area (e.g. Węgliny) or featured both on- and off-
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site archaeology (e.g. Lille Slotseng). Non-diagnostic lithics assemblages were encountered,
26
inhibiting typological classification (e.g. Strumienno). Selection of sites was sometimes deliberate –
7
1
to target key Palaeolithic sequences (e.g. Pincevent, Étiolles and Neuchâtel) – at other times
2
opportunistic, governed by access considerations (e.g. Wesseling-Eichholz, Lengefeld). Archived
3
sediment was used where advantageous, or where original deposits have been removed (e.g.
4
Reichwalde) or have become inaccessible (e.g. Neuchâtel). The degree of sampling in part reflected
5
availability of open sections, stored material or known taphonomic issues. Absence of reported
6
tephra from a site does not mean future cryptotephra sampling should be avoided if better
7
sequences come available. On some sites we only undertook limited sampling - for further details,
8
see the site compendium (S2).
9
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What follows is an assessment of the factors which potentially influence the presence and
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deposition of cryptotephra on north European Late Palaeolithic archaeological sites.
12
13
3.1 Influence of Sedimentary Context
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Given the diverse sedimentary contexts from where archaeological material of this age is recovered,
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it was deemed important to examine this variable to determine if this was indeed a governing factor.
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To assess whether the nature of the sedimentary matrix was influencing the cryptotephra record a
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simple classification system for describing the depositional matrix was applied. Sediments of this age
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are varied and hence what is presented here inadequately describes the complexities, though a
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simple grouping of broadly similar deposits helps identify common patterns in the data. Four
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categorizations are recognised for sedimentary context of the tephra layers:
21
1.
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Predominantly minerogenic sediments (i.e. sands, silts, clays, with/without larger stone
clasts);
23
2.
Predominantly organic sediments (i.e. peat, detritus mud, marl, gyttja);
24
3.
Contexts where the zone of tephra extends over a stratigraphic boundary, thus the same
25
tephra is present in both a minerogenic and an organic sediment unit;
8
1
2
4.
Mixed contexts, the result of either human activity or pedogenic processes. Soil
micromorphology is often needed to establish this.
3
This classification informs tables 2-4. Although twice as many on-site contexts were sampled
4
(respectively, n=23 and n=11) the data show off-site contexts preserved cryptotephra layers better.
5
Of the off-site contexts 36% recorded one or more cryptotephra (n=4, t=11), only 13% of on-site
6
contexts had tephra (n=3, t=23). Organic and minerogenic sediments are represented in both
7
settings, although archaeological remains were commonly associated with aerobic minerogenic
8
sediments and anaerobic organic deposits were better represented in off-site locations. The pattern
9
is clear however, off-site organic contexts result in better cryptotephra preservation than on-site
10
minerogenic sediments.
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3.2 Influence of Geographical Position
12
We observe a clear weighting to better tephra representation on sites from northerly latitudes
13
(table 4c). This conclusion is simplistic and misleading, however. Iceland is the major volcanic source
14
for northern Europe and prevailing winds carry the ash eastwards, with greater quantities of ash
15
falling in northerly latitudes. The study by Lawson et al. (2012) is particularly important in
16
understanding the spatial patterning of tephra originating from Iceland. Based on 22 eruptions in the
17
last 7 ka, the investigation observed that past ash plumes have shown a wide range of behaviour in
18
that they can be dense and widespread (e.g. Hekla 4); spatially patchy but widespread (e.g. Hekla 3);
19
restricted to one region but found at practically all sites within its bounds (e.g. Glen Garry); or
20
restricted to one region and patchily distributed within it (e.g. Hekla 1510). Based on space-, air- and
21
ground-based monitoring and research reported following the Eyjafjallajökull 2010 event, the
22
patchiness of tephra distributions would seem to be consequent on varying prevailing atmospheric
23
conditions. We believe this patchiness is particularly important to this study.
24
In relation to the late Pleistocene previous research has shown the ash foot print of the Vedde Ash
25
extends south to the Alps (Blockley et al., 2007). This distribution is explicable however by different
9
1
atmospheric conditions in Europe during the Younger Dryas Stadial (Isarin et al., 1998; Brauer et al.,
2
2009). A more accurate conclusion would be that two contributing factors influence the presence of
3
cryptotephra: proximity to a volcanic source is clearly important but so is location downwind of an
4
emitting centre – hence Scandinavia, the British Isles and northern Europe have a record of Icelandic
5
volcanic activity whereas the Balkans record eruptions originating in Italy. Regardless of other
6
influences, tephra must first be present in a region for it to be preserved. For this reason some parts
7
of Europe are more likely to be impacted by tephra than are others (Davies et al., 2010; Lawson et
8
al., 2012).
9
3.3 Influence of Site Taphonomy
10
We hypothesize that cryptotephra is less likely to be recognised on archaeological sites if ash-fall
11
occurs in periods of human occupation. This is because disturbance by humans and non-continuous
12
sedimentation will inhibit discrete accumulation and preservation of discrete cryptotephra layers.
13
Our open-air study sites have shallow stratigraphies with Lateglacial deposits commonly located
14
near modern ground surface; biological activity, land-use practices and pedological processes were
15
visible influences. Albeit weakly, the data in table 2 appear to support this contention for two of the
16
three sites with cryptotephra in on-site contexts (Ahrenshöft, Mirkowice) have cryptotephra over- or
17
underlying the archaeological layer; Lille Slotseng, in contrast, has archaeology and cryptotephra in
18
the same layer. However a 2:1 ratio does not make a compelling case and we conclude this
19
hypothesis needs more investigation.
20
This point requires further qualification for although in Slotseng archaeological material is present in
21
the same layer as tephra, no causal relationship can be demonstrated. Tephra is observed over 60
22
cm of vertical sedimentation in Slotseng, coinciding with the archaeological layer but also being
23
present in the sediments above. The geochemistry is complex, suggesting at least three different
24
rhyolite layers from Iceland, one of which has not been recognised previously (MacLeod et al., in
25
prep.). Nothing in the archaeological supports the contention that Palaeolithic humans took
10
1
particular account of the tephra to change their behaviour. The other study sites with in situ
2
archaeology and cryptotephra, i.e. Ahrenshöft LA 58D (Weber et al., 2010; Brock et al., 2011;
3
Housley et al., 2012) and Mirkowice 33 (Housley et al., 2014a) have their own accounts and factors.
4
The linking theme to all these sites is the need for careful evaluation of site processes.
5
3.4 Sampling Bias and Local Sediment Hiatuses
6
Many of our more southern sites date from the late Magdalenian period (approximately the Bølling
7
Chronozone). Geographically those in Germany and Poland could be expected to be situated within
8
the ash fall zone of the Laacher See Tephra, however we detected little presence of this tephra. It is
9
possible sample selection had a part to play, for example if sampling did not extend sufficiently high
10
in the stratigraphic sections to take in the end of the Allerød. However, this is unlikely to be true for
11
all sites in that, where feasible we extended sampling into the early Holocene. We can only conclude
12
that either this reflects an inherent patchiness to tephra distributions, or some of the sequences we
13
sampled have unrecognised periods of hiatus. This temporal ‘patchiness’ is perhaps more common
14
with the onsite aerobic sediments than the offsite anaerobic contexts.
15
4. Conclusions
16
This is no more than a beginning. The parallel study by Swindles et al. (2013) is of particular
17
relevance in this context, albeit the focus of their investigation is re-deposited cryptotephra in
18
Holocene peats linked to anthropogenic activity. Whereas Balascio et al. (2011) report a single site
19
investigation of a distal cryptotephra found in a Viking boathouse in Iron Age Norway, our study
20
focuses on fisher-gatherer-hunter sites from the Last Termination. General lessons for future
21
cryptotephra research in the context of such sites are:
22
Cryptotephra do survive directly on Late Palaeolithic open-air sites, whether the sediments
23
are minerogenic (e.g. Mirkowice) or organic (Lille Slotseng). But the frequency of survival is
24
relatively low.
11
1
There appears to be a general patchiness to tephra distributions but it is not easy to resolve
2
if this is due to atmospheric factors influencing the availability of tephra in an area, the input
3
of tephra into a sedimentary environment, or hiatus periods within sediment accumulation
4
on particular sites.
5
Geographical position in relation to emitting volcanic centres is significant.
6
Detection may require the analysis of multiple profiles, from both on-site and off-site
7
8
contexts.
9
10
Site taphonomy is important, with local depositional conditions and subsequent processes
appearing to play a crucial role in the preservation of recognisable tephra marker horizons.
Continuous low energy sedimentation favours preservation. Where concentrations of
11
cultural finds are high, sedimentary deposition is intermittent, and bioturbation is attested,
12
the probability of successful tephrostratigraphic study diminishes.
13
Although cryptotephra research may best be concentrated in lower energy sediments, to
14
permit integration with archaeological interpretations one ideally needs good stratigraphic
15
correlations between off-site contexts and the main human activity areas.
16
Making connections between human activity on dry land and anaerobic palaeoclimate
17
archives is challenging. However, future methodological developments, e.g. applying lipid
18
biomarkers to lacustrine environments (Holtvoeth et al., 2010) to detect the presence of
19
neighbouring human activity, may facilitate correlation of profiles thereby allowing for the
20
greater application of tephrostratigraphy within archaeology.
21
22
Acknowledgements
12
1
We thank J. Kynaston and G. Eades for assistance with the figures. Funding came from grant
2
NE/E/015905/1 awarded to the RESET Consortium by the UK’s Natural Environment Research
3
Council (NERC). This publication forms RHOXTOR contribution RHOX/029.
4
13
1
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8
29
1
Captions
2
Figure 1a: Map of sampling localities, ‘circles’ represent sites with analysable cryptotephra, ‘plus’
3
and ‘square’ symbols are respectively open-air and cave/rock shelter sites with no cryptotephra.
4
Figure 1b: Map of sampling localities showing the archaeological stone tool techno-complexes.
5
Approximate dating for these techno-complexes is shown in table 1.
6
Figure 2: Chronostratigraphical sequence of the Last Termination in relation to the NGRIP and GRIP
7
ice cores (δ18O per mil), Icelandic and Eifel volcanic eruption record from the RESET database (Bronk
8
Ramsey et al., this volume); INTIMATE events and episodes from Lowe et al. (2008); 14C dated sites
9
(human remain, cut-marked bone and bone/antler tool samples) by region and open-air site / rock
10
shelter or cave (updated S2AGES database of calibrated radiocarbon estimates from western Europe
11
in the period 25,000–10,000 years ago: Gamble et al., 2005). Saksunarvatn, Askja 10-ka, Abernethy
12
AF555, Vedde Ash, Laacher See Tephra, Penifiler and Borrobol Tephras have been highlighted in red.
13
Table 1: Chronostratigraphy of the Last Termination and the archaeological stone tool techno-
14
complexes for the regions sampled (after Reide et al. 2010; Terberger 2006; Weber and Grimm,
15
2009).
16
Table 2: Seven northern European sites analysed between 2008 and 2012, with Late Palaeolithic
17
archaeology and confirmed cryptotephra layer(s).
18
Key to table 2: ‘on-site’ – sediments where archaeology is present in the sampled profile; ‘off-site’ -
19
nearby palaeoclimate archives sampled; “(A)” – inferred position of archaeology where tephra is
20
detected in an off-site setting; (A) – direct in situ position of archaeology where tephra is detected
21
on-site; see colour key for sediment categorization.
22
Key to references: (1) Brock et al., 2011; (2) Housley et al., 2012; (3) Housley et al., 2013; (4) Housley
23
et al., 2014b; (5) Housley et al., 2014c; (6) Housley et al., 2014a ; (7) MacLeod et al. (in prep.); (8)
24
Tipping et al. (in prep.); (9) Torksdorf et al., 2013; (10) Weber et al., 2010.
30
1
2
Table 3: Twenty-seven north European Late Palaeolithic sites sampled 2008-12 with no significant
3
tephra. Key: HRT/RT: Hauterive/Rouge-Terre; ‘On-site’ - sediments with archaeology; ‘Off-site’ – off-
4
site deposits believed contemporary with Late Palaeolithic archaeology; ‘brown’ - minerogenic
5
aerobic sediments; ‘green’ – peat / detritus mud / gyttja anaerobic sediments.
6
7
Table 4: Summary of cryptotephra presence/absence by type of site, associated sedimentation and
8
by latitude of location.
31
Table 1
Greenland stadial /
interstadial
Chronozone
Holocene
Pre-boreal
Early Mesolithic
GS-1
Younger Dryas
Ahrensburgian
GI-1a
Bromme
GI-1b
GI-1c1
Allerød
GI-1c2
Federmesser
Groups (FMG)
GI-1c3
GI-1d
Older Dryas
GI-1e
Bølling (Meiendorf)
Late
Magdalenian
Havelte
Hamburgian
Late Palaeolithic
Techno-complex
Table 2
Site
Location
Context
Howburn
Ahrenshöft
LA58D
Oldendorf /
Lille Sloseng
Schünsmoor
Węgliny
N Germany
N Germany
Denmark
SW Poland
NW Poland
55 40' 22" N
54 33' 57" N
53 00' 41" N
53 15' 28" N
55 16' 14" N
51 49' 57" N
52 46' 27" N
3 29' 1" W
9 6' 29" E
11 7' 00" E
9 14' 39" E
9 20' 5" E
14 43' 30" E
17 24' 18" E
Offsite
Onsite
Offsite
Offsite
Onsite
Offsite
Onsite
AD1875 /
Glen Garry
Askja
Iceland
Early
Holocene
Vedde Ash
Katla
Iceland
Suðuroy /
AF555
tephra /
Vedde Ash
Katla
Iceland
Glen Garry
Askja
Iceland
Suðuroy /
AF555 tephra
/ Vedde Ash
Katla
Iceland
Hasseldalen
Snæfellsness
Iceland
Vedde Ash
Katla
Iceland
Late Allerød
(GI-1a)
LST
Laacher See
East Eifel
Early
Allerød
(GI-1c)
T642/655
East Eifel
Borrobol /
Torfajökull
Iceland
Bølling
(GI-1e)
Late Pleniglacial (GS2)
Reference
Mirkowice
33
Scotland UK N Germany
Late
Holocene
Younger
Dryas
(GS-1)
Grabow
8
1, 2, 10
aeolian
fluvial / limnic minerogenic
sediments
organic
organic & minerogenic
sediments
'mixed' sediments
5, 9
4
7
Borrobol /
Katla /
Snæfellsness
Iceland
3
6
Table 3
Country
France
Belgium
Luxembourg
Switzerland
Germany
Denmark
Poland
Site
Dourges
Alzette Valley
Hasselø
Łęgoń 5
49 43' 10" N
Neuchâtel
(HRT/RT)
47 0’ 40" N
Tolk
50 26' 57" N
Arendonk De
Liereman
51 19' 45" N
54 34' 30" N
54 43' 54" N
51 46' 9" N
2 58' 27" E
5 2' 25" E
6 7' 2" E
6 58' 42" E
9 37' 22" E
11 52' 48" E
16 23' 19" E
Context
Onsite
Onsite
Offsite
Offsite
Offsite
Offsite
Offsite
Site
Étiolles
WesselingEichholz
50 48' 10" N
Lundby Mose
Olbrachcice 8
48 38' 3" N
Lommel
Maatheide
51 13' 53" N
55 6' 11" N
51 46' 29" N
2 27' 52" E
5 15' 39" E
6 58' 54" E
11 51' 52" E
16 22' 24" E
Onsite
Onsite
Onsite
Onsite
Onsite
Site
Pincevent
Opgrimbie
Breitenbach
Location
48 22' 7" N
50 57' 13" N
51 33" N
Siedlnica
17
& 17a
51 45' 47" N
2 53' 34" E
5 38' 52" E
12 5' 3" E
16 21' 58" E
Onsite
Offsite
Location
Location
Context
Onsite
Onsite
Site
Lengefeld
Strumienno
Location
51 6' 49" N
52 3' 25" N
11 42' 18" E
Onsite
15 2' 51" E
Onsite
Site
Reichwalde
Dzierzyslaw 35
Location
51 24' 11" N
50 2' 58" N
14 42' 14" E
17 59' 18" E
Context
Context
Offsite
Onsite
Site
Hohle-Fels
Sowin 7
Location
48 22' 48" N
50 33' 18" N
9 45' 16" E
17 37' 48" E
Onsite
Context
Context
Site
Location
Context
Site
Location
Onsite
Hohlenstein48 Stadel
32' 58" N
Cmielow 95
50 52' 58" N
10 10' 21" E
21 32' 5" E
Onsite
Onsite
Podgrodzie 16
50 54' 00" N
21 33' 42" E
Context
Site
Location
Onsite
Hłomcza
49 37' 46" N
22 16' 43" E
Context
Onsite
Table 4
Table 3c
Table 3a
tephra
no tephra
Open sites
7 22%
caves / rockshelters
0
Total no sites
7 21%
0%
25
total
78%
32
2 100%
2
27
79%
34
Table 3b
tephra
onsite organic
onsite minerogenic
offsite organic
offsite minerogenic
Total no sites
3 13%
4 36%
7
no tephra
2
18
6
1
27
total
87%
23
64%
11
34
Tephra Presence vs Site Latitude
Latitude
55°N 54°N 53°N 52°N 51°N 50°N 49°N 48°N 47°N
Sites with tephra
2
1
2
1
1
0
0
0
0
Sites without tephra
1
2
0
1
9
7
2
4
1
Figures 1a & 1b
Click here to download high resolution image
Figure 2
Supplementary Data S1
Click here to download Supplementary Data: Supplementary S1 doubleSpaced RESET Associates.docx
Supplementary Data S2
Click here to download Supplementary Data: Supplementary S2 doubleSpaced Site Compendium.docx
Supplementary Data S3
Click here to download Supplementary Data: Supplementary S3 doubleSpaced Methods.docx
KML File (for GoogleMaps)
Click here to download KML File (for GoogleMaps): WP3 site locations.kml