Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts University of Leiden Publishers Ma c e d o n ian A cad em y o f Sc i en ces an d A rts Un i v e r s ity o f L eid en Editorial Advisory Board V e r A B i t r A k o VA G r o z d A n o VA l A u r e n t B r i c A u lt MiGuel John Versluys Preface by V e r A B i t r A k o VA G r o z d A n o VA Editors AleksAndrA nikoloskA & sAnder Müskens R OMANI SI NG O RIE N TA L G O D S ? Religious transformations in the Balkan provinces in the Roman period. New inds and novel perspectives. Р О МАНИЗ ИРАЊ Е НА О Р И Е Н ТА Л Н И БО ГО ВИ ? Религиски трансформации во балканските провинции во римскиот период. Нови наоди и перспективи. RO MANI SAT I ON D E S D IE U X O R IE N TA U X ? Transformations religieuses dans les provinces balkaniques à l’époque romaine. Nouvelles découvertes et perspectives. P roceedinGs of the i nternAtionAl s yMPosiuM s koPJe , 18–21 s ePteMBer 2013 s koPJe 2015 Издавачи М акед о н ска акад ем и ја н а н ау к и т е и ум ет н о ст и т е U n iv ers iteit L eid en акад. За издавачите В л а д о к а м б о В с к и , п р е т с е д ат е л Prof. dr. Miguel John versluys Уреднички одбор В е ра б и т ра ко Ва Г р о зд а н о Ва l A u r e n t B r i c A u lt MiGuel John Versluys Рецензенти Ц В е та н Г р о зд а н о В MiGuel John Versluys Редактор В е ра б и т ра ко Ва Г р о зд а н о Ва Приредувачи а л е кса н д ра н и кол о с к а sAnder Müskens Contents Acknowledgements................................................................................................................7 Preface ...................................................................................................................................9 List of abbreviations.............................................................................................................17 lAurent BricAult Cultes orientaux, égyptiens, alexandrins, osiriens, isiaques, …: identités plurielles et interpretationes variae ....................................................................................................19 лоран брико Ориентални, египетски, александриски, озириски, изијачки култови, ...: повеќеслојни идентитети и interpretations variae .......................................................27 VerA BitrAkoVA GrozdAnoVA Les cultes orientaux dans la Haute Macédoine, leur survie et leur adoption au temps romain .............................................................................................................................35 Вера битракоВа ГрозданоВа За ориенталните верувања во Горна Македонија и нивното опстојување и прифаќање во римска доба ...............................................................................................................73 Part I Theoretical relections on the understanding of Oriental cults in the Roman world eva M. Mol Romanising Oriental cults? A cognitive approach to alterity and religious experience in the Roman cults of Isis ...................................................................................................89 eleni tsAtsou “Φυλακτήρια πρὸς δαίμονας, πρὸς φαντάσματα, πρὸς πᾶσαν νόσον καὶ πάθος”: the use of amulets in Greco-Roman and Late Antique Macedonia ..........................................113 steVen hiJMAns Competence and communication in Roman provincial art: the semantics of the “cookiedough” style of small marble votive plaques in the Danube region.............................133 dilyAnA BoteVA Romanising an Oriental God? Some iconographic observations on Sabazius.............149 Perikles christodoulou Sarapis, Isis and the Emperor .......................................................................................167 Part II Case studies: understanding les cultes orientaux in the Roman Balkan provinces silvana Blaževska & Jovan radnJanski The temple of Isis at Stobi............................................................................................215 AleksAndrA nikoloskA Evidence of “Oriental” cults from the Republic of Macedonia ...................................257 slAVicA BABAMoVA Epigraphic traces of Oriental inluences in Upper Macedonia in Roman times ..........279 lenče Jovanova On some of the Oriental cults in the Skopje-Kumanovo region ..................................293 vladiMir P. Petrović The cult of Jupiter Dolichenus in Moesia Superior: mining aspects............................323 nadežda gavrilović Asia Minor and Syrian cults and their main traits in the territory of the Central Balkans ........................................................................................................................ 333 želJko Miletić Identiication of Oriental igures depicted on military stelae from a Tilurium workshop .....................................................................................................................357 PAlMA kArkoVič takalić Presence of the archigalli on the Eastern Adriatic Coast. Examination of their role in the cult of Magna Mater and Attis............................................................................371 inga vilogorac Brčić Dendrophori of Colonia Pola .......................................................................................391 ante rendić-Miočević Monuments of the Mithraic cult in the territory of Arupium (Dalmatia) .....................403 laurent Bricault, sander Müskens & Miguel John versluys Epilogue: Eastern provinces with Oriental gods? ........................................................427 List of contributors.............................................................................................................437 MonuMents of the MithrAic cult in the territory of AruPiuM (dAlMAtiA) 403 MonuMents of the MithraiC Cult in the territory of arupiuM (DalMatia)* Ante Rendić-Miočević Abstract Traces of the cult of Mithras in Roman Arupium, the modern village of Prozor near Otočac, as well as in the wider area of the Gacka Valley, have for a long time attracted the attention of explorers. Many researchers have studied this phenomenon in detail, since the time of Š. Ljubić in the early 1880s. He was soon followed by K. Patsch, but also by many contemporary researchers, several of whom have devoted ample study to this topic. On several occasions and from different standpoints the present author has also analysed the most important Mithras sanctuaries in the valley of the river Gacka. A number of monuments has been preserved in the aforesaid area, but most attention has been paid to its rock-cut shrines, with the preserved relief depictions of tauroctony. One of these, Mithraeum I, can be seen at the site now called Oltar (“Altar”, also known as Kraljev stolac, “King’s Chair”) in Špiljničko polje, while a second one, Mithraeum II, is located at the site called Rajanov grič, in the village of Čovići. It is fairly certain that there were additional Mithraea in the area, one of them, it seems, in nearby Sinac, from which comes a fragment of a relief with the cult image of Mithras sacriicing the bull, which is presently kept at the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb. The assumption that there were further similar Mithraea in this area seems to be well founded. A possible indication of this is the badly preserved sculptural composition on the cliffs of the Godača massif, situated northwards, in the direction of Vrhovine: although irm evidence for this supposition is lacking (inscriptions or relief scenes), analogies speak in favour of it, as well as the fact that a shrine of the Christian cult still stands at the site, as a possible conirmation of its tradition of a place of worship. Key words: Mithraic cult – Mithraea – rock carved reliefs – tauroctony – Cautes – Cautopates – Arupium – Iapodes – Lika. * I wish to sincerely thank all those who helped me in preparing this paper for publication, primarily my late colleague Ružica Drechsler-Bižić, as well as Sanjin Mihelić, Tomislav Bilić, Ivan Mirnik, Ivan RadmanLivaja, Igor Krajcar and, Inga Vilogorac Brčić. Ante Rendić-Miočević 404 Апстракт Трагите на култот на Митра во римскиот Арупиум, денешното село Прозор близу Оточац, како и поширокиот крај на долината на Гацка, веќе долго време им го привлекуваат вниманието на истражувачите. Многумина автори го изучуваат овој феномен во детали уште од врмето на Ш. Љубиќ во раните 1880-ти. Него го следи C. Patsch, но, исто така, и повеќе современи автори, некои од нив посветувајќи исцрпни студии од оваа област. Во неколку пригоди и од неколку различни гледишта авторот на овој труд ги анализира најважните светилишта посветени на Митра по долината на реката Гацка. Неколку споменици се зачувани во горенаведениот регион, но поголем дел од вниманието ќе биде посветен на светилиштата издлабени во карпа со зачувани релјефи со приказ на тауроктонија. Едно од нив, Митреумот I, може да се види на локалитетот денеска наречен Олтар (како и Кралев Столац) во Шпилничко Поле, додека вториот, Митреумот II, е лоциран на локалитетот наречен Рајанов грич во селото Човиќи. Сосема е сигурно дека постоеле повеќе Митреи во овој регион. Се чини дека еден од нив е во оближниот Синац, каде што е откриен фрагмент од релјеф со култниот лик на Митра како жртвува бик, а се чува во Археолошкиот музеј во Загреб. Претпоставката дека има повеќе слични митреи во овој регион се чини добро основана. Можна индикација за ова е пронајдена во лошо зачуваната скулптурална композиција на карпите на масивот Годача, позициониран кон север во правец на Врховине: иако недостасуваат силни докази за оваа претпоставка (натписи или релјефни сцени), аналогиите зборуваат во прилог, исто како и фактот дека сè уште постои светилиште на христијански култ на локалитетот, како можна потврда на традицијата на место на почитување. Клучни зборови: Култот на Митра – митреуми – релјефи на карпа – тауроктонија – Каутес – Каутопатес – Арупиум – Јаподи – Лика. When Mithraism began to spread throughout the Western provinces of the Roman Empire, according to the reliable opinions at the very beginning of the 2nd century AD,1 the regions of the province of Dalmatia were not passed over by the cult of the popular Indo-European deity believed to have originated in ancient Persia.2 This is clearly attested by Mithraic sanctuaries and by the numerous votive inscriptions consecrated to Mithras, the Invincible Sun, but also by the typical cult-icons in relief representing Mithras discovered all along the eastern Adriatic coast and throughout its hinterland. One of the signiicant areas of the Mithraic cult in Croatia was the region of Gacko polje (the valley of the Gacka river in present-day Lika), which was in prehistoric times the territory of the Illyrian tribe of Iapodes.3 This topic has been discussed in 1 2 3 Campbell 1954, 24. On Mithraic mysteries see Cumont 1896 (concerning the opinion of Cumont about the Persian origin of the Mithraic cult, as published in the second volume of his capital work, many authors later voiced critical opinions; therefore current standpoints on the transformation of the Mithraic cult from Iranian Mazdaism to the Roman mystery cult greatly differ from his erstwhile conclusions: cf., e.g., Gordon 1975; Gordon 1994; Beck 1998; Miletić 2005). Strabo made a brief reference to the Iapodes in his Geography (7.5.4): he lists their most important towns, including Aroupion; he describes them as a true warrior folk, living in a poor land, using Celtic weaponry MonuMents of the MithrAic cult in the territory of AruPiuM (dAlMAtiA) 405 different contexts in a considerable number of treatises and papers – dealing also with the development of various ancient cults of this region – from around the late 19th / early 20th century, down to our times. None of the authors has forgotten to emphasise that the most numerous traces of the worship of Mithras are concentrated within the wider area of Arupium, an important pre-Roman centre that later became a Roman municipium, mentioned in different ancient sources. In connection with Octavian’s conquest of these lands in 35 BC one detail is very signiicant: as quoted in Illiriké (“The Illyrian Wars”), the 10th book of Appian’s Roman History, Arupium’s residents Arupini (Aurupini, Auroupinoi), a community of the so-called Cisalpine Iapodes,4 were, according to Appian, the iercest among the Iapodes!5 Despite this fact, when Octavian advanced against them, “they moved themselves from their villages to their city (tò ásti), and when he arrived there, they led to the woods”.6 Arupium once stood where the modern village of Prozor lies, south of the modernday road connecting Otočac with neighbouring Ličko Lešće. The identiication of Arupium (Aroupion) with present-day Prozor in the valley of the river Gacka (Gacko polje), between the hamlet of Čovići and the northern slopes of the Iron Age twin hillfort (“dvojna gradina”) of Veliki and Mali Vital (ig. 1) (the two peaks, Big and Little Vital, are actually a single hill), was irst proposed by K. Patsch.7 Patsch associated the existing remains of architecture on the Veliki Vital hill – these also included the remains of fortiications that can no longer be seen – as well as numerous monuments discovered in the valley, with a site marked on the Tabula Peutingeriana as Arypio,8 but also as Arupio in the Itineraria Antonini Augusti,9 as an important Iapodian settlement, mentioned in other literary and epigraphic sources under various names.10 The proposal put forward by Patsch was much later greatly supported by the results of the excavations undertaken by the Zagreb Archaeological Museum in collaboration with the Regional Institute of preservation of historical monuments in Zagreb, which lasted for several years. In the 1970s test units were excavated at several sites, beginning with the ancient Roman quarry situated on the north-eastern slope of Veliki Vital, and continuing at several other places in the region. The remains of various buildings were discovered, including typical urban infrastructure such as streets and sewers: earlier (ig. 2), excavations of the Iapodian settlement on the hill-fort and of the necropolis at Prozor had also taken place, which had yielded remains of prehistoric dwellings, as well as a rich assemblage of ornaments (temple-rings, hemispherical bronze caps and head ornaments, bronze necklaces, necklaces and other glass jewellery, amber beads, various anthropomorphic and zoomorphic pendants, and so on). Of special interest were also polychrome beads with three faces of Phoenician (Carthaginian) provenance, made of glass paste. Among 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 and feeding mostly on honey! For a more lengthy account of territories inhabited by the Iapodes see Šašel Kos 2005, 422 f. Wilkes 1969, 182; Šašel Kos 2005, 422. Appian, Illyrian Wars 4.16; see also Wilkes 1969, 183. Appian, Illyrian Wars 4.22 (translation H. White); see also Wilkes 1969, 182–183. Patsch 1900, 30, 78; see also Wilkes 1969, 264–265. Tabula Peutingeriana 4.2; see more in Šašel Kos 2005, 427. Itineraria Antonini Augusti 274.2; Šašel Kos 2005, 427. Šašel Kos 2005, 427. 406 Ante Rendić-Miočević other things, they bear witness to developed trade contacts in the times that preceded the Roman conquest. Life in the Iron Age settlement on the twin hill-fort continued even after the construction of the Roman town in the valley, granted the status of a municipium in the time of the Flavian Dynasty, the oldest in the territory of Iapodes.11 Later, the Iapodian hill-fort took on the function of a refuge. On the hill-fort some characteristic inds pertaining to the religious life of the inhabitants of Arupium have been made. This supposition, as has already been said, is supported by architectural remains and by the inds of votive altars referring to the cult of Jupiter and Hercules: in connection with the worship of Hercules it is quite possible that his cult was greatly favoured by the developed stonecutters’ activity, which is attested by numerous monuments cut in the natural rock within the wider area of Arupium. Signiicant are two inscriptions on the north slopes of Vital, a tombstone (?) inscription with 5, perhaps even 8 lines of text (?) – unfortunately, only the name of Ti(tus) Claudius (ig. 3) in the irst line is legible – as well as an altar dedicated to Jupiter (ig. 4). In the opinion of J. Brunšmid, the irst line of the inscription reads I(ovi) O(ptimo) M(aximo), the next line Iu[noni] ? …… while the third line reads v(otum) s(olvit).12 Roman quarries on the north-eastern slope of Vital are also very signiicant: one of them, as mentioned earlier, has been explored in detail in the 1970s. It is one of the relatively few Roman quarries to have been thoroughly explored on Croatian soil (ig. 5). Within this context it seems that the local stonemasons’ tradition was highly favoured, which, as it seems, had some inluence on the appearance of Mithras icons cut into the natural rock in the wider area of Arupium (ig. 6). Some of them are still in situ, very close to the site of the ancient Roman town. According to Beck, two examples of Mithras tauroctonies belong to a rather rare class of Mithraic monuments cut directly into the rock.13 They are quite rare and uncommon among the Mithraea and tauroctonies represented in the Empire, mostly because of the absence of suitable terrain.14 On this occasion I do not intend to enter more than necessary into the problem of the typological evaluation and iconographic features of the Mithraea in Arupium, nor shall I bring up the question of the origin of or direction from which the cult of this popular deity, the personiication of the invincible light and creation, came to the region of Lika. These topics have already been much discussed. The Mithraea in the territory of Arupium were irst mentioned by Š. Ljubić in 1882.15 He was followed by Patsch in 1900,16 and soon after also by Brunšmid.17 Hereafter a number of authors discussed the monuments of the Mithraic cult in the area of Arupium. Both Mithraea with rock-cut relief scenes of tauroctony cut directly in the 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Wilkes 1969, 290; Medini 1975, 91; Glavičić 2001, 223. Ljubić describes it as a big altar with a pedestal, while he could read only two rows of what he determined to be a Roman inscription: I . O . M / Lucius. He also stated that there were another two altars on a rock further west: the inscription on the irst, called canapé by the local population (it resembled a seat), had perished completely. The situation is similar with the second altar, larger and of iner workmanship, which also bore an inscription. Cf. Ljubić 1882, 18 f.; Brunšmid 1901, 109 f. Beck 1984, 357. Beck 1984, 362. Ljubić 1882, 19. Patsch 1900, 82 f.. Brunšmid 1901, 110–112. MonuMents of the MithrAic cult in the territory of AruPiuM (dAlMAtiA) 407 natural rock were also mentioned in Vermaserenʼs corpus of Mithraic monuments.18 Two Mithraea were later discussed in greater or lesser detail by J. Medini,19 R. Beck,20 Lj. Zotović,21 Ž. Miletić,22 M. Glavičić,23 G. Lipovac-Vrkljan,24 M. Krznarić,25 and by other specialists interested in this topic. All the mentioned researchers studied various aspects of the Mithraic cult in the wider area of the Gacka Valley, and some paid great attention to the typological determination of the Arupium Mithraea (e.g. Medini, Miletić, Glavičić, Krznarić). It is interesting that L.A. Campbell did not refer to them in detail in his typological classiication, published in a study dedicated to the typology of the Mithraic tauroctony frequently mentioned by all quoted authors.26 Beck did not concentrate on solving the problem of the typological determination of the Arupian Mithraea,27 but did usefully refer to other important aspects, such as the considerable number of Mithraic depictions in this area, the features and structure of local Mithraea cut in the natural rock, similarities and differences in the orientation and the position of the cult images in both Mithraea.28 He also proposed a possible chronological order in which they could have been made. According to him the tauroctony cut directly in the natural rock “serves both as the medium for the icon and as the end wall of the cult structure”. He also stressed that “this is quite uncommon among the Mithraea and tauroctonies of the Empire, but its rarity has more to do with the absence of suitable terrain than with deliberate exclusion of a possible option”.29 Mentioning a similar example of a relief depiction of tauroctony in Jajce (Bosnia and Herzegovina), in Cavtat (Epidaurum) – we should attribute to the same group the depiction of the tauroctony of Mithras above the entrance to a cave in nearby Močići – as well as the depictions of tauroctony from Prilep (Macedonia), the surroundings of Črnomelj (Slovenia) and a few other examples, Beck concluded his observations with the following statement: “elsewhere in the Empire, however, I know of only three further examples of tauroctonies cut directly into the rock wall of a Mithraeum”.30 More than thirty years ago I briely discussed this topic in an article dealing with Silvanus’ sanctuaries cut into the rock in the vicinity of Salona.31 In spite of the obvious interest in Mithraic monuments in the surroundings of Arupium there is no doubt that they 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 CIMRM II, nos. 1851–1852. Medini 1975, 89 f. Beck 1984, 356 f. Zotović 1973, 61 f. Miletić 1996, 150–152. Glavičić 2001, 221 f. Lipovac-Vrkljan 2005, 255 f. Krznarić 1999. In a chapter dedicated to the chronology of types, that is, different subtypes of Mithras tauroctonies, with regard to their chronological determination he only briely mentions the Mithraeum in Prozor: Campbell 1954, 28. Beck is among the authors who often discussed topics pertaining to Mithraism in the territory of the Empire, sometimes with emphasis on its mysterious aspects; cf. Beck 2006. Beck 1984, 362. Beck 1984, 362. Beck 1984, 362. Rendić-Miočević 1982, 130, pls. 7.1–2. 408 Ante Rendić-Miočević still deserve a particular and continuous attention. In this context it should be mentioned that in the 1970s I directed archaeological excavations in the area of Prozor and on this occasion minor test units and cores were also excavated in the area of the local Mithraea, but they did not result in any new insights, at least not any that might have called into question the previously established conclusions. It should be mentioned that preliminary annual reports on the excavations at Prozor were continuously published in the volumes of the Archaeological Review of Yugoslavia (Arheološki pregled Jugoslavije) and also in the annual journal of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb (Vjesnik Arheološkog muzeja u Zagrebu).32 That inspired me to participate in the international conference Ptuj in im römischen Reich: Mithraskult und seine Zeit, organised in 1999 in Ptuj, where I delivered a paper entitled Monuments of the Mithraic cult in the territory of Arupium.33 The text of this paper was unfortunately not published in the proceedings of the conference, printed in 2001,34 although a part of this presentation can be found in the paper by M. Glavičić.35 Later I also delivered a lengthy public lecture on the same topic, while the representative exhibition ‘The Art of Iran’ was on display in the Mimara Museum in Zagreb. Taking all that into consideration, and also the fact that works by Croatian authors are often insuficiently represented and cited in the global literature – not to mention also frequently inaccurately interpreted,36 probably due to the lack of knowledge of the Croatian language – I supposed that the international scientiic conference in Skopje entitled ‘Romanising Oriental Gods? Religious transformations in the Balkan provinces in the Roman period – New inds and novel perspectives’ should be an opportunity to correct an earlier omission, that is, to bring to mind the known and lesser known or even some unknown evidence of the Mithraic cult in Roman Arupium and the wider area of Gacko polje (Gacko plain) in Lika. In view of the fact that the text of the paper delivered in Ptuj has not been published I did not deem it necessary to change the title for this occasion, in spite of additions to and updates of the text. I shall, however, dwell on a few known or less known details by trying to complete them with data, about which I suppose the archaeological public has so far not been informed enough. Most authors who had dedicated their attention to the phenomenon of the Mithraic cult in the wider area of Arupium – Beck mentioned ive monuments dedicated to Mithras, stressing also the fact of “considerable Mithraic activity in so minor a settlement”37 – in that context irstly recall the two altars discovered in the village of Vratnik, which lies on the road leading from Senj (Senia) through the mountain of Velebit, across the Vratnik Pass, to the region of Lika and the interior. The village of Vratnik is situated some twenty 32 33 34 35 36 37 Arheološki pregled Jugoslavije 16 (1974), 74–79, pl. 33; 17 (1975), 99–100, pls. 45–46; 18 (1976), 76–79, pl. 28; 21 (1980), 105–106, pl. 62; cf. also Rendić-Miočević 1975 and 1980. In the published programme of the symposium the paper appears with the title Mithräen in Arupio. Cf. Vomer Gojkovič 2001. Glavičić 2001, 221 f. An example of inaccurate interpretation can be found in a statement from the otherwise very thorough paper dedicated to the Mithraea in the area of Arupium by Beck, who claimed that Ljubić interpreted the igure on the relief from Čovići as the Mother of God, even though Ljubić had clearly pointed out that “local peasants call all that the image of the Mother of God, in spite of the fact that it can evidently be traced to pagan times”: Beck 1984. Beck 1984, 357–358. MonuMents of the MithrAic cult in the territory of AruPiuM (dAlMAtiA) 409 kilometres west of Arupium, which was an important Iapodian but also Roman centre in the region. The altars placed by Hermes and Faustus, slaves of two customs oficers, point to the possibility that there had been a Mithraic sanctuary near the local St. Michael’s/ Mihovil church. One of the two inscriptions (ig. 7), kept today at the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, dedicated to “Invincible Mithras” – I(nvicto). M(ithrae) – was found in 1891.38 The altar was often discussed in various contexts, particularly regarding the possibility that the word spelaeum (spelaeum cum omne impensa) might be a reference to the original abode of Mithras, his cave sanctuary (a Mithraeum). The other inscription is dedicated to “Mithras, the Invincible Sun” – S(oli). I(nvicto). M(ithrae): it was found much later, in 1932, in St. Michael’s church where it was used as a pedestal for the igure of the saint. Nowadays the altar is kept at the Municipal Museum in Senj (ig. 8).39 However, extremely interesting are two Mithraic tauroctonies cut in the natural rock in the valley of the Gacka river,40 both of them unfortunately badly damaged. In my opinion they are neither a simple “open-air sanctuary marked only by a vertical rock with the major cult-icon in relief”,41 nor a templum or a spelaeum: it seems to me that those structures should most accurately be deined by the word aedes. This question has also been discussed at length by Beck: however, because of the fact that the Mithras cult, consisting of mysteries, was celebrated in an enclosed space, in Beck’s opinion it should nevertheless be called a cave (spelaeum).42 Besides, Mithraea are called caves on the inscriptions, as conirmed by the example of the previously mentioned inscription from the village of Vratnik.43 Beck also had in mind, as corroborated by archaeological inds, that parts of the sanctuaries were artiicially roofed and walled: primitive structures made of varied perishable materials later disappeared.44 The irst of the two Mithraea – Mithraeum I, according to Patsch (igs. 9–10) – is situated southwest of the demolished St. Mark’s chapel, at the site of Špiljničko polje near Založnica, known among the local people as Oltar (“Altar”), Oltari (“Altars”) and 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 I(nvicto) M(ithrae)/spelaeum cum/omne impen/sa Hermes C(ai)/Antoni Rui/praef(ecti) veh(iculorum) et/ cond(uctoris) p(ublici) p(ortorii)/ser(vus) vilic(us) Fortu/nat(ianus) fecit: CIL III, 13283. Cf. Patsch 1900, 86–88; Brunšmid 1904–1911, 135–136, no. 237; Glavičić 1994, 67–68 (“Posvetni natpisi bogu Mitri sa žrtvenika iz mitreja s Vratnika”), 58 f.; Glavičić 2001, 222; Glavaš 2010, 14; Glavičić 2013, 93–95. S(oli) I(nvicto) M(ithrae)/Faustus/T(iti) Iul(i) Saturni/ni praef(ecti) vehi/culor(um) et cond/uct(oris) p(ublici) p(ortorii) ser(vus) vil(icus)/pro se et suis/v(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito): ILJug II, 920. Cf. Glavičić 2001, 222 f.; Glavaš 2010, 14–15; Glavičić 2013, 95–96. Patsch 1900, 84, ig. 32; Brunšmid 1901, 112, ig. 72; CIMRM II, nos. 1851–1852; Zotović 1973, 61, no. 73 and 67, no. 86; Medini 1975, 89 f.; Beck 1984, 356 f.; Krznarić 1999, 35 f.; Glavičić 2001, 223 f.; Glavičić 2013, 97–100. Zotović 1973, 121. The author mentioned four groups of Mithraic sanctuaries. The Mithraeum at the site of Rajanov Grič at Čovići (see infra, so-called Mithraeum II) was included in the irst group, i.e. in the category of open-air sanctuaries, while the Mithraeum situated at the site Oltar/Kraljev stolac in Prozor would belong to the third group, i.e. to the category of temples-semi-spelaea, sanctuaries with their walls leaning upon natural rock, i.e. the artiicially roofed space; see also Beck 1984, 363. Beck 1984, 363 f. In his view both sanctuaries in Arupium are “Mithraea which incorporated some natural feature of the terrain whatever that happened to be – rock, cliff-face, cave…”. Cf. supra, n. 38; Beck 1984, 370. Beck 1984, 364. 410 Ante Rendić-Miočević also as Kraljev stolac (“King’s Chair” or “King’s Throne”).45 According to Zotović, who inaccurately located it “south of Prozor, on the road Sinac–Prozor, southwest of St. Mark’s church”,46 this Mithraeum belongs to the group of “sanctuaries (temples) semispelaea”.47 The site is located at a distance of about half a kilometre north of the present road from Otočac to Ličko Lešće. A cluster of crags producing a natural setting for a Mithraic sanctuary was mentioned in the earliest literature as belonging to the estate of M. Bradičić;48 however, the accompanying description of the sculptured composition does not reveal any Mithraic elements. When describing the whole structural complex somewhat later Patsch remarked that two higher crags (wings) facing each other deined the relief composition of the sanctuary, giving the effect of a triptych.49 The surfaces were used by the sculptor for a relief composition. The tauroctony faces west: for the relief composition of Mithras the concave surface within a deep semicircular niche is used, in one of the wings, on a wide pedestal cut in the bed rock 0.80 m above the ground, there is a carved image of Mithras, dominating the centre of the composition. The god is clothed in a typical Phrygian style, wearing a short girded bell-like tunic and a billowing mantle (cloak) luttering backwards, with his right leg stretching forwards and his left knee bent, pressing the bull. With his left hand, he holds the bull’s head, and with the right hand, he thrusts a dagger into its throat. Unfortunately, the state of preservation does not allow a precise description. It seems that the typical deities of the light, Luna and Sol, were depicted asymmetrically: on the right upper side, above the bull’s head, is a damaged image of Luna, while deeper, on its left side, a Sol bust can tentatively be discerned. Beck however does not exclude the possibility that they were remnants of the scene of Mithras’ rock-birth, similar to the one in the second Mithraeum in nearby Čovići,50 and he also points out that the bull’s tail is unusually long and that its end is on the left wing, close to the upper part of the igure of Cautopates.51 According to Patsch, the crab’s pincers were visible under the bull’s front legs,52 although Brunšmid explicitly pointed out that he did not see the previously mentioned detail there.53 Of the other characteristic animals it is obvious that the snake and raven are missing, and, it also seems, the scorpion, while the dog biting the bull can be discerned on the right side of the relief, above the bull’s front leg.54 The two torchbearers, dadophori, are depicted on the lanking, protruding wings: on the right Cautes with his raised torch – his igure is much better discernible – and on the left Cautopates with his lowered torch.55 Patsch 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 Ljubić 1882, 19; Patsch 1900, 82; Brunšmid 1901, 110–112; Gabričević 1954, 37, no. 10; CIMRM II, no. 1851, igs. 1–3; Zotović 1973, 67, no. 86, s.v. Sinac – Prozor (mitrej); Medini 1975, 89 f.; Beck visited that area in 1981, accompanied by a guide (cf. Beck 1984, 360). See also Miletić 1996, 150–151; Krznarić 1999, 35–36; Glavičić 2001, 223; Glavičić 2013, 97–98. Zotović 1973, 67, no. 86, s.v. Sinac – Prozor (mitrej). Zotović 1973, 121. Ljubić 1882, 19. Beck 1984, 366. Beck 1984, 368. Beck 1984, 368. Patsch (1900, 83 f.) recounts that the scorpion’s claws were preserved next to the bull’s front right leg. Brunšmid 1901, 111. Beck (1984, 368) also mentions the scorpion, usually biting the bull’s genitals. According to Beck (1984, 366) “this gives the pleasing effect of a triptych”. MonuMents of the MithrAic cult in the territory of AruPiuM (dAlMAtiA) 411 and other authors held the opinion that the lack of the vaulted ceiling above Mithras’ igure was not the consequence of damage. Damage is, however, visible just in the area of Mithras’ head, which, for instance, is completely missing. Patsch supposed that this sanctuary, together with the other one (Mithraeum II), which will be dealt with shortly, was targeted by the shepherds attending to their herds and playing games in the vicinity. To this I would add another useful and signiicant piece of information delivered by local workers during my excavations in the area of Arupium in the 1970s, namely, that Mithras’ head had originally stuck out, only to be broken off subsequently and even used in children’s games. This, however, cannot be taken for granted. On the other hand, the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb undertook a minor excavation at the site in 1896, which yielded proof that the Mithraeum had not only been roofed, as corroborated by the inds of tiles (tegulae) and imbrices, but was also subsequently overbuilt.56 Beck therefore concluded that “artiicial structures were added to the natural rock to complete Mithraea in Arupium”.57 As far as dating is concerned, other inds are also indicative, particularly pottery fragments, including terra sigillata sherds, as well as earthenware lamps (lucernae) with stamps, and glass vessels and a lump of lead and also 7 coins from the mid-3rd to mid-4th centuries. With due respect for the uncertainties of exact dating by means of coins, it should be pointed out that the majority of the inds stemming from the 1970s excavations can grosso modo be dated to the same period. According to Campbellʼs typology the Mithras tauroctony in Mithraeum I ought to belong to Type I, sub-type ABC, i.e. the Mediterranean or Classical type. The mentioned conclusion dealing with its distribution was called into question by Miletić with arguments.58 The mentioned type is characterised by rectangular reliefs depicting the tauroctony and its accompanying igures in a single ield. This is the most widely spread type, and at the same time it was predominant in the Mediterranean countries.59 The other Mithraeum (igs. 11–13), Mithraeum II according to Patsch, contains a higher and wider relief composition. It lies in the nearby village of Čovići, south of the already mentioned modern Otočac–Ličko Lešće road, at the site called Rajanov grič (“Rajan brook”), more precisely on its right bank, today mostly hidden by a coppice.60 Amidst a group of larger cliffs, cut into one of the rocks, similar to the Mithraeum described before, there is a relief composition within a tall semicircular conch, an archiform niche, simulating a cave (spelaeum):61 it obviously symbolises a cave ambiance, i.e. the Mithraic cosmos, with the image of Mithras killing the bull. The relief depiction is heavily worn. In this case the tauroctony faces southeast. The deity is dressed in a typical Oriental costume, a short, girded, bell-like tunic. The execution of the composition is rather rustic and minimalist. It seems however that there are no traces of the typical depictions of the 56 57 58 59 60 61 Brunšmid 1901, 111 f. Beck 1984, 363. Cf. Miletić 2005, 269 f. Campbell 1954, 10–11, 17 f. Ljubić 1882, 19; Patsch 1900, 83 f.; Brunšmid 1901, 112; Zotović 1973, 61, no. 73, s.v. Rajanov Grič kod Čovići (Otočac) (mitrej); CIMRM II, no. 1852, igs. 4–5; Beck 1984, 356 f.; Miletić 1996, 151–152; Krznarić 1999, 38; Glavičić 2001, 224; Glavičić 2013, 99–100. Beck 1984, 366. 412 Ante Rendić-Miočević dog, serpent, raven and scorpion, nor of the busts of Luna and Sol.62 There are almost no analogies for this: for Beck this meant that they had been subsequently destroyed.63 Besides in quality of execution, the second relief also differs from the relief of the irst Mithraeum in that Mithras’ head is well preserved by the deeply cut niche: it does not protrude from the given shape of the niche, as is the case of the previously described Mithraeum. According to Zotović, Mithraeum II belongs to the irst of four groups of Mithraea, the open sanctuaries.64 Beck considers it necessary to speak about partial caves, not about “Mithraic caves in the religious sense and not caves at all in the geological sense”.65 Of the remaining igures one can barely identify the outlines of one torchbearer, made on a smaller scale, on the left side of the niche, almost at the height of the bull’s head. The igure of the second torchbearer on the opposite right side of the niche, is more dificult to discern.66 However, it seems to me that it is neither possible to ind out the exact position of the torches, nor to precisely identify either of the dadophori. Next to the left edge of the niche, beneath the left torchbearer, the birth of Mithras who is emerging from the rock was also depicted: Patsch67 and Brunšmid68 were still able to discern a broad knife in the god’s right hand and they also supposed that there was a torch in his left hand (neither can be recognised today). Following the opinion of Miletić, Mithraeum II ought to be included in Campbell’s Type VII, subtype AB.69 Campbell’s Middle European Type is particularly distributed in Pannonia and Northern Italy, as well as in Rome.70 One ought also to point out that in the mid-1960s some rocks in the immediate vicinity of the Mithraeum were partly destroyed with dynamite during road construction, which also made archaeological research in this area impossible.71 Therefore, no trace of a space for the worshippers has been discovered, but per analogiam to what has been discovered at Mithraeum I one must presume that this one also had corresponding walls and a roof. In Beck’s opinion regarding Mithraeum II, “the fact that no material survived from 1852 does not (…) warrant Zotović’s inference that there was no original structure at all. Zotović classes 1852 as one of a small group of open-air sanctuaries (…) marked only by a rock with the cult icon in relief”.72 It is interesting to observe – other authors have drawn attention to this in the past73 – that the treatment of Mithras’ tunic – lared skirt and the two strong horizontal lines marking folds – are very similar on both cult icons, which seems to be signiicant and suggests the possibility that the reliefs in both Mithraea were executed by the same sculptor, and one may not rule out that two Mithraea “may have 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 Patsch 1900, 84–85; Brunšmid 1901, 112; Glavičić 2001, 224. Beck 1984, 368. Zotović 1973, 121 and 61, no. 73, s.v. Rajanov Grič kod Čovići (Otočac) (mitrej). Beck 1984, 364, n. 18. Brunšmid 1901, 112. Patsch 1900, 84. Brunšmid 1901, 112. Glavičić 2001, 224. This information was taken from Miletićʼs dissertation (cf. Miletić 1996, 152); see also Krznarić 1999, 33 and 38. Campbell 1954, 14–15. Beck 1984, 362; Glavičić 2001, 224. Beck 1984, 363 f. The number 1852 refers to the relevant catalogue entry in CIMRM II, cf. supra n. 60. Beck 1984, 367. MonuMents of the MithrAic cult in the territory of AruPiuM (dAlMAtiA) 413 been founded as a pair”.74 Dismissing typological differences between the two cult icons, because of the obvious similarities in execution, I consider the previously mentioned supposition convincing. Finally, it seems very likely that both Mithraea functioned at approximately the same time. Both previously discussed Mithraea, due to their speciic characteristics, boasting of authenticity and their close contact with nature – rocks, caves, and so on – offer adequate places for mysterious rites. Therefore, the previously expressed assumptions that “the rock carrying the tauroctony (…) formed part of the west wall of one of these deiles”, i.e. that tauroctonies cut directly in the natural rock served “both as the medium for the icon and as the end wall of the cult structure” seem quite acceptable.75 Both culticons, being ritual in character, were, of course, the most important elements of the two Mithraea.76 Besides the two shrines decorated with relief pictures of tauroctony, there is also another proof of the cult of Mithras, “the Invincible Sun, born in the rock”, as he was addressed according to Brunšmid’s reading, in the invocation letters on a votive inscription created by Lucius Luccaeus who was probably a freedman and an immigrant merchant or craftsman (ig. 14). What remains of the limestone altar, discovered in 1900 at the very top of the Vital hill, is the upper left proiled fragment, now in the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb. The irst line contains four initial letters (SIDR), interpreted by Brunšmid as a dedication to a deity born in the rock: S(oli) I(nvicto) d(eo) r(upenato?) / sa[cr(um)] / L(ucius) . Lucca[eus] / …/… .77 Another fragment of a limestone altar dedicated to the Invincible Mithras comes from the site of St. Mark’s church near Podum, a village opposite Prozor (ig. 15). Brunšmid believed it had originally been placed in the Mithraeum of nearby Sinac, a village situated several kilometres north-northeast of Prozor. Only three initial letters are preserved on this relatively large fragment: the letters D I M, which probably stand for D(eo) (I)nvicto (M)ithrae.78 Yet another well-known and quite interesting relief fragment featuring a Mithraic cultic image comes from Sinac (ig. 16). It was recovered from the bed of the Obdulj brook in the 1880s and is today kept in the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb.79 The left bottom corner of the cultic relief is preserved, and is composed of two fragments of a different size and made of yellowish limestone. The relief is extremely rustically executed and igures are disproportional. The usual bull-slaying scene is depicted again: Mithras is wearing a pleated and girded tunic and a billowing mantle luttering sidelong (his head is unfortunately missing). In accordance with the conventional scheme, Mithras 74 75 76 77 78 79 Beck 1984, 368. Beck 1984, 362. Medini 1975, 89. CIL III, 15085; Brunšmid 1901, 106 (rupenatus standing for petrogenes, born out of rock); Brunšmid 1904–1911, 149–150, no. 261. Patsch 1900, 90. Patsch 1900, 88–89, ig. 35; Brunšmid 1904–1911, 61, no. 124; Gabričević 1954, 37, no. 9; Zotović 1973, 67, no. 87, s.v. Sinac kod Otočca, ig. 12; CIMRM II, no. 1849, ig. 473; Medini 1975, 90; Glavičić 2001, 224–225, ig. 7; Lipovac-Vrkljan 2005, 257, ig. 4. 414 Ante Rendić-Miočević is shown with his left knee on the bull and slaying the animal with a broad knife in his right hand. The bull is disproportionately small in relation to the god; his long tail ends in the conventional wheat-ear, which is usually interpreted as having fertility or astral connotations. This motif, supposedly of western origin, occurs frequently on the monuments in the Roman province of Dalmatia. A snake is depicted along the bottom edge of the relief, while of the remaining animals typical of the bull-slaying scene only a small scorpion and a much larger raven with damaged head, perched on Mithras’ cloak, can be discerned. On the left side of the cultic picture a small igure of Cautes is depicted with his torch raised. He seems to be clad in Mithras’ style, wearing a girded tunic and a Phrygian cap. Some authors were inclined to recognise in his clothes a pair of long, tight trousers and boots, which, however, cannot be attested on the evidence presently available. Interestingly, Cautes is shown frontally and with his legs straight, contrary to the majority of the depictions which show Cautes with his legs crossed and his gaze directed towards Mithras. Such a gesture is, however, not a rarity on the monuments from Roman Dalmatia. Above Cautes a rustic bust of Sol is depicted. It can plausibly be conjectured that Cautopates and Luna were rendered symmetrically on the now missing right side of the relief, while there would also have been space for a dog. The possibility of the existence of a Mithraeum at Sinac was already brought up, suggesting consequently a Mithraic community. In this regard I would like once again to call attention to a piece of information, recorded previously in a note of an article on the monuments of the Silvanus cult in the surroundings of Salona.80 This note, as well as a short accompanying text discussing the Mithraea of Arupium obviously slipped the attention of those who subsequently dealt with Mithraism in these regions. On that occasion I noted the occurrence of a pediment niche cut in bedrock between crags sticking out similarly to those framing the two Mithraea of Arupium. According to the available information, the niche was cut in the massif of Godača, at the site of Kapelica above the hamlet of Uroši, in the vicinity of Sinac. From the photo which I have at my disposal it seems quite obvious that the top of the niche is shaped like an arch and not like a tympanum.81 Remains of a igural composition can be discerned on the picture, but since the photo is of rather poor quality, those remains, situated in the lower part of the niche, can hardly be deined (ig. 17). Of course I tried, some years ago, to visit the site, in order to obtain more complete information. However, this attempt was not successful: during the last war the front line separated the opposing sides at that very spot and as a result the whole area was at that moment still covered with mine ields.82 Moreover, due to these unfortunate events, the appearance of the site changed greatly and is now also covered with dense bushes. I have noted, however, that the site is not in the plains, as is case with the two previously mentioned Mithraea. Besides, the toponym Kapelica (“Little Chapel”) quite signiicantly refers to a place of Christian worship. The niche itself, as was explained to me, today 80 81 82 Rendić-Miočević 1982, n. 25; Glavičić 2001, 225, n. 17. The photo was kindly given to me by colleague Ružica Drechsler-Bižić, who was excavating prehistoric sites in this part of Lika at that time. Obviously, such a situation (I visited this area in the summer of 1999) prevents access to this site as long as the area is not completely cleared of mines. MonuMents of the MithrAic cult in the territory of AruPiuM (dAlMAtiA) 415 houses a painting of the Holy Virgin and the site is sealed off by a wooden door, which is opened only when pilgrims visit the spot to celebrate Our Lady of the Snow, i.e. on the 5th of August. Without direct insight it is rather questionable to speculate about the hypothetical original function of the niche carved in the rock, but one can suppose that even in Roman times this place was a kind of sanctuary consecrated to an unknown deity. The Mithraea located in the vicinity, as well as Mithraic inds from nearby Sinac itself, could induce to believe that there could have been a Mithraeum here too. If this hypothesis could be conirmed, it would be possible to determine with great certainty the existence of a further third Mithraic community in the wider area of Arupium. It would also be another interesting example of a place of worship continuously used from Roman times, which is not uncommon in Roman Dalmatia. However, it will be more dificult to accept the hypothesis concerning the existence of another important settlement at Sinac, since this region seems to be too close to the city area of Roman Arupium. As a conclusion I may state that Arupium and the surrounding area represented important regions of Mithraic cult. The spread of the Mithraic cult should be connected to civilian factors, particularly the colonised class from Italy and the Orient, slaves and freedmen, respectively traders, artisans, and to a lesser extent soldiers from beneiciary stations.83 In the spread of Mithraism in this area Italy was most instrumental, and the nearby town of Senj (Senia) certainly was an important factor in the spread of this cult,84 although it is not possible to ignore the inluences from the northern provinces, especially Noricum and Pannonia. It seems that the earliest Mithraic relief appeared in the eastern parts of the Iapodian territory, primarily in the surroundings of Bihać in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Jezerine, Golubić), and only later in the area of present-day Lika: from the vicinity of Bihać we know four monuments dedicated to Mithras, two relief depictions and two epigraphic monuments, allowing us to conclude that in this area, most likely at the site of Crkvina, there had been a sanctuary and an organised community of his worshippers.85 Mithraism, in all likelihood, spread to those parts of the interior from Senia – whose local harbour was of great importance – and in which slaves and freedmen, as well as craftsmen and merchants played a particularly prominent role.86 Finally, it should be pointed out that there are no certain lines of evidence which could enable the Mithraic monuments in the region to be dated precisely, but they must be later than the altar and spelaeum from the nearby village of Vratnik: it would be wrong to date Mithraea in Arupium before the mid-3rd century, or the start of it at the earliest. I am also convinced that both Mithraea cut in the natural rock date to approximately the same period. In my opinion, this ought to be the case with Mithras’ cult image at Sinac, and perhaps also with the (taken for granted) Mithraeum cut into the natural rock at the site of Kapelica in the massif of Godača. In conclusion I should like to point out that the previously discussed relief depictions, 83 84 85 86 Medini 1975, 90–91. One must suppose that there was a Mithraic community in Senia at least from the mid-2nd century. Medini also considers that Roman Senia and also the Mithraea of the Mithraic communities in the wider area of Arupium were the places from which Mithraism spread further to the neighbouring areas: cf. Medini 1975, 90. Medini 1975, 90. Medini 1975, 90. 416 Ante Rendić-Miočević and particularly the cult-icons of the tauroctony cut in the natural rock, strongly indicate intensive activities of local stonemasons, who – as was already concluded – were active in small and modest local provincial stonemasons’ workshops.87 Just like masons in the neighbouring areas of the Delmatae – in the natural rocks they use to shape, with varying degrees of success, the similar depictions of Silvanus and members of his cult community – in the areas of the Iapodes there are a number of inscriptions or cut depictions of some other deities of the Roman pantheon, in which Mithras was given a prominent position. Inspired by classical examples, frequently bordering on the naive, they gave to their works a certain originality, which normally characterises a sculptural production created far from large urban centres. Although the earliest Mithraic scenes from the Iapodian lands date from the mid-2nd century (the relief from Jezerine in present-day Bosnia), the examples from the wider area of Arupium are later and were most probably made in the mid-3rd and 4th century. 87 Cf. Lipovac-Vrkljan 2005, 258. MonuMents of the MithrAic cult in the territory of AruPiuM (dAlMAtiA) 417 Fig. 1 – A view of Gacko polje and double hillfort Veliki and Mali Vital Fig. 2 – Remains of the architecture excavated in Roman Arupium (the area of present-day Prozor) Fig. 3 – Tombstone of Titus Claudius Domitius (inscription carved into rock) on the slopes of Veliki Vital 418 Ante Rendić-Miočević Fig. 4 – Inscription with a dedication to Jupiter, carved into the rock on the slopes of Mali Vital Fig. 5 – Roman stone quarry explored on the slopes of Veliki and Mali Vital MonuMents of the MithrAic cult in the territory of AruPiuM (dAlMAtiA) 419 Fig. 6 – A view from the top of Veliki Vital to Gacko polje with the urban remains of Arupium and the locations of some of the Mithras’ sanctuaries Fig. 7 – Altar with an inscription dedicated to Mithras (Vratnik, Archaeological Museum in Zagreb) Fig. 8 – Altar with an inscription dedicated to Mithras (Vratnik, Senj City Museum) Ante Rendić-Miočević 420 Fig. 9 – Mithraeum (so-called Mithraeum I) at Oltar/Kraljev stolac in Špilničko polje Fig. 10 – Detail of the Mithraeum at Oltar/Kraljev stolac in Špilničko polje (the depiction of Cautes) Fig. 11 – Mithraeum (so-called Mithraeum II) at Rajanov grič in the village of Čovići. The double hillfort of Veliki and Mali Vital can be seen in the background MonuMents of the MithrAic cult in the territory of AruPiuM (dAlMAtiA) Fig. 12 – Mithraeum (so-called Mithraeum II) at Rajanov grič in the village of Čovići Fig 14 – Fragment of an altar with inscription dedicated to Mithras from the top of the Veliki Vital (Archaeological Museum in Zagreb) Fig. 13 – Detail of the Mithraeum at Rajanov grič in the village of Čovići 421 Ante Rendić-Miočević 422 Fig. 15 – Drawing of a fragment of Mithras’ inscription from Podum (St. Mark’s church) (after Patsch 1900, ig. 37) Fig 16 – Fragment of the Mithras relief from Sinac (drawing after Patch 1900, ig. 35) Fig. 17 – The Kapelica site in the massif of Godača in the vicinity of Vrhovine (presumably a Mithraeum?) MonuMents of the MithrAic cult in the territory of AruPiuM (dAlMAtiA) 423 Fig. 18 – Situation plan of a part of Gacko polje with marked sites and positions of Mithraea Ante Rendić-Miočević 424 Bibliography Beck 1984 R. 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